Biology 1 2.

Alternative hypothesis (Ha) - positive

Lesson 1: The Study of Life
Properties of Life
Scientific Reasoning
- What? Knowledge
- How? Curiosity and Inquiry
- Why? To understand the world and
the way it operates
Inductive Reasoning
- From a number of observations, a
general conclusion is drawn
Deductive Reasoning
- From a general idea, specific
observations are drawn (known fact
- test - predicted results)
2 multi pathways of scientific study
1. Descriptive science - relies mainly
on verifiable observations and
measurements
2. Hypothesis-based science - involves
the use of scientific method
Scientific Method
Lesson 2: Life and Its Beginning
form
1. Order
Atoms -> molecules -> cells ->
tissues -> organs -> organ system ->
organism -> population ->
community -> ecosystem -> biome -
> biosphere
2. Response to stimulus
E.g. Venus flytrap, sunflower
Phototropism is what happens when
a sunflower follows the direction of
the sun
Leukocytes (white blood cells):
chemotaxis means they move
towards chemicals
Phototaxis means they follow the
heat (thermophilic bacteria)
3. Regulation of body processes
Homeostatis or steady state (temp.,
nutrition, blood level/oxygen level,
sugar level, water level, pH level)
4. Metabolism
Also known as body processing

Scientific ideas about life

- Abiogenesis: spontaneous
generation, non-living matter
- Biogenesis: life comes from pre-
esxisting life

Redi’s Experiment
- Reject spontaneous generation
- Two set of jars
- Maggots

Needham’s Experiment
- Supports spontaneous generation
Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis (Ho) - negative form
Spallanzi’s Experiment
- Rejects spontaneous generation
Pasteur’s Experiment
- Rejects spontaneous generation
Lesson 3: Chemistry of Life - Biological
Molecules
2 Kinds of Compounds
1. Organic - has carbon and hydrogen
2. Inorganic - no carbon (exception is
carbon dioxide)
Lesson 4: Water
Biological Solvent
- Covalent compounds: polar
(electronegativity is far from each
other) and nonpolar (same
electronegativity; e.g. diatomic
molecules such as H2, O2)
- “Like dissolves like” principle
- Oil and fats are nonpolar which is
why they cannot be dissolved in
water
- Hydrophobic: water-fearing
(nonpolar substances)
- Hydrophilic: water-loving (polar
substances)
Cohesion and Adhesion
- Cohesion: sticking of H2O molecules
- Adhesion: sticking of H2O molecules
with other molecules (capillary
action)
Surface Tension
- Ability of water to withstand rupturing
High Specific Heat Capacity
- Raising of temperature (amount of
heat needed)
- During daytime, land is warm while
the water is cool and vice versa
during night time
High Heat of Vaporization and Fusion
- Needed to turn water into vapor or
solid
Allows Chemical and Physical Processes
- Example is digestion
- Water is used to remove waste after
the digestion process
- Also excretion
Moisturizer/Lubricant/Cushion
- Brain, joints
Lesson 5: Other Inorganic Compounds
Acids
- Contains H+
- COOH at the end of the chemical
formula
- Litmus paper: blue to red
 - pH 7 = 1 x 10 to the negative 7 + H+
= 1 x 10 to the negative 6 (weak
acid)
- Cells could not live in an acidic
environment
- The digestive system produces new
cells every 10 days
Bases
- Presence of hydroxide or OH-
- 1 x 10 to the negative 7 + OH- = 1 x
10 to the negative 8 or pH 8 (weak
base)
- Higher pH, stronger alkalinity
Buffers
- Readily absorb excess H+ or OH-
- Keep body’s pH carefully maintained
in the narrow range required for
survival
Electrolytes
- Maintains voltages across cell
membranes
- Carry electrical supplies
- charged ions in the body
Carbon Dioxide
- Waste product made by the body
- Toxic for the body
- Acidic in nature
- Hypercapnia: excess CO2 in the
body
- Addison’s Disease: hormones in the
adrenal glands are not released
Lesson 6: Organic Compounds -
Biological Macromolecules
Why is carbon the backbone of life?
- Special properties of carbon: (1)
carbon has the ability to form strong
bonds with other carbon compounds
(2) a carbon can form a single,
double, or a triple bond with another
carbon atom
Biological Macromolecules
1. Protein - amino acids
2. Carbohydrates - sugar
3. Lipids - fatty acids + glycerol
4. Nucleic Acids - nucleotides
Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
1. Dehydration Synthesis - to put
together while losing water
2. Hydrolysis - breaking of polymers to
monomers through the addition of
water; distribution of water; needs to
be broken down to simpler
substances
Lesson 7: Proteins
Linking Element: Nitrogen
Structural Support
- Metabolism
- Enzymes
- Hormones
Enzymes
- Catalyst of biochemical reactions
- Lock-in key structure
- Catabolic: break down substances
(digestive enzymes)
- Anabolic: build more complex
molecules from their substrates
- Catalytic: speed up reaction
Hormones
- Chemical signaling molecules
- Act to control/regulate specific
physiological processes
- Released by the endocrine system
- Hyperglycemia: diabetes
 - Hypoglycemia: lack sugar = lack
energy Lesson 8: Carbohydrates
- E.g. estrogen, insulin, testosterone
7 Major Sources of Nutrients
Side Chains 1. Carbohydrates
- Nonpolar, aliphatic groups: 2. Proteins
hydrophobic, attached with 1 H atom 3. Fats
- Polar, uncharged groups: hydrophilic 4. Fiber
- Positively charged R groups: basic 5. Minerals
- Negatively charged R groups: acidic 6. Water
- Nonpolar, aromatic R groups: 7. Vitamins
neutral Essential means not naturally produced by
the body.
Dehydration Synthesis of Proteins
- Denature: remove its natural Carbohydrates
characteristic - Give the body energy
- Bonds that held the folding weaken - Best source of fuel for the body
- Bonds that created the spiral and - Helps to digest protein and fat
pleats weaken - 45% to 65% carbohydrate intake
- Covalent bonds that held the amino - Fatty liver: too much carbohydrates
acids together remain - Dictated by the presence of carbon
- Renaturation: regains activity - Linking element: oxygen
(coagulation of proteins) - Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen has
- Coagulation: change in the structure a ratio of 1:2:1
of proteins
Monosaccharides
Agents of Denaturation - “Mono” means one and “sacchar”
1. Heat - through the process of means sugar
cooking (e.g. cooking eggs, the egg - 3C, 5C, 6C
white or albumen which contains - Hexose: glucose, fructose, and
albumin changes its structure) galactose
2. Mechanical Agitation - Simple sugars
3. Changes in pH - making it - Cannot be broken down by
acidic/basic (e.g adding acid in hydrolysis
gelatin or use of meat tenderizer) - Can be used for synthesizing more
4. Alcohol/Organic Solvents - gives complex carbohydrates
positive effect to kill germs - Aldose: H - C = O
- Ketose: C = O
Effects of Denaturation - Glyceraldehyde: simplest form of
- Greater digestibility monosaccharides
- Destruction of toxins
- Increased viscosity Disaccharides
- Decreased solubility - C6H12O6
- Inability to crystallize - Formula: (C6H12-2O6-1)n
 - Two joined monosaccharides
- Sucrose: glucose + fructose
- Maltose: glucose + glucose
- Lactose: glucose + galactose
Polysaccharides
- Larger than 10 monosaccharides
- Can reach many thousands of units
- Starch: main reserved energy
source
- Cellulose: fiber source, found in
plants
- Chitin: regulates the cholesterol
found in the body
Lesson 9: Lipids
Lipids
- Nonpolar hydrocarbons with C - C
and/or C - H bonds
- Linking element: oxygen
Biological Importance
- Serves as fuel (extra energy)
- ADP
- Building blocks of the body (built in
the form of fat)
- Biological thermal insulator
(regulates body temperature)
- Perform special tasks (signalling,
anchor, cofactors, visual pigment)
Fatty Acids + Glycerol
- Fats in the body are acids
- Ester bond: bonds fatty acids and
glycerol (there should be at least 3
Ester bonds to form lipids)
- Triglycerides or triacylglycerols:
simplest form
Saturated Unsaturated
Single bonds Double bonds
Stearic acid: found Oleic acid: found in
in animal fats vegetable fats
- Most unsaturated fats are liquid at
room temperature and are called oils
- If there is one double bond in the
molecule, then it is known as
monounsaturated fat (e.g. olive oil)
- If there is more than one double
bond, then it is known as
polyunsaturated fat (e.g. canola oil)
Trans Fat
- Increase in trans fat in the human
diet may lead to an increase in
levels of low density lipoproteins or
bad cholesterol
Essential Fatty Acids
Omega-n Acid
- n - position of the first C - C bond
- Polyunsaturated fatty acids which
are not required but are not
synthesized by the body
- Linoleic acid: omega-6 acid,
nonpolar chain mostly found in
plants
- Linolenic acid: omega-3 acid, found
in animals, easier to digest
- Benefits of Omega-n Acids
1. Reduce triglycerides in the blood
 2. Lower blood pressure
3. Prevent thrombosis by inhibiting
blood clotting
4. Reduce inflammation
5. May help reduce the risk of some
cancers
6. Reduce the risk of sudden death
from heart attacks
- Lipase: enzyme produced by the
liver that helps break down fats,
stored in the gallbladder
Waxes
- Ester of saturated fatty acid and long
chain alcohol
- Not a healthy fat
- Long chain alcohol - ester bond -
fatty acid

- Because of their long nonpolar C

chains, waxes are very hydrophobic
- Importance of Waxes
1. They form protective coatings - in
plants, the help prevent loss of water
and damage from pests; in humans
animals, they provide waterproof
coating on skin and fur
Phospholipids
- Lipids that contain a modified
phosphate group
- Major constituents of the plasma
membrane (outermost layer of
animal cells)
- Amphipathic molecule: can be
hydrophobic or hydrophilic
- Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic
tail
- 2 Major Types of Phospholipids
Sterols
- Fused ring structure (4 linked
Carbon ring)
- Hydrophobic and insoluble in water
- Have -OH functional group therefore
classified as alcohol (sterol)
- E.g. cholesterol, cortisol
- Cholesterol
Obtained from meat, milk, and egg
Synthesized in the liver from fats,
carbohydrates, and proteins
Needed for cell membranes, brain
and nerve tissues, steroid
hormones, and vitamin D
Clogs arteries when high levels from
plaque (insoluble in blood chain and
wate)
No cholesterol in vegetables and
plants
Lesson 9: Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acid
- The most important macromolecules
for the continuity of life
- Carry the genetic blueprint of the cell
- Carry the genetic blueprint of a cell
- Carry instructions for the functioning
of the cell
DNA
- Deoxyribonucleic acid
- Genetic material found in all living
organisms, ranging from single-
celled bacteria to multicellular
mammals
- Found in the nucleus of eukaryotes
- The entire genetic content of a cell is
known as its genome
- A chromosome may contain tens of
thousands of genes
- Many genes contain the information
to make protein product
RNA
- Ribonucleic acid
- Mostly involved in protein synthesis
- Intermediary: mRNA
Structure of Nucleic Acids
- Monomers are nucleotides
- The nucleotides combine with each
other
- Nitrogenous bases: Purines and
Pyrimidines
- Bonded by Hydrogen
- Phosphodiester linkage: formed
when we remove the phosphate
group
Four Major Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA
Carries the message from DNA,
which controls all of the cellular
activities in a cell
The Rna base sequence is
complementary to the coding
sequence
The base T is replaced by U
Read in sets of three bases known
as codons
Each codon codes for a single
amino acid
2. Ribosomal RNA
Major constituent of ribosomes on
which the mRNA binds
Ensures the proper alignment of the
mRNA and the ribosomes
3. Transfer RNA
One of the smallest
Carries the correct amino acid to the
site of protein synthesis
Dictated by the DNA
Base pairing between mRNA and
rRNA
4. Micro RNA
Smallest RNA molecules and their
role involves the regulation of gene
expression

Nitrogenous Bases
1. Purines
DNA RNA
Adenine and Guanine
Primary structure of a purine is 2 Contains genetic Protein synthesis
carbon-nitrogen ring material
2. Pyrimidines
Inside the nucleus Outside the nucleus
Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil
A, T, G, C A, U, G, C
Pentose Sugar
- Deoxy means lesser oxygen (sugar) double-stranded single-stranded
 3. pH Level
Phosphate,
deoxyribose sugar,
nitrogenous bases

Lesson 10: Enzymes

Enzymes
Helper Molecules
- Proteins that change the rate of
- Non-protein molecules
chemical reaction
- Binds with enzymes either
- Present in the cytoplasm of all cells
temporarily through ionic/hydrogen
(all living activities need enzymes)
bonds permanently through stronger
- Specific to a substrate (e.g. sucrase
covalent bonds
- sucrose, protease - proteins)
- Promotes optimal conformation
- Enzymes - proteins
- Cofactors
- Enzymes can be denatured

What affects enzyme activity?

- Environmental conditions
- Helper molecules (cofactors and
coenzymes)
- Enzyme inhibitors

Environmental Conditions
1. Temperature
- Coenzymes: organic molecules that
are required by certain enzymes to
carry out catalysis

Enzyme Inhibitors
- Competitive inhibitors
- Noncompetitive inhibitors

2. Substrate Concentration

- Allosteric: inhibitor + activation


Lesson 11: Cell - Basic Unit of Life
History of the Discovery of Cells
1. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
2. Robert Hooke
3. Matthias Schleiden
4. Theodore Schwann
5. Rudolf Virchow
The Cell Theory
1. All living organisms are made up of
one or more cells (growth
development)
2. Cells are the smallest and basic
units of structure and function in
organisms
3. Cells arise only from preexisting
cells (cyanobacteria is the first
photosynthetic cell; it is a byproduct
of the formation of planets)
Basic Cell Types
- Prokaryotic: bacteria
- Eukaryotic: animals, plants, fungi,
proteins
Common Components
1. Plasma Membrane
Outer covering that separates the
cell from its environment
Microvilli: increase the surface area
and minimize any increase in
volume; involved in a wide variety of
functions such as absorption and
secretion
2. Cytoplasm
Houses the cellular components
Internal environment of the cell
3. DNA
Cell’s genetic material
4. Ribosomes
Protein synthesis
Without ribosomes, bacteria could
not multiply
Prokaryotic Cell
- Unicellular organisms that lack
nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles
- DNA is located in the nucleoid
- Significantly smaller than eukaryotic
- Cell membrane, cell wall, capsule,
pili, flagellum, ribosome
- Capsule: polysaccharide; enables
the cells to attach to surface in its
environment
- Cell wall: peptidoglycan; extra layer
of protection; help maintain its shape
- Pili: hair-like structure on the surface
of a bacterial cell; organelle of
adhesion
- Flagellum: for movement
(sometimes 3 or more flagella)
Eukaryotic Cells
- Membrane-bound organelles
- Membrane-bound nucleus
- Rod-shaped chromosomes (seen in
the nucleus)
Outer Layer
1. Plasma Membrane
2. Cell wall
Plant’s cell wall contains C, H and O
3. Nucleus
 9. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Packaging organelle of nutrients to
be delivered to the golgi body
Rough ER: has ribosomes
Smooth ER: no ribosomes
10. Golgi Body
Packaging and transport system with
the help of vesicles
11. Lysosomes
Present on both plants and animals
Cell’s garbage collector
Nuclear envelope: separates the
Destroys pathogen
nucleus from cytoplasm (protection)
Present in white blood cells
Nuclear pore: in and out of the
Phagocytosis: engulfs pathogens
molecules towards the nucleus
(phagocyte)
(DNA entry)
Nucleoplasm: gel-like substance
Chromatin: protein; chromosomes
Nucleolus: brain of the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum: not part,
house of ribosomes produced from
the nucleus
4. Ribosomes
Cell’s protein factories 12. Centrioles (animals)
Pancreatic cells and red blood cells Cell division
5. Mitochondria 13. Chloroplasts (plants)
Powerhouse of the cell in the form of Carries out photosynthesis
ATP (temporary storage of energy)
Cellular respiration Note: lahat ng ito ay galing lamang sa aking
All involuntary muscles need large lecture, sorry kung may mali
amount of this
6. Peroxisomes P.s. skin lang ni lunox karrie esme ok na
Break down of fatty acids and amino chour
acids through oxidation reactions
7. Vesicles and Vacuoles - ck4n1
Storage of nutrients
Plants have more vacuoles than
animals
8. Endomembrane System
Nuclear envelope
Lysosomes
Vesicles
Plasma membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body