CHIMES AVIATION ACADEMY

GROUND SCHOOL
AIR NAVIGATION: QUESTION BANK: 05AUG 08

DR NAVIGATION

Chapter 12. The Velocity Triangle

Q1. What are the constituent parts of the aircraft velocity triangle?
Ans. Aircraft air velocity - TAS & Hdg
Aircraft ground Velocity - G/S & Tr.
Wind velocity - Wind Speed and Wind Direction

Q2. In nil wind conditions, G/S equals what speed?

Ans. TAS.

Q3. Why are all aircraft required to have direct reading ASI?
Ans. Critical speeds such as stalling speeds are always expressed as IAS.

Q4. Is wind direction the one towards which the wind blows or the one from where it
comes?
Ans. From where it comes.

Q5. How many constituent parts of the a/c velocity triangle are required to be known
in order to calculate the rest of the parts?
Ans. Four are required to be known to calculate the other two.

Q6. Drift is called port or starboard of which direction?

Ans. Hdg (T).

Q7. Draw a sketch of any aircraft velocity triangle showing the triangle and arrows
only. Annotate the vectors?
Ans.

Q8. Given R/W 35(M), W/V 320/20, and Varn 30E. Calculate across runway
component and along runway component.

Ans. W/V 270(M)/20. Across runway component = 20 sine 60 = 17.32 kts.

Along runway component = 20 cos 60 = 10 kt.
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Q9. Is the drift larger when wind is at right angles to the track or to the heading?
Ans. To the track.

Q10. Consider two a/c velocity triangles differing only in tracks by 180; will there be a
common effective head wind component or tail wind component?
Ans. Common effective head wind component.

Q11. Is it correct to say that higher the TAS, less will be the drift?
Ans. Yes.

Q12. Is it correct to say that lower the TAS higher will be the drift?
If yes, what is the maximum drift that an aircraft can ever experience?
Ans. Yes.180.

Chapter 16. DR Navigation

Q13. What do you understand by the term DR (Dead Reckoning or Deduced

reckoning)?
Ans. DR is the technique of calculating where the a/c is likely to be, based on the
information available at the time.

Q14. With what does wind / track angle equal?

Ans. Wind / track angle equals wind direction minus track or track minus wind
direction whichever is positive. If the subtraction is more than 180, subtract 180.

Q15. What is the simplest way to assess maximum drift when wind speed & TAS are
known?
Ans. By 1 in 60 rule. Maximum drift = wind speed ÷ (TAS ÷60).

Q16. What formula is used to calculate the actual drift when maximum drift is known?
Ans. Actual drift = Maximum drift x sine of wind / track angle.

Q17. When the wind speed is known, is the maximum wind compnent known
automatically.
Ans. Yes. Maximum wind component = wind speed.

Q18. What formula is used to assess the applicable wind component when wind speed
is known?
Ans. Applicable wind component = Maximum wind x cos of wind / tracks angle.

Q19. When the drift is more than 8 degrees, why is there a need to correct the ground
speed obtained by using the applicable wind component formula?
Ans. The ground speed estimated assumes that the effective wind component is the
same as the true wind component (i.e. applicable wind component calculated by
the formula). This can give appreciable error in ground speed when the drift is
above 8 degrees. This can give overoptimistic value of ground speed.
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Q20. What is the formula for correction to the overoptimistic value of G/S?
Ans. Error = TAS – TAS cos drift = TAS (1 – cos drift). The error will always be
subtracted from the overoptimistic value of G/S.

Q21. Given W/V 145/50, TAS 436, Track 148. Calculate wind /track angle, wind
component, ground speed, drift and Hdg?
Ans. 145 + 180 = 325. 325 – 148 = 177. 177>90. Therefore hwc.180 – 177 = 003.
Wind/track angle is 003. The % of maximum drift is 0. Therefore, drift is zero.
Hdg will be 148. The % of wind speed will be 100 %. Therefore hwc = 50. Thus
G/S = 436 – 50 = 386.

Q22. For mental estimation of revised ETAs map needs to be marked with either 1/4,
1/2 and 3/4 markers or 10 minute markers during preflight preparation. What is
the advantage of 10 minute markers?
Ans. The ten minute markers, once made on the ground , firstly help the pilot to
estimate the DR position at any time. Secondly, having established an actual
position, the pilot can easily estimate early or late arrival over the destination in
comparison with the flight plan.

Q23. What are the methods of finding a DR position in the air?

Ans. A DR position can be found by either the Air Plot method or the Track Plot
method. A pilot will find the track plot method easier. Modern navigation aids
(viz. Doppler, INS and GPS), when available in aircraft, maintain a continuous
track plot for the pilot.

Q24. When two position lines are obtained to get a fix, what is the best angle of cut in
order to get the best possible accuracy of position?
Ans. 90 degrees. One of the best fixes that can be obtained is from a collocated VOR
DME station. The VOR gives a straight P/L and the DME gives a curved P/L.
There are three types of such collocated stations. A civilian VOR and DME. A
military navigation aid called TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) which uses a
DME station to provide range. Modulations in its transponder signal provide
bearing information to suitably equipped a/c in a similar fashion to VOR, but
these cannot be interpreted by civilian airborne eqpt. They can use only the DME
information. Therefore, VORTAC stations are organized for use by civilian a/c.
The VORTAC has a civilian VOR collocated with TACAN, so that civilian a/c
can use VOR of their own, and DME input from TACAN.

Q25. Which particular property an aviation chart must have for plotting purposes?
Name one chart each for plotting R/Ls and G/Cs.
Ans. Orthomorphism or conformality is the property required for charts. Standard
Mercator can be used for plotting R/Ls and Lamberts can be used for plotting
G/Cs.
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MAPS & CHARTS

Chapter 6 of Navigation. Map Projections in General

Q26. What is a ‘Constant’ scale chart?

Ans. It is possible to have the same scale as the RE at a point or along a line on a chart.
However, elsewhere the scale will change. When the scale does not change from
point to point, the chart can be called a constant scale chart. For practical
purposes, in charts where the scale is the same as RE at a point or along a line,
limited coverage of such a chart near the point or on either side of such a line
respectively may be considered as having constant scale.

Q27. What is RF?

Ans. When scale is expressed as a fraction with a numerator 1, the fraction in called RF
( Representative Fraction).

Q28. What is the other name for ‘Graduated scale’ lines?

Ans. Open & divided scales.

Q29. Give the name of a projection where ‘variable scale’ lines can be used?
Ans. Standard Mercator.

Q30. How many mms, on a chart will represent 1 km of earth distance if the scale is
1:1,000,000?
Ans. 1mm will represent 1km since 1,000,000 mms equal 1km.

Q31. If a scale is represented in “(number) of nautical miles to an inch” how can it be

used most conveniently?
Ans. A ruler graduated in inches and tenths of an inch can be used most conveniently
on such a chart. For example a scale of 1:500,000 can be expressed or “6.86 nms
to an inch”. A tenth of an inch will mean 0.686 nms. Thus if a certain distance
measures 3.7 inches, it would mean a distance of 6.86 x 3.7 = 25.38 nms. This
could be rounded off to 25 nms.

Q32. What is the formula for scale variation on a Mercator chart?

Ans. A scale on a Mercator chart varies as secant of latitude.

Q33. What is the formula for scale factor?

Ans. SF = chart length / Equivalent RE Distance.

Q34. If stated scale is 1/1,000,000, and the scale at a point on such a chart is also
1:1,000,000, what is the scale factor at that point?
Ans. SF = 1
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Q35. Does SF indicate percentage error in the scale at a point? If yes, what is the
percentage error if the SF is 1.01?
Ans. Yes. SF 1.01 indicates 1% error in scale i.e. scale is 1% too large. For SF 0.99,
scale is 1% too small.

Q36. If stated scale is 1:2,000,000, and there is 2% too large an error in scale at point A,
express the scale at A in R.F?
Ans. 2% too large an error means that SF is 1.02. Scale at A = Stated scale x SF =
1/2,000,000 × 1.02. Therefore, Denominator = 1,960,784. Thus, RF is
1/1,960,784.

Q37. What is the scale in “nms to an inch” if the RF is 1:1,000,000?

Ans. 1,000,000 inches = 1,000,000 X 2.54 cms = 1,000,000 X 2.54 ÷ 185200 nms =
13.72 nms. Scale is ”13.72 nms to an inch”.

Q38. If the scale is “10 nms to an inch” what is the RF?

Ans. Denominator = 10×185,200 ÷ 2.54 = 729,134. RF = 1/729,134.

Q39. On a Standerd Mercator, the scale at 30°N is 1:2,000,000. What is the scale at
45°S in R.F?
Ans. Scale at 30° N = scale at EQ × sec 30. Therefore, scale at EQ = Scale at 30N/sec
30 = cos 30 × 1/ 2,000,000. Scale at 45 S = scale at EQ × sec45 = sec 45 × cos 30
× 1/ 2,000,000. Thus, denominator = 2,000,000 × cos 45 × sec 30 = 1,632,993.
Therefore scale at 45S= 1/1,632,993.

Q40. Can a completely constant chart be ever produced?

Ans. No.

COMPASSES

Chapter 2 of Instruments. Gyroscopic Instruments and Compasses

Q41. List the principle instruments that use the properties of gyroscope to indicate
direction, attitude (roll & pitch) and rate of turn?
Ans. (a) Directional Indicator (DI, earlier called DG i.e. Directional Gyro) indicates
direction of aircraft. (b) Attitude Indicator (AI), earlier called Artificial Horizon,
wherein a horizontal bar indicates attitude in roll and pitch and a separate pointer
indicates angle of bank. (c) Turn Indicator (TI) indicates rate of turn. A separate
instrument in it called inclinometer (a ball in a curved tube) indicates whether the
a/c is correctly banked for the turn i.e. whether the a/c has a slip or skid. The
inclinometer is not a gyro instrument. The TI along with the inclinometer was
earlier called Turn and slip indicator. When the gimbal frame of the TI is angled
30 degrees upward, the instrument is called Turn Coordinator.
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Q42. What is a gyro?

Ans. A gyro or gyroscope is a rotor, or wheel, spinning at high speed about an axis
passing thought its center of mass and known as spin axis.

Q43. What is rigidity of a gyro?

Ans. Rigidity is a property of a gyro to maintain the direction of its spin axis unless
acted open by an external force.

Q44. What is precession of a gyro?

Ans. Precession is defined as the angular charge in direction of the spin when acted
upon by an applied force.

Q45. What is the principle of a magnetic compass?

Ans. A magnetic compass works on the principle that a freely suspended magnet will
align it self with the earth’s magnetic field such that one end of the magnet will
point towards the north magnetic pole.

Q46. List the three basic requirements of a magnetic compass.

Ans. Horizontality, sensitivity and aperiodicity.

Q47. What is a fluxvalve?

Ans. Fluxvalve is the magnetic detecting element of the slaved gyro compass.

Q48. Does a fluxvalve align with the local magnetic meridian or does it detect it?
Ans. It detects the local magnetic meridian.

Q49. What is the other name of slaved gyrocompass?

Ans. Remote Indicating Compass (RIC).

Q50. Which main disadvantages of a magnetic compass and directional gyro are
overcome in a slaved gyro compass?
Ans. Turning and acceleration errors, and deviation of magnetic compass, and drift of a
directional gyro.

INSTRUMENTS

Chapter 15 of Nav. Temperatures, Airspeeds and Altitudes

Q51. What is Total Air Temperature (TAT)?

Ans. TAT is the Static Air Temperature (SAT) plus Ram Rise i.e. the temperature
changes caused by movement of an object. Please note that the term Stagnation
Rise is avoided altogether.

Q52. Is the Total Air temperature (TAT) higher than Static Air Temperature (SAT) by an
amount, which is proportional to TAS?
Ans. Yes.
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Q53. Why is the TAT greater than SAT?

Ans. (a). Heating due to kinetic energy being converted into heat as airflow is brought
to rest when it strikes the surface of an a/c.
(b). Heating due to adiabatic compression of the air due to pressure changes
caused by the motion of the aircraft through it. Adiabatic heating makes the
greater contribution to the temperature rise than heating due to skin friction.
(c). Heating due to skin friction.

Q54. Give the equation to convert TAT into SAT?

Ans. TAT = SAT × {1+(0.2 × Kr × M2).
Where Kr is a measure of accuracy of the temperature sensing probe. M is the
mach number of aircraft. M can be replaced by TAS/LSS. TAT and SAT are in
Kelvin. Another formula is TAT = SAT + (V ÷ 100)2 where V is TAS in kts, TAT
& SAT are in oC.

Q55. What is the ram recovery factor for a Rosemount probe?

Ans. Kr = 1

Q56. An a/c is flying at Mach 1 at 36000 ft in the ISA. What TAT will a Rosemount
probe indicate?
Ans. SAT at 36000 ft in the ISA = 15 oC – (1.98 oC × altitude in 1000s of ft) = -56.28
o
C. Therefore, absolute SAT = - 56.28 oC + 273° = 216.72o Kelvin. Since TAT =
SAT × {1+(0.2 × Kr × M2)} = 216.72° {1 + (0.2 × 1 × 1²)} = 216.72 × 1.2 =
260.064 Kelvin. Thus, TAT = 260.064 – 273 = -13oC.

Q57. At Mach 2 (Speed of Concord air liner, now withdrawn from service) a TAT probe
indicates + 45° Kelvin. If Kr = 0.85, what is the SAT in Kelvin?
Ans. TAT = SAT × {1+(0.2 × Kr × M2)}. Therefore, SAT equals TAT divided by
{1+(0.2 × 0.85 × 4)} i.e. 45/ 1.68 = 26.79o Kelvin.

Q58. What is IAS?

Ans. IAS is the speed indicated on ASI.

Q59. What is RAS or CAS?

Ans. RAS or CAS is IAS corrected for instrument and position error. The values of
CAS against IAS are given in POH.

Q60. What is EAS?

Ans. EAS is CAS corrected for compressibility error which occurs above TAS 300 kts.
Below 300, it is taken as zero. Some CSRs have provision for compressibility
correction.

Q61. What is TAS?

Ans. TAS at any speed = EAS + Density connection = CAS + compressibility
correction + density correction.
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Q62. In a standard atmosphere at sea level, what does CAS equal?

Ans. CAS = TAS.

Q63. With a constant weight, irrespective of airfield altitude, a/c will always take off at
which speed? CAS, G/S, TAS or EAS?
Ans. CAS.

Q64. During a straight and uniform climb, a pilot maintains a constant CAS. What will
happen to the Mach No., TAS, and EAS?
Ans. Mach No. and TAS will increase. EAS will decrease.

Q65. For a constant CAS in a level flight, a fall in SAT will affect the TAS in which
way?
Ans. The TAS will reduce.

Q66. What happens to CAS while climbing at a constant Mach No. below the
tropopause?
Ans. CAS will decrease.

Q67. What is pressure altitude?

Ans. Pressure Altitude (PA) is altitude indicated on a barometric altimeter when the
subscale is set to 1013.25 hpa.

Q68. If elevation of an aerodrome is 1700 ft and QNH is 1000 hpa, calculate PA.
Ans. PA = Elevation + {30 × (1013 – QNH)} = 1700 + {30 × (1013 – 1000)} = 1700 +
390 = 2090 ft.

Q69. If QFE is 1000 hpa, what is the PA?

Ans. PA = 30 × (1013 – QFE) = 30 X 13 = 390 ft.

Q70. What is density altitude?

Ans. Density altitude is the altitude at which the prevailing air density would occur in
the ISA.

Q71. Calculate the density altitude when PA is 10,000 ft, temp. deviation from ISA is +
20oC.
Ans. Density altitude = PA + (118.6 × Temp. Devn) = 10,000 + (118.6 ×20) = 10,000 +
2372 = 12,372 ft. By CSR, using PA and temp +15 in TAS window, the answer
will be 12,100 ft. On another computer, the CSR may give 12500 as the answer.
12,372 is more accurate.

Q72. Calculate true altitude on CSR when PA is 10,000 ft and temp. is +15.
Ans. Using altitude window, CSR gives true altitude as 10,750 ft. This is an
approximation because it is assumed that the temperature at the a/c gives an
accurate indication of what the temps. are throughout the column of air from sea
level upto the a/c’s position in the air.
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Q73. Which is a better way of getting true height - by getting true altitude by CSR and
subtracting elevation of ground below the a/c or by radio/radar altimeter?
Ans. Radio/ radar altimeter.

Q74. How can one find pressure altitude of an airfield by using a/c altimeter on the
ground?
Ans. By setting 1013.25 hpa on the altimeter subscale.

Q75. If airfield pressure altitude is 5000 ft amsl and OAT is 25oC, what is the density
altitude?
Ans. Density ALT = PA + (118 × temp. devn)
Temp. Devn = Actual temp – ISA temperature
= 25 – (15 – 1.98 × 5)
= 25 – 5.1
=19.9
Therefore, Density Altitude = 5000 + (118 X 19.9)
= 7348.2 ft.
Using CSR TAS window, one may get 7200 or 7500 as an answer depending upon
which CSR one uses. 7348.2 is more accurate.

RADIO AIDS

Indicators of Radio Aids : Chapter 5,6,and 7 of Radio Aids

Q76. What are QTE , QUJ,QDR & QDM?

Ans. QTE is true bearing of a/c from the station.
QUJ is true bearing of station from the a/c.
QDR is magnetic bearing of a/c from the station
QDM is magnetic bearing of station from the a/c.

Q77. What does RBI (Relative Bearing Indicator), also called ‘fixed card indicator’ or
‘Radio Compass’ indicate when ADF is tuned and ADF/ANT switch is selected to
ADF?
Ans. RBI indicates bearing relative to the nose of the aircraft i.e. heading of the a/c.

Q78. If a rotating card indicator is available in lieu of RBI and the pilot sets Hdg(T) on
the card, what will the ADF pointer indicate?
Ans. The ADF pointer will indicate QUJ, and the other end of the pointer will indicate
QTE. Setting Hdg(M), the pointer will indicate QDM, the other end indicating
QDR.

Q79. If a RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) with a single pointer tuned to ADF indicates
120o, and Hdg(M) is 030°, what is 120°? QTE, QUJ, QDR, or QDM?
Ans. Pointer gives QDM 120o. The other end of the pointer indicates QDR 300 o.
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Q80. While using a RBI for homing, if the drift is 10o port, should the homing be done
by keeping the pointer at 350 or 010
Ans. 350. Keep the pointer at 010 for 10° starboard drift.

Q81. A pilot is required to home on a radial 040 (M). If the drift is 10 port for track 220
(M) to the station, what hdg (M) should the pilot fly and what should the ADF
needle read while homing using a RMI with a single needle?
Ans. Hdg (M) should be 230. ADF needle should read QDM 220.

Q82. In a OBI (Omni Bearing Indicator), what the from/ to indicator, and CDI (Course
Deviation Indicator) are related to?
Ans. Selected track.

Q83. Who selects the track on the OBI?

Ans. The pilot.

Q84. How is from/to indicator related to the selected track?

Ans. If the selected track will take the a/c from its DR position closer to the station,
‘To’ will be indicated. If the selected track will take the a/c from its DR position
away from station, ‘From’ will be indicated.

Q85. How is CDI related to the selected track?

Ans. The CDI shows whether the selected track lies to the left or right of the a/c’s DR
position.

Q86. How does a pilot get QDR using OBI?

Ans. Pilot turns the OBI till from/to flag indicates ‘from’ and CDI is in the centre. The
resulting selected track is the QDR. The reciprocal is the QDM.

Q87. If the OBI includes a glide slope indicator, can it be used to do ILS approach?
Ans. Yes.

Q88. Does the OBI have a pointer like RBI to indicator the direction of the VOR
station?
Ans. No.

Q89. On a RMI with two needles, if one pointer is tuned to NDB and the other is tuned
to VOR, state what the pointers will indicate and what the other end of the
pointers will indicate.
Ans. ADF pointer gives QDM and its other end gives QDR. VOR pointer also gives
QDM and its other end gives QDR.

Q90. What are the steps taken in VOR pointer showing phase display on RMI?
Ans. (a). VOR airborne eqpt derives QDR by measuring phase difference between
the reference signal and the variable signal.
(b). the reciprocal is the QDM.
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(c ). The VOR Nav unit subtracts a/c hdg (M) from QDM to produce brg(R ).
(d). RMI receives brg (R ) and adds Hdg (M) to make VOR pointer indicate
QDM.
(e). The reciprocal indicated by the other end of the pointer is the QDR.

ASTRO NAVIGATION

Chapter 28 The Solar System and Time

Q91. Give a table giving comparative celestial terms for geographic terms North Pole,
South Pole, Equator, Latitude and longitude?
Ans.

Geographic Terms, Celestial Terms

North Pole North Celestial Pole (NCP) Zenith
South Pole South Celestial Pole (SCP) Nadir
Equator Celestial Equator Celestial Horizon
Latitude Declination Altitude
GHA(LHA when hour angle Azimuth
Longitude is measured from observer’s
local mention.)

Q92. What does our solar system consist of?

Ans. Two inferior planets, the earth, six superior planets, satellites of the planets and
about 2000 minor planets or asteroids.

Q93. What are the two Kepler’s laws of planetary motion?

Ans. (a). Each planet follows an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci of the
ellipse. Viewed from the NCP, all orbits and rotation of planets are anticlockwise.
(b). The line joining the planets to the sum sweeps out equal area in equal times.

Q94. What is the duration of a sidereal day?

Ans. 23 hours 56 mins.

Q95. Is the apparent solar day of a constant value?

Ans. No.

Q96. What is the duration of a mean solar day?

Ans. 24 hours.
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FLIGHT PLANNING

Chapter 6. SEP Aero plane fuel planning.

Q97. A Flight plan requires CAS for climb, cruise, and descent. CAS has to be
obtained from IAS. From where a does a pilot find out airspeed calibration data?
Ans. The Airspeed calibration data is given on Page 5-9 of POH. Considering that the
a/c will be flown with flaps up for all cross country legs, the follwing data from
Page 5 – 9 will be required.

FLAPS UP To make this simple, for all practical purposes a pilot may.
KIAS 80 90 ignore 1 kt error and use 80 & 90 kts as CAS for fight plan.
KCAS 79 89

Q98. In a plan, the first leg is usually the climb leg. For this one requires to know the
rate of climb. From where does a pilot find out the rate of climb?
Ans. Rate of climb is given in POH. For Cessna 172 R, the page is 5 – 15 of POH. The
following data from page 5 – 15 will be required: -

MAX RATE CLIMB AT 2450 PONDS

FLAPS UP : FULL THROTTLE

Pressure Alt. Climb Speed Rate of climb – FPM

Ft KIAS 20oC
SL 79 705
2000 77 595
4000 76 525
6000 74 415
8000 72 310

To simplify, the rate of rate climb will be taken as 500’/min climbing at

KIAS 80.

Q99. The flight plan also requires, fuel to climb where can this be found?
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Ans. The fuel to climb is given in POH. For Cessna 172 R, refer to page 5 – 16. The
following data from page 5 – 16 will be required: -

TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB AT 2450 POUNDS

FLAPS UP, FULL THROTTLE, STANDARD TEMPERATURE

From sea Level

Pressure Temp. Climb Speed Rate of Time in
o
Alt ft C KIAS Climb Min Fuel used Gal Dist.nm

SL 15 99 720 0 0.0 0

1000 13 78 670 1 0.4 2

2000 11 77 625 3 0.7 4

3000 9 76 575 5 1.2 6

4000 7 76 560 6 1.5 8

5000 5 75 515 8 1.8 11

6000 3 74 465 10 2.1 14

7000 1 73 415 13 2.5 17

8000 -1 72 365 15 3.0 21

To simplify, extract only fuel from the above table. Increase fuel by 10% for each
10 degrees C above standard temperature. Add 1.1 gallons of fuel for engine start, taxi
and take off allowance. The climb will be made with rich mixture up to 3000’ and lean
thereafter. RPM will be 2000. The W/V and temp used will be that at 2/3rd of the total
climb.

Q100. Where is the cruise performance data available for a pilot?

Ans. It is available in POH. See pages 5 – 17 and 5 – 18 of POH for Cessna 172 R. The
last column on page 5 – 17 shows a fuel consumption between 5.6 GPH to 8.5
GPH. To simplify fuel plan for cruise, a pilot may use 7 GPH as consumption for
all cruise legs above 3000 ft amsl, RPM 2000 to 2100, lean mixture above 3000 ft
amsl, and IAS 90.
Q101. Where is the descent data given for an a/c?
Ans. The descent data is given in POH. For Cessna 172 R, there is only Maximum
Glide Data given on page 3 – 1. But this is not used because a power descent is
made at 500 fpm, IAS 90, lean mixture above 3000 ft and, 1800 RPM, and fuel
consumption 6 GPH.

Q102. How is the “total fuel required” calculated for Cessna 172 R?
Ans. Total fuel required is calculated as follows: -
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(a) Engine start, taxi and take off 1.1 USG

(b) Climb as per table in Q 99.
(c) Cruise @ 7 GPH
(d) Descent @ 6 GPH
(e) 15 % of a + b + c + d for every
10 degrees above ISA
(f) Fuel from destination to alternate @ 7 GPH
(g) 45 min reserve @ 8 GPH i.e. 6 USG