Two technologies that are currently used to harvest solar energy are the solar photovoltaic and

solar thermal methods. Basically, solar photovoltaic technology (PV) involves the conversion of
solar rays into electricity, which can then be fed into a grid or used separately to power lighting,
heating and cooling systems as well as a wide range of appliances. Solar thermal technology,
on the other hand, harnesses sunlight directly to produce solar power, which enables
appliances such as solar cookers and water heaters to function without conventional electricity.

What is photovoltaic technology and how does it work? Solar PV technology uses arrays of
solar cells to receive sunlight and convert the same into electricity. A solar cell is basically a fine
silicon wafer. PV solar panels come in mono crystalline, poly crystalline, amorphous and thin –
film varieties. Currently, crystalline silicon panels are the most commonly used PV systems.
However, silicon is expensive and in short supply.

High production costs make silicon panels too expensive for the average consumer in India.
Companies are researching alternatives such as thin film systems as well as other non – silicon
options to bring down the cost of production and make PV solar panels widely accessible.
Photovoltaic systems are developed using specific combinations of solar cells. Basically, PV
systems are available in two designs, which are flat – plate and concentrator panels. As of now,
all PV solar panels sold in India are constituted of crystalline silicon cells.

Solar shingles also use PV technology. These power generators are designed to look like
regular roof shingles and the advantage is that they are quite often capable of providing power
even when the roof is partially shaded.

PV Solar panels do not necessarily need direct sunlight, they can function in daylight. Hence,
photovoltaic technology can produce some electricity even under cloudy conditions. A PV cell is
made up of one or more layers of semi – conducting material, which is normally silicon. When
the cells receive sunlight, an electric field develops across the layers resulting in a flow of
electricity. The intensity or strength of PV cells is measured in terms of the energy they generate
in maximum sunlight and is referred to as kilowatt peak or KWP.

PV systems connected to the grid require hardly any maintenance apart from ensuring that they
are kept clean and are not in the shade from surrounding trees.

Photovoltaic technology can be used to power consumer appliances as well as large electrical
systems in the commercial sector. Solar PV water pumping systems are used for irrigation and
drinking water distribution. You can benefit from solar panels installed on your roof or wall so
long as your house is not in the shadow of other buildings or large trees. Shade reduces the
output of solar modules. Also, these panels can be heavy and the surface on which they are
installed must be strong enough to support them.

This technology is more or less environmentally benign. Though the manufacturing process of
PV panels is polluting to a certain extent, these panels are eco – friendly to use. Solar
photovoltaic power does not emit greenhouse gases.
Thin – film technologies are being adopted by a few solar panel manufacturers because they
use no polysilicon. Thin films cost less to produce than silicon cells as they are made up of
wafer thin layers of photosensitive material and the manufacturing process consumes less
energy. Thin films can be embedded in roof shingles, windows and sidings. Over the past two
years or so, thin film production has increased almost four times, accounting for over 10%
global market share.

Worldwide production of PV cells increased 51% in 2007. Globally, SunPower panels are reported to be
the most efficient solar PV panels on the market. The other major global producers are Kyocera, Sharp
and Q – Cells. With rising oil prices and growing awareness of the need to adopt environment friendly
energy sources, the market for photovoltaic technology is poised for healthy growth.

Solar Power in India – Advantages and

Disadvantages
Though blessed with abundant sunlight, averaging approximately 3000 hours a year,
India has yet to utilise this advantage in terms of power generation. The country is still
heavily dependent on fossil fuels, which are unviable in the long run. The highest
proportion of installed electric energy comes from coal, which is polluting and a non –
renewable source. It is estimated that India’s coal reserves are fast depleting and will
last only up until 2040 or so. Apart from coal, the other sources are hydro, gas and
nuclear. A significant portion of oil used to generate energy in India is imported. It is
imperative that the country reduces dependence on foreign oil. Hydro electric
generation also comes with certain disadvantages such as human displacement, soil
erosion, diminished forest cover and wildlife habitats.

Sunlight is the most reliable and viable source of energy in the long run. However,
India’s solar energy installation constitutes a tiny percentage of installed electric
capacity in the country today. There is an urgent need to develop cost – effective
technologies to harness sunlight in order to generate a significant percentage of clean
energy and thus, gradually reduce dependence on environmentally degrading, non –
renewable and expensive sources.

The advantages of solar power are significant enough for India to accelerate the
generation of solar energy and make it one of the top priorities. 

Although the process of manufacturing solar energy equipment is environmentally

degrading to a certain extent, the use of solar power systems and devices is not.
Hence, solar energy contributes to a reduction in carbon emissions.

Once installed and commissioned, solar energy equipment is relatively simple to

operate and requires scarcely any servicing or maintenance.
Though still an expensive form of power generation, solar systems on the whole are
becoming more cost – effective as technology improves and economies of scale begin
to have an impact. It is anticipated that solar electricity will cost less and less as
technological advances make energy conversion more efficient.

Solar electricity is sometimes the only energy alternative in isolated locations, which are
not connected to the conventional electricity grid. Many far flung villages in India, which
were without electricity earlier, now have the facility of solar power.

Solar power, when fed into the grid, can be used as an economical substitute for high –
cost peak hour supply and as a means to ease grid loading. It also serves as an
alternative to local battery power.

Grid fed solar energy when used locally minimises losses related to transmission.
India’s current distribution and transmission losses are not insignificant.

Solar power, however, does not come without disadvantages.

Solar thermal power can be used after dark or in cloudy conditions only if viable and
cost – effective storage solutions are available. Solar power can be used directly only in
daylight.

Another drawback of grid fed solar energy is the necessity of maintaining back up power
plants in order to ensure that grids continue to function even when solar energy stations
do not generate electricity. However, keeping back up plants ready to supply power
when solar energy is not available entails considerable energy costs since these plants
usually run on fossil fuels such as coal.

Locations that do not receive adequate sunlight or are cloudy for most of the year
cannot derive maximum benefits from solar power without proper storage solutions.

Solar energy needs to be converted into AC power before it is used in conventional

electricity transmission grid systems because solar cells produce DC power. This
results in a 5 – 10% energy penalty, which reduces the output of solar panels to that
extent.

As regards vehicles, solar power cannot be used directly but must be converted into a
form of energy that is compatible with motorised transport. This again results in energy
losses. 

However, climate change and the urgent necessity of reducing our dependence on coal
and oil make it imperative for India to pursue a proactive and dynamic policy of
promoting solar power development and installation on a priority basis. The advantages
are too great to ignore. Eventually, technological advances will minimise the
disadvantages.
Is Solar Electricity Really a Viable Option
for the Home Consumer
India receives approximately 3000 hours of sunshine a year, which if harnessed and
used in an efficient and cost effective manner can help resolve the country’s energy
scarcity. However, according to reports, the installed capacity of solar power in 2007
was a mere 0.2% of total energy production. Solar power is still very expensive to
produce in comparison with conventional forms of energy.

So, is solar electricity really a viable option for you, the home user? Most urban and
rural users in India still rely on conventional electric supply to power their homes.
Currently, residential consumers across India do not really have widespread and easy
access to solar power. Solar energy constitutes a very minor percentage of the
country’s total installed electric capacity. Also, solar electricity when available is not
normally an inexpensive alternative. Solar PV panels are expensive to install on an
individual basis and the conditions for functionality do not always exist. For example,
solar electric panels are usually installed on rooftops. Solar panels will be able to
generate power only if the roof is not overshadowed by other tall buildings or trees.
Also, solar panels are not necessarily light. Hence, your roof must be strong enough to
support them.

However, given these constraints, domestic consumers in rural India and other parts of
the country as well are increasingly turning to PV panels and other solar powered
applications to resolve their energy problems. For some, the choice has also to do with
concern for the environment since solar energy does not emit harmful greenhouse
gases.

With the Government’s resolve to kick start the development and implementation of
solar installations on a large scale, solar power options for residential users will increase
in the years to come. India’s first solar powered housing complex has already come up
just outside Kolkata. More such residential ventures, which incorporate BIPV
technology, are in the pipeline.

Among the most widely used solar powered home applications in India is the solar
water heater. A 100 litre capacity solar heater is adequate for a family of four.The
system uses a solar collector and an insulated tank made of stainless steel, which can
hold 100 litres of water.You would need roughly 45 square feet of free space on your
roof to install the heater, which will be connected to the water tank. Hot water will be
piped to faucets in the house. Water that flows into the tank and circulates during the
day is heated to around 60 degrees centigrade by the end of the day. The insulation
enables hot water to be stored for around 48 hours. Users, thus, have access to hot
water round the clock.
Solar water heaters normally last around 15 years and the collectors come with a 10
year guarantee.A 100 litre system costs approximately Rs. 18,000. Though the
Government offers no subsidy on domestic water heaters, quite a few state
governments subsidise these systems in limited numbers.However, several banks have
stepped in with low interest loans in order to enable consumers to purchase these
useful and eco – friendly heaters.In Karnataka, domestic solar water heaters have a
significant market share.The Karnataka Government’s initiative to extend rebates of Rs.
250 per month to consumers who use solar water heating systems has promoted the
use of these heaters.

Other applications such as solar cookers, solar battery chargers, solar lanterns and
emergency power systems are also used by residential users in many parts of the
country. Though the use of solar panels and solar applications is not widespread in
India, the market potential is enormous. With favourable public policy, proactive public
and private sector participation and increasing awareness among the general public, the
future of solar power generation in India looks bright indeed.

Building Integrated Photovoltaic

Technology in Residential Complexes 
Solar powered residential complexes are not uncommon in some parts of the world.
Now, potential home buyers in India can also look forward to living in solar powered
homes. The country’s first solar housing venture has recently come up on the outskirts
of Kolkata. Rabi Rashmi Abasan, a pilot project of the West Bengal Renewable Energy
Development Authority (WBREDA), has already become an example for promoters and
builders from other states to follow.

The 26 houses in this complex use building integrated photovoltaic technology or BIPV
to generate electricity for domestic use. What is BIPV technology? As its name
suggests, this technology uses solar panels integrated into the architecture to generate
electricity. For example, solar electric panels can be built into rooftops, facades and
even the glazing. In this way, sunlight is converted into electricity for use within the
home. BIPV technology is reported to make structures energy efficient and eco –
friendly.

According to WBREDA, around 15% of the country’s total solar power installation is
generated through BIPV technology, which is growing at the rate of 50% per year.

In Rabi Rashmi Abasan, each house has Conergy C125W solar modules with the
capacity to generate approximately 2kw of energy. These modules have been custom
designed to be integrated into the roofs. The solar energy generated is estimated to
meet around 40% of residents’ electricity requirements. Surplus solar power will be fed
into the grid. Additionally, each house is equipped with a solar water heater capable of
heating 100 litres a day. West Bengal is currently the only state in India, which allows
domestically produced solar electricity to be fed into the grid. WBREDA claims that
residents will benefit by approximately Rs. 7 per kilowatt hour.

The architectural design at Rabi Rashmi Abasan incorporates solar passive technology,
which enables the houses to remain cool in summer. Basically, this technology uses
cross ventilation to facilitate cool air to flow in from the water bodies located south of the
complex and circulate indoors. The promoters claim the houses are “carbon neutral.”

Street lights within the complex will be solar powered and the swimming pool will have a
solar heating system.

However, for BIPV to really take off in India, the high installation costs have to be set off
by forward looking public policy. Subsidising the cost of installation as well as offering
competitive rates for surplus power to be fed into the grid will help drive the market for
BIPV in the residential sector. Here, the West Bengal Government’s initiative should
serve as an example for other state governments. Governments in the West and in
Japan have extended attractive incentives, which have helped spur the growth of BIPV
projects in these countries.

For those who can afford homes that incorporate BIPV technology, the choice to buy
one should not be determined just by payback but by the intention of contributing to a
cleaner environment through the adoption of a green and reliable alternative. It is this
awareness together with supportive public policy, which will promote the adoption of
BIPV technology on a much wider scale.

Solar Thermal Technology

Solar thermal technology is one of the two methods used to harness solar energy for
domestic and commercial use. The other technology currently in use is photovoltaics.
Solar thermal technology harvests sunlight and uses it directly without converting it into
any other form.

This technology uses solar energy as heat and does not rely on batteries for storage.
This results in cost benefits as compared with solar photovoltaic technology. It costs far
more to store electricity than to store heat.

How does solar thermal technology harness sunlight to enable us to use it to power our
appliances and systems? Basically, this technology uses large parabolic mirrors or
reflectors to focus sunlight in order to generate heat. This in turn heats oil contained in
glass tubes to roughly 370 degrees centigrade. The hot oil is then used to convert water
into steam. This steam powers turbines that produce electricity using the method of
electromagnetic induction.
The devices used to concentrate the sun’s rays are also known as collectors. These
collectors come in low, medium and high temperature versions. Depending on the
temperature capacity, collectors serve specific purposes. For example, low temperature
collectors are usually in the form of flat plates and are used to heat swimming pools.
Medium temperature collectors, which are often in flat plate form as well, are employed
in water heating systems for residential and commercial purposes. It is, however, the
high temperature collectors, which are normally used to produce electric power for
general use.

Popular consumer applications, which use solar thermal technology, are solar cookers
and water heaters. Solar water heaters are now considered cost effective and
convenient substitutes for electric water heaters. They are economical, safe and simple
to use and reliable.

Solar thermal technology produces clean power. Unlike conventional electricity

generation, this system does not produce environmentally degrading carbon emissions.

While this method of generating power is currently expensive, efforts are on to reduce
production costs thereby making it a viable alternative to non – renewable energy
sources. Currently, it is cheaper to produce electricity using coal than sunlight.

Concentrated solar power technology or CSP can prove to be viable if applied

efficiently. This technology uses parabolic mirrors shaped to resemble very long
troughs, which focus sunlight onto tubes that contain molten salt. These salts in turn
store heat, which is used in thermal power plants. Modern thermal plants are working
towards bring down electricity costs to Rs.4 per unit. With properly implemented
technological improvements, CSP plants can eventually generate electricity at
competitive prices. The major drawback of solar thermal technology is that it requires
immediate and direct sunlight. Cloudy conditions render this method ineffective.
Similarly, no power can be produced after sundown. Solar thermal power companies
are working on developing viable and cost – effective storage solutions to store heat for
use in the absence of direct sunlight.

The Indian Government is actively encouraging and assisting the setting up of solar
thermal power plants. According to Government estimates, around 50, 000 MW of
power can be sourced from renewable energy alternatives. Private sector companies
engaged in producing power from renewable energy sources are given tax incentives. A
mega 35MW solar thermal plant is being set up in Rajasthan with a view to demonstrate
that solar thermal power production using the parabolic trough method is functionally
doable and to focus on the development of this technology in order to reduce costs.
Also, this is an eco – friendly technology and contributes to the reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions in the long run. The effectiveness and overall success of this project
would, it is anticipated, lead to the use of this technology in other parts of the country
and gradually minimise our dependence on polluting fossil fuels.
Commonly Used Solar Power Home
Applications
Though installed solar electric capacity currently constitutes a negligible percentage of
India’s total electricity installation, certain solar power applications have become
increasingly popular over the years. Of these, solar cookers, solar water heaters, solar
battery chargers, solar lanterns, solar home electricity systems and solar emergency
systems have proved to be viable and effective in several parts of the country. In far
flung villages, solar photovoltaic panels are used to power applications ranging from a
single domestic light to an electricity system for the entire village. In this article, we will
take a look at some applications that home users might find useful.

Solar water heating systems based on solar thermal technology have been adapted for
domestic use and can heat enough water daily to serve a family of four. This system
has the capacity to heat 100 litres of water per day. A solar collector is used to
concentrate the sun’s rays. Then, water is heated to around 60 degrees centigrade and
stored in an insulated stainless steel tank, which is reported to be capable of storing
water at the same temperature for around 48 hours. This system is installed on
rooftops. Water flows into the system from the overhead water tank and hot water is
piped to faucets in the house. This is an effective way for home users to have access to
hot water round the clock without having to rely on conventional electric supply.
Vendors claim the system has a 15 year life span and the collectors come with a 10
year guarantee. However, solar water heating systems do not come cheap. Normally,
they cost around Rs. 18,000 for a 100 litre system. It is possible, though, to avail of
bank loans at relatively low rates of interest to purchase these systems for domestic
use.

Another very useful domestic application is the solar cooker, which also uses solar
thermal technology. This is a box shaped device, which holds four aluminium containers
in which ingredients are placed. The cooker must be kept in the sun with the mirror
adjusted to focus maximum sunlight. Cooking time depends on the ingredients, quantity
and type of cooking. On an average, the cooker should be left in the sun for around
three hours. This gadget can also be used to warm food. The solar cooker is compact
enough to carry and is not fuel dependent. These systems generally cost upwards of
Rs. 1500.

The solar lantern is an application that is particularly handy in areas that either have
erratic power supply or no electricity at all. This is a portable device, which employs a
10W solar panel. The panel is placed in the sun and connected to the lantern by a
cable. The solar module converts sunlight into electricity, which in turn charges the
battery. On a sunny day, the battery is sufficiently charged to produce roughly four
hours of light a day. The light is bright enough to enable a person to read and write in a
fairly small room. The reported life spans of the solar panel, battery and bulb are twenty,
three and five years respectively. Though this device costs around Rs. 4000, it is fairly
affordable because the Government subsidises it to the extent of Rs. 1300 and it does
not come with recurring costs and is maintenance free.

A basic solar home lighting system, which uses a 35W solar panel, is very useful during
power outages. The panel requires at least two hours of sunlight daily. The system has
the capacity to power two CFL lamps and one small fan. The apparatus is subsidised by
the Government and requires no maintenance.

Solar battery chargers are also useful devices where conventional electric charge is not
possible. Rechargeable batteries used in home and personal use appliances can be
charged using solar battery packs.

These applications have proved useful and cost – effective in the residential and small
enterprise segments. Solar devices are also eco –friendly and their use helps reduce
carbon emissions.

Major Solar Energy Players in India

The market for solar energy systems in India is still very young. In 2007, solar energy
produced in India was just 1.7% (80 MW) of the global total. However, with increasing
awareness of the hazards of depending on non – renewable sources of energy and the
Government of India’s resolve to actively promote renewable energy alternatives,
market demand for solar power systems has begun to show signs of growth.

Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, while announcing the National Action Plan, stressed
on the need to gradually increase the nation’s dependence on renewable energy
alternatives, particularly solar electricity, with a view to making India’s “economic
development energy efficient.” The Government is looking to accelerate solar power
generation with the aim of generating at least 10% of electricity through solar energy by
2012.

The Indian Semiconductor Association sees high potential for growth in the
electrification of far flung villages, which are currently without electricity because they
are not connected to the conventional transmission grid. Solar photovoltaic technology
is already being used effectively to power remote villages such as Gudda in Rajasthan.

Domestic solar cell manufacturers produced solar cells equivalent to 45MW energy in
the financial year ending March 2007. This is an increase of 21.6% over the previous
year. Two of the major players in the Indian PV cell industry are Tata BP Solar Ltd. and
Moser Baer Pvt. Ltd. Another emerging name is Signet Solar, which plans to have
300MW installed capacity by the end of 2008.

According to ISA, market segments that have particularly high growth prospects are
rural areas where solar panel installations would be cheaper than laying grid lines, grid
fed solar energy, roof top solar installations for commercial use and back up systems to
replace existing diesel powered plants for telecom towers.

Major PV vendors include Tata BP Solar, Kotak Urja Pvt. Ltd., Moser Baer Pvt. Ltd,
Titan Energy Systems Ltd. and WEBEL SL Energy Systems Ltd. The BIPV installations
in India’s first solar powered housing complex, Rabi Rashmi Abasan, were supplied by
SunTechnics India.

In order to make solar energy more marketable, installation costs must come down.
Though costs are considerably lower now than what they were previously, conventional
electricity is still much cheaper.

Moser Baer, though a relatively new entrant, is a very proactive participant in the market
for solar photovoltaic cells. The company, which is looking to earn 40% of its revenues
from solar cell production by the year 2010, set up a new PV cell manufacturing facility.
The number of units the factory currently manufactures per year is enough to generate
roughly 40MW of energy. Most of these units are, however, exported. The company
plans to increase production two fold.

India’s new National Semi Conductor policy, under which the Government will bear 20
-25% of the expenditure on capital for a semi conductor manufacturing unit over the first
ten years subject to certain conditions, has seen many new companies enter the solar
PV space. However, India’s primary role in solar power generation, at present, is as an
exporter to the US, Japan and countries in Europe, which are way ahead of India in
their deployment of solar energy. Indian solar power companies will emerge as
significant participants in the domestic solar energy space only when solar power and
applications become a viable energy alternative for millions of consumers across the
country.
July 2004  - The Inquiring Mind Newspaper Column by The Science Guys of Union University,

                                                                                            Ward, Hathcox, Marsch

How much electricity does a typical family use?

 This question is similar to asking how much food one of us science guys can eat.  It really depends on the
person; however, we can certainly talk of averages.  First, we need to investigate exactly what the
homeowner is buying when they pay their electricity bill.

 What is electricity?  Electricity is a flow of electrical charges; in our homes, it consists of electrons
flowing through copper wires and all the devices in our house.  The electrons arrive at your home from
the electric company with considerable energy, or as some would say, with a lot of potential.  After
working their way through all the electrical devices in your home; the lights, the motors, the heaters, the
microwave, etc. they have used up their energy, they are spent (have little potential), and must go back to
the power plant to be reenergized.

 The homeowner is billed for the energy these electrons have expended in the home.  The official energy
unit in the metric system is joules; however, several other energy units are used depending upon the
particular source of the energy.  Mechanical energy is described in units of joules, heat energy in units of
calories, atomic energy levels in units of electron volts, etc.  Electricity is calculated in terms of kilowatt-
hours (kWh).

 To calculate how much electricity (electrical energy) a device uses, simply multiply the power rating of
the device in kilowatts times the number of hours of use.  For example, a 500 watt (0.5 kW) security light
used for 8 hours consumes 0.5 kW x 8 hr = 4 kWh of energy.

 Thus, the amount of electricity (energy) you buy is measured in kWh and that is what your electric bill
reports.   In Tennessee in 2002, the average residential cost of electricity was 6.4 cents per kWh and the
average home used 1303 kWh of electricity per month.  Compare this to the national average for the
United States, which was 8.46 cents per kWh, and an average home used 907 kWh per month 
Tennesseans use a lot more electricity than the average person in the U.S.  In fact, Tennessee
homeowners use more electricity than any other state, 44% more than the average. (Maybe we should ask
ourselves why?)

 For comparison, homes in New York use only 535 kWh, in Michigan 683 kWh, California 549 kWh, and
Arkansas 1077 kWh.  We are fortunate that the cost of electricity is rather low in Tennessee and that
keeps our electric bills reasonable.  The most expensive electricity is in Hawaii where a kWh cost 15.6
cents and our neighbor Kentucky has the least expensive at 5.65 cents per kWh.

 So, how much electricity does a family use?  It depends on how many switches you turn on and how long
you leave it on.  In Tennessee, the electric bill averages 1303 kWh at a monthly cost of $83.50.  Now,
how does your bill compare?  Are you average?
How much electrical energy you consume is based on connected watts and hours of use. In order
to determine how much it costs to operate any electric appliance or light you must first determine
your actual unit energy costs in kilowatt-hours (kWh). This is a simple process.

Difficulty: Moderately Easy

Instructions

Things You'll Need:

 Electric Bill
 Calculator
 Note Pad

1. 1

Problem 1 - What is my unit cost in kWh?

1. Total bill amount is $93.97

2. Total kWh (kilowatt hours) consumed 1,038 kWh
3. Total Cost $93.97 ÷ 1038 kWh = $.09053 per kWh

This is an important concept. You must know how much you could save by replacing
inefficient electric appliances with more efficient ones. You may even find it interesting
to know how much it costs to operate units you already have. Sometimes it is not worth
upgrading, and in other instances you can't afford not to make the change.

If you can't figure out what your unit costs are, and don't know how energy works,
effective decisions are impossible to make. Now that you know how to figure out your
kWh costs, let's try a practical problem.

2. 2

Problem 2 - A 100-watt light bulb that is on 10-hours a day for 30 days. How much
energy will it use?

· 10 hours per day x 10 days = 300 hours (energy is all about time of operation)
· 300 Hours x 100 Watts = 30,000 watt hours (energy is also about connected load or
Watts)
· A kilowatt (kW) is 1000 watts
· 30,000 watt hours ÷ 1000 watts = 30 kilowatt hours (kWh as on the electric bill)
3. 3

Problem 3 - How much did it cost to operate that lamp?

· 30 kWh x $.09053 per kWh = $2.72 cost of operation

4. 4

Problem 4 - How much would I save if I replaced the 100-Watt light bulb with a 60-Watt
light bulb that would produce the same amount of light energy?

· 100-Watt original light - 60-Watt Replacement light = 40-Watt reduction

· 300 Hours of operation (Problem 1) x 40-Watt Reduction = 12000-Watts saved
· 12000-Watts hours saved ÷ 1000 Watts = 12 kWh
· 12 kWh x $.09053 (Problem 1) = $1.09 savings
· $1.09 Savings ÷ $2.72 Original Cost of operation = .40 x 100 = 40%

5. 5

Problem 5 - The 100-Watt bulb has a life expectancy of 1,000 hours. How much will it
cost to burn the bulb for 1,000 hours?

· 100 Watts x 1000 Hours = 100,000 watt hours

· 100,000 Watt hours ÷ 1000 Watts = 100 kWh
· 100 kWh x $.09053 per kWh = $9.53

6. 6

Problem 6 - The 60-Watt bulb has a life expectancy of 4,000 hours. How much will it
cost to operate during its life?

· 60 Watts x 4,000 Hours = 240,000 watt hours

· 240,000 watt hours ÷ 1000 watts = 240 kWh
· 240 kWh x $.09053 per kWh = $21.72

7. 7

Problem 7 - How much can I reduce my energy costs by replacing the 100-watt lamp
with the 60-watt lamp?

· 4,000 hours (60-watt lamp life) ÷ 1,000 hours (100-watt lamp life) = 4
· $9.53 100-Watt life cost x 4 = $38.12 cost of operating 4,000 hours of 100-watt bulbs
· $38.12 cost of equivalent 100-Watt operation - $21.72 cost of 60 Watt life = $16.40
total life time savings
· $16.40 life time savings ÷ $38.12 4,000 hour cost of 100-Watt bulb = 43%
 8. 8

Problem 8 - The 100-Watt lamp costs $1.25 each, and the 60-Watt lamp costs $15.00.
Can I still save money?

· 4 100-watt lamps x $1.25 each lamp = $5.00

· $15.00 60-Watt cost - $5.00 cost of 4 100-Watt lamps = $10.00 additional lamp cost
· $16.40 life time savings - $10.00 additional lamp cost = $6.40 net savings
· $6.40 net energy savings ÷ $32.12 equivalent 100-watt lamp energy cost = 20% net
energy reduction

Tips & Warnings

 The cost of energy consumption has three basic factors: 1. Hours of operation 2. Unit (kWh) cost
of energy 3. Connected load (Watts)
 Energy conservation is about 3 additional factors: 1. Load Delta - the difference between the
original load (Watts) and the reduced load (Watts) 2. Hour Delta - the difference between the
hours of operation of the original load, and the hours of operation for the reduced or, more
efficient load. 3. Cost Delta - the equipment cost difference between the equivalent numbers of
items needed to do the job, and the number of more efficient items needed to do the same
amount of work.
 Every time we purchase a product that will consume energy we have a choice to make.
Sometimes the cost of the more efficient product is many times more than it will save making it
a bad choice, especially if you consider energy savings as the only criteria. There will be other
times when picking one product over another can save many times the cost of the product you
purchase.

Read more: How to Calculate Electric Costs - Energy 101 | eHow.com

http://www.ehow.com/how_2172446_calculate-electric-costs-energy.html#ixzz14i0iwqaF