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DIVERSITY IN INDIA
Submitted By: Submitted To:
A major project like this is never the work of anyone alone. The contributions of many different
people, in their different ways, have made this possible. It gives me great satisfaction to prepare
this project. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude and personal regards to
Mrs ADITI MANN AND Mr ANIKET SHARMA for inspiring and guiding me during the
course of this project work.Without their valuable guidance and support the completion of the
project would not have been possible. I would also like to thank my seniors for guiding me
through tough times. I am also thankful to my contemporaries who continuously encouraged and
inspired me for our project work.
Efforts have been made to avoid errors but in spite of it some errors might have
crept in inadvertently.
AMULYA KAUSHIK
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Objectives:-
Research questions:-
The relevant theoretical information and data have been gathered from books, journals and the
internet. (primary as well as secondary data).The assimilated information and data have been
analyzed on the basis of which conclusions have been drawn.
INTRODUCTION
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, encompasses the variety of all life on earth. Biodiversity
manifests itself at three levels: species diversity which refers to the numbers and kinds of living
organisms; genetic diversity which refers to genetic variation within species; and ecosystem
diversity which denotes the variety of habitats, biological communities and ecological processes.
It encompasses the whole range of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and other
invertebrates, plants, fungi and micro-organisms such as protists, bacteria and viruses.
Definition
“biological diversity” means the variability among living organisms from all sources and the
ecological complexes of which they are part and includes diversity within species or between
species and of eco-systems1
The first most used definition of Bio-diversity sponsored by the UN. According to this definition
Biodiversity refers to “The variability among living, inter alia, territorial, marine and other
aquatic systems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and of eco-system”.2
A wide variety in physical features and climatic situations has resulted in a diversity of habitats
and ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, mountains, wetlands, coastal and marine (mangroves
and coral reefs) and deserts. India is also one of the eight primary centres of origin of cultivated
plants and is an acknowledged centre of crop diversity, including about 375 closely related wild
species mainly of rice, and several important pulses, millets,
1
Section 2(b) of Biological Diversity Act, 2002
2
Article 2 of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (UNEP 1992).
vegetables, fruits and fibre plants . In addition, nearly 140 breeds of domesticated animals (such
as cattle, sheep, goat, camel, horse and poultry) are also found here.
a) Faunal diversity
With 91,797 recorded species, India accounts for 7.4 percent of the world’s faunal species (ZSI,
2011). A significant proportion of species under many taxa is found in India. This includes as
many as half of Merostomata, a third of Echiura and over a quarter of Phoronida and
Chaetognatha species. Among vertebrates, India accounts for 13.66 percent of bird, 12.12
percent fish, 8.58 percent mammal, 7.91 percent reptile and 5.60 percent amphibian species in
the world3 In terms of the world’s species-richness, India is fifth in reptiles, seventh in mammals
and ninth in birds 4
b) Floral diversity
India’s contribution to global floral diversity is even higher than its contribution to faunal
diversity. With over 45,500 recorded species, it accounts for nearly 11 percent of the world’s
floral species and ranks 10th in the world. The largest taxonomic group is Angiosperms with
17,527 species, followed by Fungi and Algae that have 14,500 species and 7,175 species
respectively. In percentage terms, it accounts for over a fifth of the world’s Fungi and around a
sixth of the world’s Algae, Bryophyte and Lichen species.5
India contains 172 species of animal considered globally threatened by IUCN, or 2.9% of the
world's total number of threatened species6. These include 53 species of mammal, 69 birds, 23
reptiles and 3 amphibians. A workshop held in 1982 indicated that as many as 3,000-4,000
higher plants may be under a degree of threat in India. Since then, the Project on Study, Survey
and Conservation of Endangered species of Flora (POSSCEP) has partially documented these
plants, and published its findings in Red Data Books.
3
Zoological Survey of India, 2011. Faunal Resources of India , http://www.zsi.gov.in.
4
Report of Ministry of Environment &Forests, 2009
5
Botanical Survey of India (1983). Flora and Vegetation of India - An Outline. Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah. 24 pp
6
Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.
INDIA’S BIODIVERSITY: MAJOR THREATS AND
CHALLENGES
Threat to biodiversity stems mainly from: habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss; shrinking
genetic diversity; invasive alien species; declining forest resource base; climate change and
desertification; over exploitation of resources; impact of development projects; and impact of
pollution.
Land is under considerable pressure, as the country supports around 17 percent of the world’s
population on less than 2.5 percent of global land area. In order to support this large population,
around 42 percent of the country’s geographical area has already been put under agriculture.
Although at 21 percent of the geographical area7, India has a respectable forest cover, dense
7
Planning Commission (2010). Mid-Term Appraisal of the Eleventh Five Year Plan. New Delhi
forests are restricted to only around 12 percent8. In many places, forests have been fragmented
due to expansion of developmental activities. In the Western Ghats, large tracts have been
converted into monoculture plantations such as coffee and rubber9. Repeated fires caused by
humans not only adversely affect particular species (such as ground nesting birds) but also over
a period of time change the character of the ecosystem, for example, causing a regime shift
from wet evergreen forests to semi-evergreen forests10. Widespread encroachment of common
lands has considerably reduced the extent of grasslands11. Many wetlands are facing threats such
as siltation, effluent discharge and changes in hydrological regime. Aquaculture, salt farming and
restricted flow of fresh water are among the threats faced by mangrove ecosystems. Coral
ecosystems are threatened by eutrophication from sewage and agriculture activities, dredging and
sedimentation12
The dwindling number of sparrows in urban areas, as a phenomenon, is not new. In Europe,
when the numbers of sparrows went down drastically a few years back, almost as much as by 85
percent, it rang quite a few alarm bells. But here in India, although the matter has been reported,
nothing concrete has been done to tackle what seems to be a sparrow crisis. The main point of
concern is that there is no data or study on the population of sparrows in India. "But by sheer
observation one can say that it has," Nikhil Devasar of Delhi Bird Group, an interactive group of
bird lovers. One of the reasons cited for the disappearing number of sparrows is unleaded fuel,
which is believed to be eco-friendly. The by-products of this fuel kill small insects, which the
young sparrows feed on. While the older sparrows can survive without the insects, the younger
ones need them for survival. "Another very important reason for the disappearing number of
sparrows from the urban areas is the change in the architecture of the houses. Earlier, these birds
used to build their nests beneath the tiled or thatched roofs the houses used to generally have.
"But now, with changing architecture and steel roofs, these birds have lost their nesting space.
8
Forest Survey of India (2011). India State of Forest Report 2011. Dehradun.
9
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009). India’s Fourth National Report to the Convention
on Biological Diversity. New Delhi.
10
National Forest Commission (2006). Report of the National Forest Commission. New Delhi:
Ministry of Environment and Forests
11
Bhise, S.N. ed. (2004). Decolonizing the Commons. National Foundation for India, New Delhi
in association with Seva Mandir, Udaipur.
12
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009). India’s Fourth National Report to the Convention
on Biological Diversity. New Delhi.
Also, the birds were used to pecking at the grain in the backyard of the houses where people
clean the paddy or wheat. With changing lifestyle, that has changed as well. Traditional norms
and practices for conservation of neighborhood forest and common land are also diminishing,
although certain rural and tribal communities continue to safeguard their biological resource base
even at the cost of their livelihood and sustenance Loss of habitats and over exploitation have led
to depletion of genetic diversity of several wild animals and cultivated plants.
13
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2008). National Biodiversity Action Plan. New Delhi.
14
Sukumar R., H.S. Suresh and R. Ramesh (1995). Climate change and its impact on tropical
montane ecosystems in southern India. Journal of Biogeography, vol. 22, pp. 533-536.
reaches, and sporadic dying of patches of Shola forests with the rise in ambient surface
temperatures.15
In addition to climate change, India also faces the threat of desertification. Around 69 percent of
India’s geographical area could be classified as dry land (arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid).
Remote sensing data indicate that around 32 percent of the country’s geographical area (c. 105
million hectares) is undergoing the process of land degradation. The three main processes
contributing to desertification are water erosion, vegetal degradation and wind erosion.16
Pollution
Pollution (both point and nonpoint-source) is a serious threat to biodiversity. Its major causes are
rapid industrialization and increasing use of fertilizers and pesticides. For example, consumption
of fertilizers in India increased from 69.8 kg per hectare in 1991 to 113.3 kg per hectare in 2006,
an increase of over 62 percent.17 Many areas have become contaminated with heavy metals and
pesticides due to improper disposal of industrial effluents and municipal waste. It is estimated
that nearly 70 percent of India’s surface water resources are contaminated by pollutants (ibid).
Many species such as gharial, Siberian crane (Grus leucogeranus) and Gangetic river dolphin
have been badly affected by pollution. Between 2007 and 2008, over 100 gharials in the
Chambal River died from suspected consumption of contaminated fish.18 Rampant veterinary use
of the drug diclofenac has resulted in the populations of three vulture species – White-backed
vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Slender-billed vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) and Long-billed vulture
(Gyps indicus) – declining by as much as 99 percent.19
16
Space Applications Centre (2007). Desertification & Land Degradation Atlas of India.
Ahmedabad: Indian Space Research Organisation.
17
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009a). State of Environment Report India, 2009. New
Delhi.
18
Ministry of Environment and Forests (n.d.). The Gharial: Our River Guardian. New Delhi.
19
Ministry of Environment and Forests and Zoological Survey of India (2011). Critically
Endangered Animal Species of India. New Delhi
Challenges
In addition to the above-mentioned threats, India faces several challenges in biodiversity
governance. Two key challenges are related to the knowledge base for biodiversity conservation
and the linkage and expansion of protected areas.
There is lack of a comprehensive information base on biodiversity, with only 70 percent of the
country’s land area surveyed so far.20 A shortage of qualified taxonomists for carrying out
taxonomic studies in the country has hampered the survey process. For instance, some groups,
such as soil microorganisms and marine flora and fauna, have not been sufficiently studied.
Similarly, there is inadequate understanding of genetic diversity. Conservation planners often
need to choose between ‘single large or several small’ protected areas.
Due to land scarcity and population pressure, planners in India have often chosen in favour of a
large number of relatively small protected areas. These are not always large enough to support
viable populations of threatened fauna, and fragments of forest are vulnerable to fire and edge-
effects. Creating corridors to expand and connect protected areas is crucial for long-term
conservation success, to facilitate gene flow and also to respond to potential range shifts due to
climate change. However, areas between protected areas are currently undergoing rapid changes
in land use, which result in loss or degradation of natural habitat. It is also increasingly difficult
to expand the protected area network (especially National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries) on
account of a perceived conflict between protected areas and local people’s dependence on them
for livelihoods. The need for expansion of the protected area network can be illustrated through
an example. Out of 463 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) identified in the country, as many as 199
(43 percent) are not officially protected.21
Other key challenges pertain to insufficient human resources, insurgency or unrest in some parts
of the country, inadequate financial resources and equipment, increasing human-animal conflict
due to relatively small protected areas and rising human populations, adverse impact of tourism
in some areas, indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides, lack of documentation of
20
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009). India’s Fourth National Report to the Convention
on Biological Diversity. New Delhi.
21
National Forest Commission (2006). Report of the National Forest Commission. New Delhi:
Ministry of Environment and Forests.
traditional knowledge pertaining to biodiversity and lack of proper economic valuation of
biodiversity in the national accounting process (NFC, 2006; MoEF, 2008, 2009b).
Diversity in India
Realizing the importance of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity as well as fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising out of it, India has developed a relatively robust legislative
and policy framework for biodiversity governance. Although some measures date back several
decades,22concerted action on this front started from the 1970s onwards. This section provides an
overview of the biodiversity governance systems in the country. The idea of protection of the
environment, including biodiversity, is enshrined in the Constitution of India. It enjoins both the
State and the citizens to take appropriate steps in this direction. Article 48-A of the Constitution
of India states that `[t]he State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country’, and Article 51-A (g) states that `[i]t shall be
the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures’.
Legislative measures
Numerous legislations (acts, rules, circulars and orders) relating to environmental protection as
well as specific laws relating to forests, wildlife and biodiversity have been passed taking into
account governmental and civil society concerns.
22
For example, the Indian Board for Wildlife was constituted as early as 1952 to advise the
government on wildlife conservation measures (NFC, 2006)
Deals with protection of wildlife and habitats and provides for the protection of wild
animals, birds and plants and related matters, with a view to ensuring the ecological and
environmental security of the country
2) Indian Forest Act, 1927
Designed for forest management and protection, the transit of forest and the duty liveable
on timber and other forest produce.
3) Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
Designed for the conservation of forests and related matters
Policy Measures
Some of the key policy documents of the Government along with a brief outline of their
priorities relating to Bio diversity conservation are as follows
Policy Gaps
Lack of policies for protection of wetlands, grasslands, sacred grooves and other areas
significant from the point of view of biodiversity.
The first such initiative was the establishment of the Corbett National Park in 1936. National
Parks are highly protected by law. No human habitation, private land holding or traditional
human activity such as firewood collection or grazing is allowed within the park. Sanctuaries are
also protected but certain types of activities are permitted within these areas. Biosphere Reserves
are another category of protected areas. Under this, a large area is declared as a Biosphere
Reserve where wildlife is protected, but local communities are allowed to continue to live and
pursue traditional activities within the Reserve. The Government of India has set up seven
biosphere reserves: Nokrek (Meghalaya), Nilgiri (Kamataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu), Namdapha
(Arunachal Pradesh), Nanda Devi (Uttar Pradesh), Sundarbans (West Bengal), Great Nicobar
(Andaman & Nicobar Islands), Gulf of Mannnar (Tamil Nadu). Several special projects have
also been launched to save certain animal species which have been identified as needing
concerted protection effort. These projects are designed to protect the species in situ, by
protecting and conserving their natural habitat. Project Tiger, Project Elephant, Save the
Barasingha campaign are examples of this initiative. Other strategies include offloading pressure
from reserve forests by alternative measures of fuelwood and fodder need satisfactionby
afforestation of degraded areas and wastelands.
2. Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation of plants and animals preserve/ or protect them away from their natural
habitat. This could be in zoological parks and botanical gardens or through the forestry
institutions and agricultural research centres. A lot of effort is under way to collect and preserve
the genetic material of crops, animal, bird and fish species. This work is being done by
institutions such as the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, the National
Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, etc. Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat
from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the
Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan where it had become extinct. Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational
gardens are important centres for ex situ conservation. Ex-situ conservation measures
complement in-situ conservation.
Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources.
Re-affirming the sovereign rights of Parties over their own biodiversity, the Convention balances
conservation with sustainable utilisation and access to and use of biological resources and
associated knowledge with equitable sharing of benefits arising out of such use. The CBD offers
opportunities to India to realise benefits from its rich biological resources and associated
traditional knowledge.
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES)
This is an international treaty which is designed to protect wild plants and animals affected by
international trade. The treaty, in force since 1975, controls the export, import and re-export of
endangered and threatened wildlife.
The shortcomings of the executive in coping with the pressures on the environment brought
about by change in the country's economic policies had thrust the responsibility of environmental
protection upon the judiciary. This has meant that in India, the Judiciary in some instances had
had to not only exercise its role as an interpreter of the law but has also had to take upon itself
the role of constant monitoring and implementation necessitated through a series of public
interest litigations that have been initiated in various courts.
The Judiciary has contributed to conservation of biological diversity in India by widening the
scope of locus standi and entertaining Public interest litigation in India, enunciating a web of
doctrines and interpreting Constitutional law from environmental perspectives.
In 1996, Supreme Court issued sweeping directions to oversee the enforcement of Forest Laws
across the nation. In T.N. Godavarman Tirumalpad vs Union of India23, Supreme Court issued
sweeping directives to enforce the Forest Conservation Act, 1980.34 The Court ordered to close
wood based industries and on exploitation of forest and forest product. The Court also created
Central and State committees to enforce the directions it issued in this case. The court
recognized that FCA was enacted with a view to check ecological imbalance caused by rapid
deforestation. It was clearly stated by the Court that the provisions of the act must apply to all the
forests irrespective of the ownership or classification thereof.
Forest Conservation Law has also been significantly been impacted through another case, Centre
for Environmental Law (WWF) – India v. Union of India24 concerning national parks and
sanctuaries. While hearing this case, the Supreme Court through one of its interim orders on 13-
11-2000 has restrained all State Governments from de-reserving national parks, sanctuaries and
forests.
23
AIR 1996 SC 1228
24
(1998) 6 SCC 483
The Court had also confronted with the issues of mining activities in the forest areas. The court
had clearly laid down prohibition of mining activities in the forest areas.25 The Supreme Court
made it categorically clear that renewal of mining licence after FCA came into force can be made
only on getting prior permission from the Central Government.26 The Supreme Court observed27
“the primary duty was to the community and that duty took precedence , in our opinion, in these
cases. The obligation to the society must predominate over the obligation to the individuals.”
The Court had firmly disallowed the non-forest activities and granting of lease for non-forest
activities in forests. Renewal of stone crushing lease without prior permission of the from the
Central Government28 was considered a serious breach of duty in the case Dhirendra agrawal v.
State of Bihar.29The use of forest land for non-forest purpose was clearly denied by the court in
the case of State of Bihar v. Banshi Ram Modi.30Similarly excavations of iron ore31 and
tourism32 in forest were highly criticised by the Supreme Court.
25
Rural Litigation and Environment Kendra v.State of Uttar Pradesh AIR 1988 SC 2187, Tarun
Bharat Sangh Alwar v. Union of India AIR1992 SC 514.
26
Ambika Quarry Works v The State of Gujarat , AIR 1987 SC 1073
27
Id, p 1076.
28
It is mandatory under section 2 of FCA, 1980.
29
AIR 1993 Pat 109
30
AIR 1985 SC 814
31
B V Joshi v State of Andhra Pradesh AIR 1989 AP 122
32
Union of India v Kamath Holiday resorts Pvt. Ltd. AIR 1996 SC 1040
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion
This is a critical moment in earth’s history, a time when humanity must choose its future. Our
planet earth is perhaps the only human habitat in the vast universe and we owe it to posterity to
preserve the divine heritage of our biosphere without pollution, degradation and destruction. The
long term perspective for sustainable development requires the broad based participation of
various stakeholders in policy formulation, decision-making and implementation at all levels in
particular of issues of biological diversity and this must be encouraged. While progress towards
sustainable development has been made through meetings, agreements and changes in
environmental governance, real change has been slow. To effectively address environmental
problems, policy-makers should design policies that tackle both pressures and the drivers behind
them. Economic instruments such as market creation and charge systems may be used to help
spur environmentally sustainable behaviour.
India with a strong commitment to contribute towards achieving the target is making
concerted efforts to significantly reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss. Towards this, taking
into account its national priorities and needs, India has formulated a number of policies,
legislations and action plans which define national goals and targets. Some of the more recent
ones are as follows:
The NEP (2006) seeks to achieve balance between conservation and development by
mainstreaming environmental concerns in all developmental activities.
Within five years of ratifying the CBD, a National Policy and Macro-level Action
Strategy on Biodiversity was developed in 1999. Thereafter, preparation of micro-level
action plans was undertaken through a UNDP/GEF project on NBSAP from 2000-2004.
This was an extensive exercise involving a large number of people from various sectors.
Subsequent to the approval of NEP in May, 2006, preparation of NBAP was taken up by
revising the 1999 document so that it is in consonance with the NEP and using the
NBSAP project report as one of the inputs. The NBAP 2008 defines targets, activities and
associated agencies for achieving the goals.
NAPCC (2008) outlines a number of steps to simultaneously advance development
paradigms and climate change related objectives of adaptation and mitigation. Eight
national missions form the core of the NAPCC and represent multipronged, long-term
and integrated strategies for achieving key goals.
In pursuance to the CBD objectives, India enacted the BDA in 2002 following a
widespread consultative process over a period of eight years. The Biological Diversity
Rules were notified thereafter in 2004. The Act gives effect to the provisions of the CBD.
It also addresses access to biological resources and associated traditional knowledge to
ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising out of their use to the country and its people,
thereby contributing to achieving the third objective of the CBD. India is one of the first
few countries to have enacted such legislation. The Act is to be implemented through a
three-tiered institutional structure: NBA, SBBs and BMCs. NBA were set up in 2003.
Twenty two states have established SBBs, and BMCs are in the process of being set up in
some states. Efforts are being made to strengthen the implementation of this Act,
including through capacity building of the institutional structures under UNDP and
UNEP/GEF projects.
India has adopted NWAP to give policy imperatives for wildlife conservation.
Recommendations
Most of the legal provisions pertain mainly to use/exploitation of biological resources,
rather than their conservation. Even Wild Life Protection Act 1972, focuses on protection
rather than conservation. Protection under Wild Life Protection Act is largely directed
towards large animal species (charismatic terrestrial species) rather than the large
spectrum of fauna and flora also found in the marine realm.
The existing laws relating to biodiversity shall be examined in order to bring them in tune
with the provisions of convention to reflect current understanding of biodiversity
conservation. There is a need for comprehensive legislation on biodiversity conservation
and use especially fisheries policies, which is generally ignored.
Formulation of policies for protection of wetlands, grasslands, sacred groves, marine
flora and fauna and other areas is significant from the point of view of biodiversity.
Documentation of biodiversity.
Increase allocation of financial resources for conservation of biodiversity.
Integrating conservation with development.
There should be continuous monitoring of biodiversity use for review of results of
implementation of policies and programmes.