CHAPTER II

RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

 CHAPTER II

RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE

I. Related Studies

A. Local

The parameters and considerations of microwave communication link

design will a determining factor in how reliable the system is when establish

and implemented. In a study conducted by Alipio et. al, a point to point 31.34

km microwave communication link connecting Cabuyao City, Laguna and

Sta. Cruz, Laguna was made with 99.999% reliability. The study designed a

two-hop full-duplex analog microwave communication link for the given sites.

This study was done systematically and in comparative for both hops based

on a process of designing a microwave link which includes path profiling,

transmission calculations, and system reliability calculations. Economical

aspect which includes project costs and engineering economy assumptions

were also considered in this study. (Alipio, Oracion, & Manuel, 2009-2010)

The achievement of 99.99% reliability was based on the usual parameters

with extensive study and research.

 The same considerations were also used in the establishment of the

microwave communication link design connecting PLDT-Brgy. Casmisehos,

Canlubang, Laguna and PLDT-Brgy. Maduya, Carmona, Cavite for voice and

data transmission. The study which was conducted by Montoya, Malanay and

Fernandez used descriptive research method to describe and analyze the

factors that could affect the design. These include the path profile, link

budget, land elevation, azimuth and analysis of atmospheric condition. ITU-R

recommendation of 7.25-7.55 Ghz was used. The microwave link design had

a path length of 12.62 km. The line of sight could be poor if there would be

any obstruction higher than the elevation of both sites. (Montoya, Malanay, &

Fernandez, 2009-2010) These obstructions were only assumed and were

based on the topographical map. The study proved the feasibility of creating

a microwave link on the said site.

In a microwave communication link built and implemented for Wyeth

Philippines Inc. connecting its main plant and warehouses in Silangan,

Cabuyao served as a medium of transmission for voice, data and video

information. The main purpose of the design was for the benefits of company

in terms of its productions and other means of business. The study used

descriptive method and in consideration of different factors to come up with a

cost-efficient and reliable design. Mathematical calculations and analysis of

acquired data were done to test the feasibility and determine the different

parameters in the study. Although thermal fade margin was the greatest

factor in the microwave link, a reliability of 99.99999511% and

99.99999528% for low band and high band frequency respectively were

attained. (Banaticla, Guno, & Herradura, 2010)

In a proposed point-to-point microwave link by Bicongco, Santiago and

Saludo for transport of audio and video of national broadcasting network

local studio, it was stated that the considerations of environmental effects

became a determining factor in calculating the reliability of the design.

Thermal fade margins and rain attenuation was 25.1127 dBm and 30.7118

dBm for low and high band frequency respectively. (Biconco, Santiago, &

Saludo, 2009-2010). The calculated rain attenuations were 18.2348 dB and

14.9351 dB for low and high frequency respectively. After considerations of

effects and factors for the design, the proponents came up with Ericson Mini

Link TM radio equipment as the best fit for the implementation of the

microwave link. It also single-hope design which were two 6 feet HPX6-70

Andrew Antenna, standard hangers, gray-white radome, and EW64 elliptical

waveguide, all from Andrew Antenna and the Harris Truepoint 5000 digital

radio. These specifications were based on the calculated parameters which

considered the relevance of pre-determined factors. Furthermore, the

designed followed the standards and rules promulgated by National

Telecommunications Commission in designing such link. The reliability of the

design was 99.99998% considering all probable conditions and future

situations that may arise.

These local studies proved that reliability of almost 100% is possible by

of course considering a number of factors. If the previous studies were able

to do so, designing microwave link for Los Baños and Lumban can be

feasible.

B. Foreign

Wireless systems have always been susceptible to interception in both

urban outdoor and indoor environments. In point-to-point communication

links, the placement of base station antennas is usually determined by an

experimental or analytical assessment of the propagation path. Since point-

to-point links are typically used to network widely separated areas, antennas

used in such situations are likely to be directional, but may still be

susceptible to interception by covert entities. In order to compensate the

problems that can be encountered in designing microwave antenna links,

planning and organization of creating the design parameter should be

observed. According to Al Mahmud and Khan in his study “Analysis and

Planning Microwave Link to Established Efficient Wireless Communications”,

wireless communication is observing a fast development in today’s

communication era. Therefore, analysis and planning of a microwave link is

very much important. The microwave equipment can be installed after a

careful planning and detailed analysis a microwave radio system. A poorly

designed path can result in periodic system outages, resulting in increased

system latency, decreased throughput, or worst case, a complete failure of

the system. Planning a good, stable and reliable microwave network can be

quite challenging. At the same time, it poses several interesting optimization

problems. (Al Mahmud & Khan, 2010).

It was also cited in the study of Al Mahmud and Khan that even though

designing microwave links is a critical and complex process (considering

vast factors), eventually provides a number of advantages over fiber based

transmission. Microwave link can be installed in one day due to its rapid

deployment. Microwave also offers less fading since the wave transmission

from transmitter to receiver takes place in line-of-sight propagation. It can

also overcome railways, road and ponds avoiding taking any permission to

establish the communication link thus preventing additional cost and delay.
Microwave also offers the best solution for cities that prohibit and restricting

street digging to install cable or fibers. It is flexible, reliable in natural

disasters and has negligible operational costs. Prevention and solution for

different problems and deficiencies in designing a microwave antenna can

be viewed as challenging and requires research and thorough analysis. In

1962, Shackelford analyzed the effects of radiation patterns of microwave

antenna is the far field region. The radiation patterns are analyzed and the

effects were determined by analytical methods. The study aimed to devise a

technique to determine the effects of on the far zone of these radiation

patters of microwave antenna caused by the signal source’s being in the

Fresnel zone. The technique will haven effect in selecting antenna aperture

and dimensions. It will help in determining the reliability of equipment

especially a microwave antenna when propagating microwaves.

(Shackelford, 1962)

Although in modern times, microwave communication poses several

interesting application it brings problems especially in power efficiency and to

the environment. A study presented by Chavez-Gomez et.al, optimizing the

energy consumption of wireless telecommunications infrastructure has

become a new challenge for the research community, governments and

industries in order to reduce CO2 emission and operational energy costs, the

power consumption of indoor/outdoor Wireless Access Devices (WADs,

specifically WiFi and WiMAX access points) and provides novel techniques

for improving the energy efficiency of wireless access networks. (Chavez-

Gomez, Riggio, Rasheed, & Granelli, 2011). However, problems in power

efficiency can be solved in using HPM devices or Efficient High Power

Microwave radiating systems.

In a study by Khan et. al, Efficiency of HPM antenna can be improved by

varying its physical shape and dielectric used in it. The most critical location

in an HPM antenna is its interface from where microwave leaves and enters

into the air. The performance of HPM antenna depends upon equipment

design and composition. (Khan, Mansoor Ahmed, Rafiq, & Rafique, 2016)

The studies presented were some of the basis of the proponents in

determining the appropriate and efficient design for a microwave link. The

reliability of the previous studies can serve as a platform of how possible an

almost 100% reliable microwave link is upon consideration of course of

several factors that will have a great impact on the outcome of the design.
II. Related Literature

A. Local

Manny T. Rule provides a guide in designing a Microwave

Communications System. He considered the microwave radio specifications,

frequency band to be used, and topographical map of the link, available

channel plans and minimum site elevation. He discussed the factors that

affect the signal including interference, multipath fading due to reflection,

multipath fading due to refraction, diffraction due to path obstructions,

multipath fading due to ducting and multipath fading due to rain. The

environmental conditions were also considered in creating antenna design.

(Rule, 2000)

The relevance of microwave link and its implementation leads to reliable

voice, video and data transmission. The latter is an important factor in

several agricultural applications and business management. In the paper

published by Rionel Belen Caldo about Smart Farming, he said that smart

farming in the country could empower local farmers with the decision tools

and technologies needed for their livelihood. However, this technology is not
yet available in the country. For sustainable agriculture in midst of climate

change, monitoring of plant health and detecting its diseases is critical. The

need to effectively grow a plant and increase its productivity should be given

emphasis. In addressing these concerns, monitoring and grading the plant at

its growth and at the time of its harvest is necessary. (Caldo, 2016)

Another evident reason how technology can modernize farming is its

application in monitoring crop growths. In Calumpit, San Jose Del Monte,

and San Miguel, Bulacan, Tehno-demo farm was established in an effort to

revitalize vegetable production and assists farmers in gaining knowledge

about modern farming methods. Techno-demo farm was used as a learning

field for farmers to see how technology can improve their usual practice. By

these, farmers no need to go to research centers to acquire necessary

information and skills in modern farming. Technology is utilized to modernize

farming industry. This can help in maintaining food security in respective

areas. (Yap, 2016)

Of course as part of this program, the technology has to be reliable

especially if monitoring plant growth involves the transfer of data acquired for

monitoring through the use of internet. There is also a risk if reliable

communication between farmers in large farm fields is not maintained. In an

attempt to modernize farming industry, there is a great investment involved

in implementing communication towers for data, voice and video. Calumpit,

San Jose Del Monte, and San Miguel, Bulacan prosper also in tourism. As

the “Embroidery Capital of the Philippines”, it is also rich in export-quality

items which makes the locals invest in businesses of making embroideries.

Furthermore, it is a home of tourism spots such as natural waterfalls and

resorts. These boost tourism industry and profit of the community. As the

town progresses in tourism due to its products and resorts, the demand for

quality services also increases. The services of the local businesses can be

further modernized by creating a microwave link to serve the community with

internet and reliable communication.

However, even before the application of microwave links in farming or in

local businesses for management, the design and planning of microwave

antenna is strictly done to produce promising results.

The parameters can be well calculated and extensive research can be

done in order to achieve 99.99% reliability thus helping out the community

and achieving the goals needed.

B. Foreign

The agricultural sector vastly improved as the application of the internet

was utilized in using technology to farming industries. According to Mitesh

Patel, efficient management, optimized use of seeds and fertilizers along

with precise and continuous monitoring can make this task achievable. It was

made possible by the use of IoTs. Internet in farming provides real-time

information which increases production through taking informed farming

decisions. The internet-enabled objects and sensors can be deployed

anywhere to gather data on moisture level and crop health. The farmers can

easily gather the data through their tablets and mobile phones. (Patel, 2018)

When it comes to farming solutions, internet technology is important. This

poses an extremely important idea of creating microwave antennas to places

which have to be catered with internet services and data transmission. Those

places whose primary profit comes from agricultural sector have a need for

this kind of technology.

Though the design and establishment of microwave antenna is by theory

easy and attainable, there are two fundamental aspects of wireless

communication that make the problem challenging and interesting. According

to David Tse in his book Fundamentals of Wireless Communications, these

aspects are by and large not as significant in wire-line communication. First

is the phenomenon of fading: the time-variation of the channel strengths due

to the small-scale effect of multipath fading, as well as larger scale effects

such as path loss via distance attenuation and shadowing by obstacles.

Second, unlike in the wired world where each transmitter-receiver pair can

often be thought of as an isolated point-to-point link, wireless users

communicate over the air and there is significant interference between them

in wireless communication. The interference can be between transmitters

communicating with a common receiver (e.g. uplink of a cellular system),

between signals from a single transmitter to multiple receivers (e.g. downlink

of a cellular system), or between different transmitter-receiver pairs (e.g.

interference between users in different cells). (Tse, 2014)

Microwaves display some interesting propagation characteristics

making them an ideal transmission medium. Line of sight inks are cost-

effective especially in the transfer of large amount of data in long distances.

The use of copper or fiber optic infrastructure is costly and so microwave

communications answer that problem. It’s easy to install equipment and

network operators don’t rely on third party vendors to deploy expensive

cables/. The use of microwave antenna in propagating information for long

distance transmission proves connectivity better suited for urban

environments and of course for rural places where commercial networks are

hard to reach. (Kurk, 2017)

Theoretical Framework

Design and implementation of microwave link between two locations

which are separated by long distance demands understanding of principles

and concepts of microwave communications. Although resources are readily

available and vast learning websites about designing the link can be easily

accessed, the process itself is still complex and every consideration has to

be critically studied. The reliability of such links depends upon the equipment

used, the design and site considerations and also how both stations are

constructed. The feasibility of designing a microwave link is also affected by

costing and availability of equipment that will fit the parameters set and

calculated.

In a study by Rakib Al Mahmud and Zaigham Shabbir Khan entitled

“Analysis and Planning Microwave Link to Established Efficient Wireless

Communications”, it was stated that the activities of path planning and

frequency planning preferably should performed in parallel with line of sight

activities and other network design activities for better efficiency. The uses of
the most updated maps are also recommended (not more than a year old)

since terrains can change drastically in a short period of time. Although most

of the previous designs of microwave links were feasible and practical when

implemented, this varies when it comes to where the locations of the two

sites are. Remember that as location varies, some of the environmental and

terrain considerations also change though the process of designing the

microwave links are also the same. However, all designs aim the same thing,

reliable, efficient and cost-effective point-to-point communication system.

Concept of WiMax

In practical terms, WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi but at higher

speeds, over greater distances and for a greater number of users. WiMAX

could potentially erase the suburban and rural blackout areas that currently

have no broadband Internet access because phone and cable companies

have not yet run the necessary wires to those remote locations.

A WiMAX system consists of two parts:

A WiMAX tower, similar in concept to a cell-phone tower - A single

WiMAX tower can provide coverage to a very large area -- as big as 3,000

square miles (~8,000 square km).

 A WiMAX receiver - The receiver and antenna could be a small box or

PCMCIA card, or they could be built into a laptop the way WiFi access is

today.

A WiMAX tower station can connect directly to the Internet using a high-

bandwidth, wired connection. It can also connect to another WiMAX tower

using a line-of-sight, microwave link. This connection to a second tower

(often referred to as a backhaul), along with the ability of a single tower to

cover up to 3,000 square miles, is what allows WiMAX to provide coverage

to remote rural areas. What this points out is that WiMAX actually can

provide two forms of wireless service:

There is the non-line-of-sight, WiFi sort of service, where a small

antenna on your computer connects to the tower. In this mode, WiMAX uses

a lower frequency range -- 2 GHz to 11 GHz (similar to WiFi). Lower-

wavelength transmissions are not as easily disrupted by physical

obstructions -- they are better able to diffract, or bend, around obstacles.

There is line-of-sight service, where a fixed dish antenna points straight

at the WiMAX tower from a rooftop or pole. The line-of-sight connection is

stronger and more stable, so it's able to send a lot of data with fewer errors.
 Line-of-sight transmissions use higher frequencies, with ranges reaching

a possible 66 GHz. At higher frequencies, there is less interference and lots

more bandwidth.

WiFi-style access will be limited to a 4-to-6 mile radius (perhaps 25

square mile-s or 65 square km of coverage, which is similar in range to a

cell-phone zone). Through the stronger line-of-sight antennas, the WiMAX

transmitting station would send data to WiMAX-enabled computers or routers

set up within the transmitter's 30-mile radius (2,800 square miles or 9,300

square km of coverage). This is what allows WiMAX to achieve its maximum

range.

When it comes to the variables that will affect the design, there are a

number of these variables that have to be determined prior to implementation

of the design in the actual field. These may be grouped as dependent and

independent variables.
WiMAX - IEEE Standards

The IEEE 802.16, the Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless

Access Systems, also known as the IEEE WirelessMAN air interface, is an

emerging suite of standards for fixed, portable and mobile BWA in MAN.

These standards are issued by IEEE 802.16 work group that originally

covered the wireless local loop (WLL) technologies in the 10.66 GHz radio

spectrum, which were later extended through amendment projects to

include both licensed and unlicensed spectra from 2 to 11 GHz.

The WiMAX umbrella currently includes 802.16-2004 and 802.16e.

802.16-2004 utilizes OFDM to serve multiple users in a time division

fashion in a sort of a round-robin technique, but done extremely quickly so

that users have the perception that they are always transmitting/receiving.

802.16e utilizes OFDMA and can serve multiple users simultaneously by

allocating sets of tones to each user.

 Table 2.1 IEEE 802.16 Standards related to WiMAX.

802.16 802.16a 802.16e

Spectrum 10-66GHz 2-11GHz <6GHz

32to 70 to Up to
Data Rate
134Mbps 100Mbps 15Mbps
256 Sub-
Carrier
QPSK, OFDM using
same as
Modulation 16QAM, QPSK,
802.16a
64QAM 16QAM, 64
QAM, 256
QAM
Mobility FIXED FIXED <75MPH
Selectable
Channel 20, 25, 28 5 MHz
1.25 MHz
Bandwidth MHz Planned
to 20MHz
Typical
1-3
Cell 1-3 Miles 3-5 Miles
Miles
Radius

NOTE − The IEEE 802.16 standards for BWA provide the possibility for

interoperability between equipment from different vendors, which is in

contrast to the previous BWA industry, where proprietary products with

high prices are dominant in the market.

 INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT
VARIABLES VARIABLES

Environmental conditions such as average Frequency allocated and channel

temperature, rainfall rate, wind velocity, plan. It also includes the low band
humidity and atmospheric pressure. and high band frequencies.

Site A & B locations. Terrain along Equipment and the specifications.

the path of propagation is also an This also include the antenna height,
independent variable. its diameter and gain.

Microwave communications design Structural considerations of antenna

principles and standards set by the tower reliability.
industry and government.

Costing and overall reliability of design.

Losses due to environmental conditions and path

losses. This also includes the obstructions along
the LOS and losses due to equipment.

Figure 2.1 – Variables Used in Microwave Communication Link Design

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual frame work of the study focused on the designing a

reliable microwave link for wireless communications between Los Baños,

Laguna and Calumpit, San Jose Del Monte, and San Miguel, Bulacan. The

principles and theories of microwave communications and the fundamentals

were studied. These also include the identification of standards in building

microwave towers. Planning, organizing and setting objectives were the top

of the step before proceeding to the complex process. Furthermore, site visit

and familiarization of the basic

requisites in designing such networks were done. When all these input were

attained, the complex process of designing the link was done. In this

processes, multiple considerations were considered based on the

fundamental principles and the planning made. During these processes,

analytical methods of calculating required parameters especially the losses

and compensation to those were thoroughly studied and the equipment

specification parameters were also decided as well as the computation of bill

of materials. The design of central offices was strategically analyzed as well

as the consideration of environmental factors. Furthermore, future natural

disasters that may occur were assumed to be inevitable so structural

considerations was considered and was not left out. Hence, when the link

proved to be reliable, the microwave antenna can internet services to people

of Laguna especially to the municipality of Lumban. The microwave link can

be used to help those local businesses as well as elevate farming by using

the benefits of the microwave link to modernize their techniques.

 PROCESS

1. Path Design

• Mapping
• Propagation and Path Losses
• Considerations of Path
Reliability
• Assessing availability
requirements
INPUT • Designing the link OUTPUT
• Frequency Planning and
Licensing
• Site Familiarization
• Planning and
preparation Point-to-Point
• Microwave Microwave
Communication Communication
Principles and Link Design
Theories 2. Environmental Connecting Los
• Selection for linkage, Conditions Banos, Laguna
Survey and Data and Lumban,
Gathering  Wind Velocity Laguna
• Familiarization of  Average Temperature and
Fundamental Humidity (with 99.99%
Concepts of  Rainfall Rate
reliability and
Microwave minimum losses)
Communication
• Researches on
existing microwave
link designs

3. Selection of Equipment
4. Mechanical, Electrical and
Structural Considerations
5. Documentations involving
costing and bill of materials.

Figure 2.2 Research Paradigm