Understanding Conflict Through Sociological Prospective

Submitted To:

Dr. Uttam Kumar Panda

Assistant Professor, Sociology

Submitted By:

Ayush Kabra

Roll No. - 49

Semester - 1st

Section - A

B.A. L.LB(Hons.)

Submitted On:

14 October, 2019

HIDYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, ATAL NAGAR, RAIPUR,

CHHATTISGARH

DECLARATION
I, Ayush Kabra, do hereby declare that the project titled “Understanding Conflict Through
Sociological Prospective” is based on my own work carried out during the course of my study
under the guidance of Mr. Uttam Kumar Panda, Faculty of Sociology, Hidayatullah National
Law University, Raipur. Further, where others ideas or words have been included, I have
adequately cited and referenced the original sources.

I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have
not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission.

Ayush Kabra
Semester -1st
Roll No.-49
B.A. L.LB (Hons.)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my deepest regard and gratitude for our Faculty of Sociology, for putting his trust
in me and giving me a project topic such as this and for having the faith in me to present my
report in the best possible way. I would also like to thank him for the guidance he provided
during the tenure of my working in this project. His consistent supervision, constant inspiration
and invaluable guidance have been of immense help in understanding, analyzing and executing
this project.

I would like to thank my family and friends without whose support and encouragement, this
project would not have been possible.

I take this opportunity to also thank the University and the Vice Chancellor for providing
facilities like the extensive database resources in the Library, and the IT Lab for accessing online
sources.

Ayush Kabra
Semester -1st
Roll No.-49
B.A. L.LB (Hons.)
 CONTENTS

DECLARATION............................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. ii

INTRODUCTION …........................................................................................................1

REVIEW OF LITERATURE............................................................................................ 2

OBJECTIVES................................................................................................................. 3

RESEARCH QUESTION................................................................................................3

RESEARCH DESIGN.................................................................................................... 3

MODE OF CITATION.....................................................................................................3

DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIOLOGY.......................................................... 4

1. FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE.............................................................................. 4

2. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE................................................................................... 5

3. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE………………………................... 5

▪ CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY .......................................................... 6

▪ HISTORY OF CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE ................................................................7

▪ MARX AND CONFLICT THEORY..............................................................................11

ABOUT MARX ..........................................................................................................11

HIS VIEWS ON CONFLICT THEORY ......................................................................12

▪ WEBER AND CONFLICT THEORY ..........................................................................13

ABOUT WEBER… .….............................................................................................. 13

HIS VIEWS ON CONFLICT THEORY……...............................................................14

▪ MODERN EXAMPLES OF CONFLICT THEORY .................................................... 15

1. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: ............................................................................... 15

 2. WEALTH AND POWER INEQUALITY: ............................................................... 17

3. DRUG ABUSE AND CRIME ................................................................................17

▪ TYPES OF CONFLICT THEORY .............................................................................18

1. CRITICAL THEORY: .......................................................................................... 19

2. FEMINIST THEORY: .......................................................................................... 19

3. POSTMODERN THEORY: ................................................................................. 19

4. POST-STRUCTURAL THEORY: ........................................................................ 20

5. POSTCOLONIAL THEORY: ............................................................................... 20

6. QUEER THEORY: .............................................................................................. 20

7. WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY: .............................................................................21

8. RACE-CONFLICT APPROACH: ......................................................................... 21

MAJOR FINDINGS…………………........................................................................... 23

CONCLUSION........................................................................................................... 24

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 26
 INTRODUCTION

The theory of conflict, proposed by Karl Marx, argues that society is in a state of perpetual
conflict because of competition for limited resources. This maintains that social order is
established by dominance and control, rather than by consensus and conformity. According to
the theory of conflict, those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any means possible,
primarily by crushing the poor and the powerless.

The theory of conflict has been used to describe a wide range of social phenomena, including
wars and revolutions, wealth and poverty, racism and domestic violence. This attributes most of
the important changes in human history, such as democracy and civil rights, to bourgeois
attempts to control the people rather than to a desire for social justice. The theory is based on
theories of social inequality in the allocation of resources and focuses on the tensions that occur
between groups.

Marx's theory of conflict centered on the rivalry between two dominant groups. The bourgeoisie
represents the members of society who hold the majority of wealth and resources. The proletariat
comprises those who are perceived to be working class and poor. With the rise of capitalism,
Marx proposed that the bourgeoisie, a minority within the society, would use its power to control
the proletariat, the dominant group.

The unequal distribution within the theory of conflict was expected to be sustained through
political manipulation, where the bourgeoisie would compel the proletariat to accept the present
conditions. Marx also believed that, as the working class and the oppressed were exposed to
worsening circumstances, a collective conscience could bring injustice to light and potentially
lead to revolution. Unless conditions were subsequently changed to address the concerns of the
bourgeoisie, the dispute loop would inevitably repeat itself.

Marx regarded capitalism as part of the historical development of economic systems and
believed that it was grounded in commodities-or products that were bought and sold. For
example, he claimed that labor was a form of commodity. But since workers have little control or
power in the economic system (because they do not own factories or materials), their value can
be devalued over time. This could create a gap between business owners and their workers,
which could lead to social conflict.

He claimed that these issues would finally be overcome through a social and economic
transition. For example, conflict theorists find the relationship between the owner of a housing
complex and the occupant to be based primarily on conflict rather than on equilibrium or
harmony, even though there may be more harmony than conflict. They agree that they are
characterized by getting whatever support they can from each other -i.e. rent payments (for the
owner), a place to live and repair (for the tenant).
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Sociology of Conflict Theory by Manorama Savor, Social Scientist, Vol. 3, No. 12 (Jul.,
1975), pp. 29-42, Jstor.com discusses the conflict theory of sociology with examples, as well as
the views of various social scientists on conflict theory;

Conflict Theory and Race Conflict by John T. Williams, Jstor.com describes that a number of
early sociologists, including Robert Park, Albion Small, Lester Ward, and Charles Cooley,
thought that social conflict was a mechanism to be examined by social scientists. Nevertheless,
in the decades following the Second World War, the opinions of the structural-functional school
are generally accepted. Structural functionalists appeared to see social conflict as destructive and
chaotic and to emphasize the need for unity and harmony in institutions and communities.
Nevertheless, the notion that constructive ideals and priorities could be extracted from a conflict
situation began to emerge during the racial tensions of the 1960’s.;

The Social Conflict and the Theory of Social Change by Lewis A. Coser, British Journal of
Sociology Vol. 8, No. 3 (Sept., 1957), pp. 197-207 (11 pages) on the social conflict in the present
context and also refers to Karl Marx's views on the social conflict;

Marx and Simmel Revisited: Reassessing the Foundations of Conflict Theory by Jonathan
H. Turner, Vol. Public Forces. 53, No. 4 (Jun., 1975), pp. 618-627 (10 pages) shares the view of
An analysis of Karl Marx's and Georg Simmel's theories of conflict is conducted with a view to
evaluating what they offer contemporary theorizing. The opposing aims, philosophical premises,
variable conceptualizations and ideas of Marx and Simmel were discussed and contrasted. While
some overlaps occur in their methods, the complementary gaps in their schemes provide the
broadest ground for conflict sociology.
 OBJECTIVES

• To understand the history of Conflict Theory.

• To Study the views of different Sociologists on conflict Theory.
• To understand various types of conflict Theory.
• To study various modern examples of conflict Theory.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• What is conflict theory?

• How conflict theory was originated?
• What are the views of the various sociologists about the theory?
• What are the types of conflict theory?

RESEARCH DESIGN

The project is of analytical nature and the mode of presentation is analytical and descriptive.

The project is based on secondary sources of data such as journal and articles.

MODE OF CITATION

A uniform mode of citation (MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION) has been adopted and
followed consistently throughout this paper.
 DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology theories give us different perspectives to see our social world. A viewpoint is simply a
way to look at the world. Theory is a collection of interrelated theories or concepts designed to
answer a question or clarify a particular phenomenon; it gives us a perspective. Sociological
theories allow us to understand and predict the social world we live in. Sociology has three
primary conceptual perspectives:

1. FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile
Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to functionalism, society is a network
of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of equilibrium and
social order for the whole. For example, every social institution has important roles to play in
society: family provides a framework for reproducing, nurturing and socializing children;
education provides a means of conveying the skills, information and culture of society to its
youth; politics provides a means of governing members of society. Economics accounts for the
creation, distribution and consumption of goods and services; and religion offers moral guidance
and a medium for the worship of higher power.

2. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

Dispute views society as being made up of different groups and competing interests in power and
resources. The dispute viewpoint explores the different aspects of our social world by looking at
which groups have the ability to benefit from a specific social arrangement. Feminist theory, for
instance, claims that we live in a patriarchal society— a hierarchical structure of men-controlled
organization. Although there are many variations of feminist theory, most would argue that
xenophobia "demands a change in existing economic, political and social systems" (Weir and
Faulkner 2004, p.xii)
.
1 Savur, Manorama. “Sociology of Conflict Theory.” Social Scientist, vol. 3, no. 12, 1975, pp. 29–42. JSTOR, JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/3516428.
The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced back to the classical works of Karl Marx.
Marx proposed that all societies should go through the stages of economic development.When
societies change from agricultural to commercial, the concern for the fulfillment of survival
needs is replaced by the concern for profit making, the hallmark of the capitalist system.
Industrialization leads to the creation of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie or the owners of
the means of production (e.g. factories, farms, enterprises) and the proletariat or the workers who
earn wages
3. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

Symbolic interactionism reflects a microsociological viewpoint, largely influenced by the work o

f early sociologists and thinkers such as George Simmel, Charles Cooley, George Herbert Mead,
and Erving Goffman.Symbolic interactionism argues that human behavior is shaped by concepts
and interpretations that are created and maintained by symbolic encounters with others.

Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance and implications of words and
interpretations of social behavior. He stated that human beings respond to their interpretation of a
condition rather than to the actual situation itself. Thomas thus observed that the circumstances
which we describe as real are actual in their consequences.

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY

Conflict theories are viewpoints in sociology or social psychology that stress the cultural,
economic and material differences of a social group, condemn the large socio-political system, or
otherwise contradict systemic functionalism or theoretical conservatism. Rivalry ideas draw
attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, which typically contrast with historically
dominant philosophies. It is, thus, a macro-level study of culture.

Conflict is a view of society that views conflict as a natural aspect of social life. According to its
adherents, conflict has an effect on the distribution of power and the course and extent of social
change. Conflict is one of two main sociological theories. Also known as the "conflict model," it
gives sociologists explanations for happenings in history and in society. Outlined by theorists
such as Karl Marx, the conflict perspective is antithetical to the order perspective. 2

2 Kurtz, Thomas. “Sociological Theory and Sociological Practice” Acta Sociologica, vol. 50, no. 3, 2007, pp. 283– 294. JSTOR, JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/20460003.
Conflict theory emphasizes conflicting interests rather than norms and values. Interest-seeking
creates different types of conflict. As a consequence, confrontation is seen as a natural aspect of
social life rather than an unusual phenomenon. Competition over resources is often a source of
conflict. The three tenets of this theory are the following:
1. Society is composed of different groups that compete for resources.
2. While societies may portray a sense of cooperation, a continual power struggle exists
between social groups as they pursue their own interests. Within societies, certain groups
control specific resources and means of production.
3. Social groups will use tools to their own benefit in the service of their goals. This often
ensures that those who have control over resources will profit from it. As a result, most
controlled groups would clash with other groups in an attempt to gain power. Most of the
time, individuals with the most resources can win and retain power (because they have
the resources to support their power). The belief that those who have power should retain
control is known as The Matthew Effect.
Critical criminology is one field of conflict analysis. The concept is based on the view that the
underlying causes of crime are inequality, which is the result of social and economic forces
working within a given society. This view derives from the German philosopher Karl Marx, who
argued that the justice system and the law favoured the rich and powerful of society, and that the
weak were prosecuted far more harshly for much smaller crimes.

The conflict theory of aging is another branch of conflict theory. It happened in the 1980s due to
a reduction in federal spending and job losses across the nation; older generations competed with
younger generations for jobs. Women, low-income families and minorities were among the worst
affected. Competition, thus, could seriously harm our daily lives and culture.

Reservation is a good example of conflict analysis. There was a social structure earlier where the
class in society had been suppressed.This suppression culminated in a dispute between the upper
and lower classes of society. Lower class demanded reservation for their upliftment and they got
it after huge struggle and debates. This was a fight for the benefit of their class. They were
granted exemptions, and few of them developed socially and economically.

HISTORY OF CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE

The ideas that form the foundation of conflict theory can be traced back to early philosophy. Han
Fei Tzu (280-233 BC) and other ancient Chinese thinkers also taught that humans were innately
weak and lazy. This belief leads to the obvious conclusion that the only way people can be
regulated is through retribution. Those who have the power to punish will govern civilization,
because fear of the power of retribution holds people in place.

Polybius, a Greek philosopher (205–125 BC), based his work on the Roman Republic. He
believed that people were like herds of animals.3 Weaknesses led man to create societies in
which the strongest and bravest individual became the ruler. He claimed that cultures were
corrupted and converted into monarchies, and that monarchies were founded on equality and
legitimate authority. Monarchies have an obligation to maintain harmony in society. Though, the
same issues with humans will be found to their rulers, leading to dishonest and unequal
monarchies. The consequence is tyrants and dictatorship. Dictatorship, though, is self-
limiting.Once it becomes intolerable, the bourgeoisie of society may find ways to overthrow the
throne. The cycle will repeat itself, because the new leader will strip some of the independence
and sense of justice away from the people. Polybius argued that the only way to stop this process
would be to form a government that combines the best aspects of empire, aristocracy, and
capitalism during his period, like the Roman government.

Many philosophers had similar ideas about conflict and society. They believed that
conflict was a necessary part of society. Conflict was formalized in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries as a sociological theory, drawing on the ideas of people like
those described above. Several sociologists, including Max Gluckman, John Rex,
Lewis A, have contributed to the development of conflict theory. Coser, Randall
Collins, Ludwig Gumplovicz, Ralf Dahrendorf, Vilfredo Pareto, and Georg
Simmel. However, Karl Marx is often credited as being the father of conflict
theory.
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, sociologist, historian,
political scientist, political theorist and socialist revolutionist who founded
Marxism's socio-political theory. Since then, his theories have played an important
role both in social science growth and in the socialist political movement as well.
Throughout his career, he wrote various books, most notably The Communist
Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–94), many of which were co-written by his
friend, the fellow German socialist anarchist Friedrich Engels. The commitment of
Marx to social change prompted him to concentrate most of his work on the
capitalist societies ' radical class disputes. Karl Marx died a poor man, but he
influenced the modern world with his work and ideas.
Marx saw conflict as primarily resulting from class conflicts within industry and the
economic segment of society. Max Weber (1864-1920) proposed that power,
prestige and property also added to social conflict and that such conflict was found
in all aspects of society (e.g., politics, gender, an religion).

C. Wright Mills (1916-1962) also contributed to modern conflict theory. According to Mills,
one of the results of conflict between people with competing interests and resources is the
creation of a social structure. Social structure refers to the relatively fixed institutions and norms
of society that heavily influence, consciously or not, peoples' everyday behavior (e.g., getting
your license at a department of motor vehicles reflects the fact that social structure dictates who
gets to grant licenses, how, when, and to whom). However, control over the social structure is
largely in the hands of the elite (wealthy), who generally oppose the interests of the non-elite.

It can be traced back to thinkers such as Karl Marx Machiavelli or Thomas Hobbes, both of
whom viewed humanity cynically. In its current form, conflict theory attempts to refute the
functionalist approach, which considers that societies and organizations function so that each
individual and group plays a specific role, like organs in the body. There are radical basic
assumptions (society is eternally in conflict, which might explain social change), or moderate
ones (custom and conflict are always mixed). The moderate version allows for functionalism to
operate as an equally acceptable theory since it would accept that even negative social
institutions play a part in society's self perpetuation.

The essence of conflict theory is best epitomized by the classic "pyramid structure" in which
an elite dictates terms to the larger masses. All major social structures, laws, and traditions in
the society are designed to support those who have traditionally been in power, or the groups that
are perceived to be superior in the society according to this theory. Conflict theorists would
argue that all groups in society are born from conflict. An example might be that of labor unions,
which are developed to fight for the interests of workers, whereas trade organizations are made
to fight for the interests of the moneyed classes. This theory of groups is opposed to
functionalism in which each of these groups would play a specific, set role in society. In
functionalism, these groups cooperate to benefit society whereas in conflict theory the groups are
in opposition to one another as they seek to better their masters.

"It is in the interests of those who have “wealth to keep and extend what they own, whereas it
is in the interests of those who have little or no wealth to try to improve their lot in life." This
can also be expanded to include any society's morality, and by extension their definition of
deviance. Anything that challenges the control of the elite will likely be considered "deviant" or
"morally reprehensible.” The theory can be applied on both the macro level (like the U.S.
government or Soviet Russia, historically) or the micro level (a church organization or school
club). In summary, conflict theory seeks to catalog the ways in which those in power seek to stay
in power.

In understanding conflict theory, competition between social classes plays a key part.
The following are four primary assumptions of modern conflict theory:

1. COMPETITION:
Competition over scarce resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and so on) is at the heart of
all social relationships. Competition rather than consensus is characteristic of human
relationships.
2. STRUCTURAL INEQUALITY:
Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures. Individuals and groups that
benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.
3. REVOLUTION:
Change occurs as a result of conflict between social class's competing interests rather
than through adaptation. It is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.

4. WAR:
Even war is a unifier of the societies involved, as well as war may set an end to
whole societies. Conflict theory was elaborated in the United Kingdom by Max Gluckman and
John Rex, in the United States by Lewis A. Coser, and Randall Collins, and in Germany by Ralf
Dahrendorf, all of them being less or more influenced by Karl Marx, Ludwig Gumplovicz,
Vilfredo Pareto, Georg Simmel, and other founding fathers of European sociology.

MARX AND CONFLICT THEORY

ABOUT MARX
Karl Marx is one of the most reputed philosophers of the 19th Century. Born in 1818 in a
middle class family, Marx studied law in Bonn and Berlin and later plunged deeper into the ideas
of Hegel and Feurbach (Wheen, 2007). It is after receiving his doctorate in philosophy in 1841
from the University of Jena that he moved with his family to Paris where he became a radical
revolutionary communist and teamed up with Friedrich Engels, another radical philosopher of
his time. They collectively authored the pamphlet “The Communist Manifesto” which was later
published in 1848. In this pamphlet, Marx passionately asserted that all human history was
dominated by class struggles. Furthermore, he predicted that they would culminate into the fall
of capitalism and rise of communism (Wheen,2007).

Karl Marx later moved to London in 1849 where he broke his political and religious isolation
to author Das Kapital, sometimes referred to as the “Bible of the working class” (Wheen, 2007).
In this book, Marx developed very philosophical ideas related to the crises of the working class
and the implicit struggles between laborers and owners of industries. The works and ideas of
Karl Marx in his book Das Kapital were later edited by Engels after his death in 1833 in London
(Wheen, 2007). The ideas of Karl Marx established a school of thought known as Marxism, or
what later came to be popularly known as the Marxist doctrine. His writings consummated the
main ideological currents of 19th century. These included the classical English political
economy, French socialism and the French revolutionary doctrines of the time.

Marx, throughout his writing, had envisaged a social revolution that would see the fall
of capitalism and the rise of socialism as a dominant ideology. These predictions later became
evident after the death of Karl Marx in what was considered to be a process of socialization of
labor. Wheen (2007) contends that this transformation would be possible to accomplish by the
proletariat in sustained struggles with the bourgeoisie. This led to the development of ideas
evident in Marxism and the conflict theory that form the bedrock of Marx’s works.
HIS VIEWS ONCONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory is a Marxist perspective and conceptualization of the way in which society
is structured. This perspective depicts society as characteristically dominated by conflicts
(Collins & Sanderson, 2008). Conflict is the determinant of how resources are allocated and who
benefits the most from such allocations. Power is also acquired through conflict, and once such
power is acquired, it is used to dominate the less-powerful and to benefit a few people. Collins
and Sanderson (2008) cited that the basic form of interaction in the human society is not
consensus but competition, which culminates into persistent conflicts. Each party or individual
competes against perceived rivals with the goal of gaining advantage and dominating the other.

The theory presented by Karl Marx underscores the fact that conflict, and not consensus,
dominates designed mechanisms through different classes in the stratified society, interacts and
relates to each other (Collins & Sanderson, 2008). The rich and the powerful use conflict to
threaten their poor subjects and to maintain the status-quo. The poor on the other hand, organize
and use conflicts to push for a revolution that will overthrow the powerful that are enjoying the
privileges of capitalist structures. These tensions are thus sustained by the need of each group to
have its interests dominate the structures and operations of the society.

Karl Marx contends that the society is stratified into two main social groups. These are
the proletariat and the bourgeoisies. The conflict between these two large social groups results in
what Marx considered as revolutionary change. The probable source of conflict between the
proletariat and the bourgeoisies are the desire of the proletariat to have ownership of means of
production, such as factories, power, land and other valuable resources (Collins & Sanderson,
2008). The bourgeoisies, on the other hand, are not willing to relinquish these resources and give
up their privileged positions of power and overwhelming riches and investments.

The conflict perspective was most famously proposed by Karl Marx in the mid-1800s.
Marx, whose many teachings stressed the dynamic tension between the classes, believed that
conflict defined the happenings of society. He believed that this conflict would determine the
major events and outcomes of history. His conflict perspective believed that the split between the
divisions of labor resulted in conflict between the masses and drove the social changes of the
time.

Karl Marx argued that property is upheld by the state, making property struggles into
political struggles between owners and renters, capitalists and workers, and other groups.4
Material conditions determine the ability of any of these groups to organize effectively
politically. These material conditions are also what enable one group to propagate their views to
others in society. Because the owners clearly have an advantage in material wealth, their views
are spread more easily.

4 J. V. Naik. “Lokmanya Tilak on Karl Marx and Class Conflict.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 34, no. 18, 1999, pp. 1023–
1025. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4407902.
For Marx, the conflict clearly arises because all things of value to man result from human
labor. According to Marx, capitalists exploit workers for their labor and do not share the fruits of
these labors equally. 5This exploitation is what allows the owning classes to dominate politically
and to impose their ideology on the workers of the world.

WEBER AND CONFLICT THEORY

ABOUT WEBER
Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German
sociologist, philosopher, jurist, and political economist. His ideas profoundly influenced
social theory and social research. Weber is often cited, with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as
among the three founders of sociology. Weber was a key proponent of methodological anti-
positivism, arguing for the study of social action through interpretive (rather than purely
empiricist) means, based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to
their own actions. Unlike Durkheim, he did not believe in mono-causality and rather proposed
that for any outcome there can be multiple causes.

Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation,

secularization , and "disenchantment" that he associated with the rise of capitalism and
modernity. He saw these as the result of a new way of thinking about the world. Weber is best
known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in
his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which he proposed that ascetic
Protestantism was one of the major "elective affinities" associated with the rise in the Western
world of market-driven capitalism and the rational-legal nation-state.6 He argued that it was in
the basic tenets of Protestantism to boost capitalism. Thus, it can be said that the spirit of
capitalism is inherent to Protestant religious values.

Against Marx's historical materialism, Weber emphasised the importance of cultural

influences embedded in religion as a means for understanding the genesis of capitalism. The
Protestant Ethic formed the earliest part in Weber's broader investigations into world religion; he
went on to examine the religions of China, the religions of India and ancient Judaism, with
particular regard to their differing economic consequences and conditions of social stratification.
In another major work, "Politics as a Vocation", Weber defined the state as an entity that
successfully claims a "monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory".

5 Williams, John T. “Conflict Theory and Race Conflict.” Social Science, vol. 51, no. 1, 1976, pp. 32–36. JSTOR, JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/41886040
6 Kurtz, Thomas. “Sociological Theory and Sociological Practice.” Acta Sociologica, vol. 50, no. 3, 2007, pp. 283– 294. JSTOR,
JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20460003.
He was also the first to categorise social authority into distinct forms, which he labelled as
charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal. His analysis of bureaucracy emphasised that modern
state institutions are increasingly based on rational-legal authority. Weber also made a variety of
other contributions in economic history, as well as economic theory and methodology. Weber's
analysis of modernity and rationalisation significantly influenced the critical theory associated
with the Frankfurt School. After the First World War, Max Weber was among the founders of
the liberal German Democratic Party. He also ran unsuccessfully for a seat in parliament and
served as advisor to the committee that drafted the ill-fated democratic Weimar Constitution of
1919. After contracting Spanish flu, he died of pneumonia in 1920, aged 56.

HIS VIEWS ON CONFLICT THEORY

German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but also believed that, in addition to
economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and social structure cause conflict. Weber
noted that different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender, and
that people’s reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social
mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power. German sociologist
Georg Simmel (1858– 1918) believed that conflict can help integrate and stabilize a society. He
said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the
parties, the degree of solidarity within the opposing groups, and the clarity and limited nature of
the goals. Simmel also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity, centralize power,
and reduce dissent. Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for
future agreements. In the 1930s and 1940s, German philosophers, known as the Frankfurt
School, developed critical theory as an elaboration on Marxist principles. Critical theory is an
expansion of conflict theory and is broader than just sociology, including other social sciences
and philosophy. A critical theory attempts to address structural issues causing inequality; it must
explain what’s wrong in current social reality, identify the people who can make changes, and
provide practical goals for social transformation (Horkeimer 1982). More recently, inequality
based on gender or race has been explained in a similar manner and has identified
institutionalized power structures that help to maintain inequality between groups. Janet
Saltzman Chafetz (1941–2006) presented a model of feminist theory that attempts to explain the
forces that maintain gender inequality as well as a theory of how such a system can be changed
(Turner 2003). Similarly, critical race theory grew out of a critical analysis of race and racism
from a legal point of view. Critical race theory looks at structural inequality based on white
privilege and associated wealth, power, and prestige.

MODERN EXAMPLES OF CONFLICT THEORY

Some examples related to conflict theory are as follows:

1. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their members
in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction
or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others.
In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some commonly accepted
basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of social positions,
social stratification occurs. Social stratification means division of society into different strata or
layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common
identity. They have a similar lifestyle.7

The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system. The society in
which divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern
stratification fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social stratification
involves two phenomena

i. differentiation of individuals or groups on the basis of possession of certain whereby some

individuals or groups come to rank higher than others,
ii. the ranking of individuals according to some basis of evaluation.

Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social differences but also with their
social evaluation.

DEFINITIONS

Ogburn:

The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy
of status is known as stratification.

Lundberg:

Stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that are evaluated
by them as being “lower” and “higher”.

Gisbert:

Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with
each other by the relationship of superiority an subordinations”

7 Coser, Lewis A. “Social Conflict and the Theory of Social Change.” The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 8, no. 3, 1957, pp. 197–
207. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/586859.
2. WEALTH AND POWER INEQUALITY
While the United States is purportedly a nation that values principles of equality,
egalitarianism, meritocracy, hard work, and the pursuit of the "American Dream," the U.S. also
has a very high level of economic and social inequality. Domhoff (2011) provides striking
evidence of this inequality, finding that "as of 2007, the top 1% of households (the upper class)
owned 34.6% of all privately held wealth, and the next 19% (the managerial, professional, and
small business stratum) had 50.5%." He goes on to state that this means that the top 20% of
Americans own 85% of the nation’s wealth as a whole, with the other 80% of Americans having
only 15% of the wealth. This extreme inequality in the level of power and wealth that currently
exist in the United States exemplifies the central themes of conflict theory, namely that there is a
competition for power between classes. The implications of this large disparity in wealth
between social classes in the United States includes many disadvantages for those in the lower
classes, such as a lack of access to quality health care, increased risk of violent crime, fewer
educational opportunities (especially post-secondary education), and the absence of a social
network to provide opportunities for upward mobility.

3. DRUG ABUSE AND CRIME

Proponents of conflict theory argue that crime and criminal justice in the modern world is
designed to benefit the upper, powerful classes, while subjugating and disenfranchising the lower
classes. Greek (2005) provides an excellent explanation of this phenomenon:

"Thus, street crimes, even minor monetary ones are routinely punished quite severely, while
large scale financial and business crimes are treated much more leniently. Theft of a television
might receive a longer sentence than stealing millions through illegal business practices."

This example illustrates the manner in which conflict theory can be applied to deviance in
society as the upper classes seek to maintain their position and power by ensuring that the lower
classes remain poor and relatively powerless.

Conflict theory has also been applied to the current trends of drug abuse in the United
States, finding that societal and social class position effect one's rate of drug abuse. More
specifically, "Conflict theory holds that there are higher numbers of chronic drug abusers found
in lower social classes, disorganized neighborhoods. lower income families, and relatively
politically powerless places." Lo (2003) found that, in accordance with conflict theory, social
environments negatively affect inequality "...widespread poverty and severe social
disorganization, lacking legitimate opportunities as well as adequate education and training, have
a [strong] association with opiate and cocaine use." 8

8 SINGH, R R. “PUBLICATIONS.” NCJRS Abstract - National Criminal Justice Reference

Service,www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=200166.
 TYPES OF CONFLICT THEORY

Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism, but as a reaction to functionalism
and the positivist method may also be associated with number of other perspectives, including:

1. CRITICAL THEORY:
Critical theory is a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessment and critique of
society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities. As a
term, critical theory has two meanings with different origins and histories: the first originated in
sociology and the second originated in literary criticism, whereby it is used and applied as an
umbrella term that can describe a theory founded upon critique; thus, the theorist Max
Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the
circumstances that enslave them"9

2. FEMINIST THEORY:

Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or philosophical

discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's
social roles, experiences, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as
anthropology and sociology, communication, media studies, psychoanalysis, home economics,
literature, education, and philosophy.An approach that recognizes women's political, social, and
economic equality tomen10.

3. POST MODERN THEORY:

Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late-20th century across
philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism and that marked a departure from modernism.
The term has also more generally been applied to the historical era following modernity and the
tendencies of this era. (In this context, "modern" is not used in the sense of "contemporary", but
merely as a name for a specific period in history.) An approach that is critical of modernism,
with a mistrust of grand theories and ideologies.

9 Groves, W. Byron, and Robert J. Sampson. “Critical Theory and Criminology.” Social Problems, vol. 33, no. 6, 1986, pp. S58–S80.
JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/800674.

10 Coser, Lewis A. “Social Conflict and the Theory of Social Change.” The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 8, no. 3, 1957, pp. 197–
207. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/586859.
4. POST-STRUCTURAL THEORY:
Post-structuralism is associated with the works of a series of mid-20th-century French,
continental philosophers and critical theorists who came to be known internationally in the 1960s
and 1970s. The term is defined by its relationship to the system before it—structuralism, an
intellectual movement developed in Europe from the early to mid-20th century which argues that
human culture may be understood by means of a structure—modeled on language (i.e.,
structural linguistics)—that differs from concrete reality and from abstract ideas—a "third order"
that mediates between the two.

5. POSTCOLONIAL THEORY:
Post colonialism or postcolonial studies is the academic study of the cultural legacy of
colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the human consequences of the control
and exploitation of colonised people and their lands.
The name post colonialism is modelled on postmodernism, with which it shares certain
concepts and methods, and may be thought of as a reaction to or departure from colonialism in
the same way postmodernism is a reaction to modernism. The ambiguous term colonialism may
refer either to a system of government or to an ideology or world view underlying that system—
in general post colonialism represents an ideological response to colonialist thought, rather than
simply describing a system that comes after colonialism. The term postcolonial studies may be
preferred for this reason.11

6. QUEER THEORY:
Queer theory is a field of critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of
queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and
the the orisation of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant,
Leo Bersani, Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer
theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self
and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts
and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and
unnatural behavior with respect to homosexual behavior, queer theory expands its focus to
encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories.

11Kuma r, V. Biju. “POSTCOLONIAL STATE : AN OVERVIEW.” The Indian Journal of Political Science, vol. 66, no. 4, 2005, pp.
935–954. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41856176.
A growing body of research findings that challenges the heterosexual bias in Westernsociety.12

7. WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY:

World-systems theory (also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems
perspective) is a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change
which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive)
unit of social analysis. "World-system" refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of
labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery
countries. Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the
world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. This
constantly reinforces the dominance of the core countries. Nonetheless, the system has dynamic
characteristics, in part as a result of revolutions in transport technology, and individual states can
gain or lose their core (semi- periphery, periphery) status over time. This structure is unified by
the division of labour. It is a world-economy rooted in a capitalist economy. For a time, certain
countries become the world hegemon; during the last few centuries, as the world-system has
extended geographically and intensified economically, this status has passed from the
Netherlands, to the United Kingdom and (most recently) to the United States.

8. RACE-CONFLICT APPROACH:
A point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial
and ethnic categories. Critical race theory (CRT) is a theoretical framework in the social sciences
that uses critical theory to examine society and culture as they relate to categorizations of race,
law, and power. It began as a theoretical movement within American law schools in the mid- to
late 1980s as a reworking of critical legal studies on race issues and is loosely unified by two
common themes: First, CRT proposes that white supremacy and racial power are maintained
over time, and in particular, that the law may play a role in this process. Second, CRT work has
investigated the possibility of transforming the relationship between law and racial power, and
more broadly, pursues a project of achieving racial emancipation and anti subordination.

^12WATSON, KATHERINE. “Queer Theory.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,

journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0533316405049369?journalCode=gaqa#articleCitationD
ownloadContainer
 MAJOR FINDINGS

 Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology and social psychology that emphasize
the social, political, or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-
political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and
ideological conservatism.
 The mind behind the conflict theory was of Karl Marx . His ideas have played a
significant role in the development of conflict theory . His ideas have evolved the concept
of Conflict theory.
 Various sociologists have different opinions of what is conflict theory . They agree to
the points of their counterparts to some extent and other then that , they have their own
point of view regarding conflict perspectives.
 CONCLUSION

Sociologists analyze social phenomena at different levels and from different

perspectives. Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic
interactionist perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. These
perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences
people, and vice versa.
Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces, and human behavior. The
symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, directs sociologists
to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people
interact with each other.

According to the functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, each aspect of society
is interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole.

The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class
struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic
interactionist perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of
society that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted,
and ever‐changing nature of society.

Karl Heinrich Marx who developed the socio-political theory of Marxism. His ideas have
since played a significant role in both the development of social science and also in the socialist
political movement. The theory presented by Karl Marx underscores the fact that conflict, and
not consensus, dominates designed mechanisms through different classes in the stratified
society, interacts and relates to each other. The rich and the powerful use conflict to threaten
their poor subjects and to maintain the status-quo. The poor on the other hand, organize and use
conflicts to push for a revolution that will overthrow the powerful that are enjoying the privileges
of capitalist structures.

Maximilian Karl Emil Weber did not believe in mono-causality and rather proposed that for
any outcome there can be multiple causes. German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but
also believed that, in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and
social structure cause conflict. Weber noted that different groups were affected differently based
on education, race, and gender, and that people’s reactions to inequality were moderated by
class differences and rates of social mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of
those in power. And many more different sociologists have given different opinion about
conflict perspective.

There are many types of conflict theory which talks about different context which in this paper
has been described above.
\
 REFERENCS

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journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0533316405049369?journalCode=gaqa#articleCitationD
ownloadContainer
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Service,www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=200166.
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