Concepts

Dates of lectures

September 7

September 12

September 14

September 19

September 26

September 28

October 10

October 31

November 23

September 7

 
scientific method:
The process of creating knowledge using empirical
observations and logical analysis according to the
conventions of the scientific community. The scientific
method includes at least 5 stages:
Observe or have a question about some aspect of
1.
the world.
 Propose a tentative statement, called a hypothesis,
2.
that is consistent with your observation or question.
Make predictions based on the logical implications
3.
of the hypothesis.
Test those predictions with further observations and
4. analysis and modify the hypothesis in the light of
your results.
Repeat steps 3 and 4 until there are no
5. unsatisfactory discrepancies between hypothesis
and observation.

theory:
A set of logically consistent ideas about the relationships
between empirical phenomena (i.e., concepts) that
permits those ideas to be tested using observations.

hypothesis:
A conditional statement that is logically consistent with a
theory and can be tested with observations.

observation:
The process of gathering empirical data to analyze toward
the goal of testing hypotheses.

 
 empirical generalization:
The process of making claims based on empirical data
observed in a particular context about the relationships
between concepts in a broader set of contexts.

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September 12

 
concepts:
Formally and logically developed ideas about classes of
phenomena that a researcher seeks to study; the
"building blocks" of theory.

variables:
Ideas that have been logically constructed to establish
internal differences that can be empirically observed and
measured; the empirical counterparts of concepts.

indicators:
Observable phenomena that can be used to designate
and distinguish measured differences within variables.

 
  

operationalization:
The process of (and decisions involved in) designing a
study how to measure variables and test hypotheses
using emprical observations.

falsification:
The attempt to disprove a testable proposition. In the
scientific method, hypotheses are supported by failing to
reject (that is, "falsifying") them based on empirical
evidence.

deduction:
Reasoning that moves from general principles (theory) to
particular instances (empirical observations).

induction:
Reasoning that moves from from particular instances
(empirical observations) to general principles.

objectivity:
A state of knowledge about the empirical world that is
independent of the knower's perceptions and biases.
  

intersubjectivity:
A state of knowledge about the empirical world that is
shared and agreed upon by several knowers.

paradigm:
A set of presuppositions on which scientific activity is built;
the body of theories, ideas, models, test cases, and
values shared by a scientific community; and the specific
scientific accomplishments that influence future scientific
activity.
 

independent variable (x):

The thing (phenomenon or event) that is hypothesized to
bring about the effect of something else.

dependent variable (y):

The thing (phenomenon or event) that the researcher is
trying to explain.

validity:
A measurement principle in which the variables you
observe actually demonstrate the concepts you seek to
 study. If your measurements are valid, then you really are
measuring what you think you are measuring.

reliability:
A measurement principle in which the measurement
procedures you use can generate the same
measurements if they were to be repeated at a different
time, on a comparable sample, or (in qualitative research)
by a different researcher.
 
 

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September 14

explanation:
Scientific analysis that is causal; that is, it accounts for (or
explains) a change in one variable with changes in
another variable or set of variables.

description:
Scientific analysis that simply relates (or describes) how a
variable changes, either by itself or when related to
another variable.
 .

understanding:
Scientific analysis that is concerned with the process by
which a change in one variable is associated with a
change in another, either as a reasonable account of the
intervening mechanisms or (in qualitative research) as a
lived and meaningful experience for individuals and
groups.

positive relationship:
A relationship between variables in which change in one
variable brings about the same kind of change (i.e., "in the
same direction") for another variable. When variables are
positively related, an increase in one brings about an
increase in the other, and a decrease in one brings about
a decrease in the other.

negative relationship:
A relationship between variables in which change in one
variable brings about an inverse change (i.e., "in the
opposite direction") for another variable. When variables
are negatively related, an increase in one brings about a
decrease in the other, and a decrease in one brings about
an increase in the other.

linear relationship:
A relationship between variables in which change in one
variable brings about a constant rate of change for
another variable.

independent relationship:
A relationship between variables in which change in one
variable has no effect on ("is independent of") change for
another variable. In other words, there is no relationship
between the variables.

intervening variable:
A third variable that is simultaneously independent (to the
original dependent variable) and dependent (to the
original independent variable).
 .

  

categorical variables:
Variables that depict attributes or categories of a concept
that cannot be reduced to a number or numerical scale;
they vary in kind. There are two kinds of categorical
variables:

Nominal variables do not vary according to a specific

order. The categories of nominal variables are simply
names.
Ordinal variables vary according to a specific order, but
the degrees of separation between their ranks cannot be
numerically specified.

numerical variables:
Variables that depict attributes or categories of a concept
that can be reduced to a number or numerical scale; they
vary in degree. There are two kinds of numerical
variables:

Interval variables vary according to a specific order; the

degrees of separation between their ranks can be
numerically specified, but no true zero point orders their
measured variation.
Ratio variables vary according to a specific order; the
 degrees of separation between their ranks can be
numerically specified, and a true zero point orders their
measured variation.
 
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September 19

error:
A measure of the extent to which empirical observations
cannot be described by the hypothesized model. There
are two sources of error:

Random error occurs because of the innumerable factors

(i.e., variables) and diversity of people that make up the
real world that researchers study. Ultimately, researchers
are unable to eradicate the occurence of random error.
Systematic error occurs because of a flaw in the
operationalization of a research design. Researchers
should try to reduce the occurence of random error as
much as possible.

to control variables:
A technique in explanatory analysis in which all possible
determinants of a dependent variable are held constant
(i.e., "controlled for"), save one: the suspected causal
independent variable.
  

mean:
Commonly known as "average," a measure of central
tendency calculated by adding up the quantities of each
unit in a distribution and then dividing by the number of
units.

median:
A measure of central tendency that represents the
midpoint in a distribution of ordered data.

mode:
A measure of central tendency that represents the most
frequent value in a distribution.

correlation coefficient (r):

A measure that indicates the strength of the linear
relationship between two numerical variables. As r tends
to +1, the two variables are more strongly positively
associated; as r tends to -1, the two variables are more
strongly negatively associated.

statistical significance:
An empirical standard of confidence that the measured
relationship between variables is unlikely to have
occurred by chance alone. Although there are different
formulae and standards for determining statistical
significance, most require that the probability of the
measured relationship occuring by chance be less than 5
percent to be declared "statistically significant."

crosstabulation:
A table format for reporting measurements of
relationships between variables. The number of columns
correspond to the number of categorical attributes in the
independent variable (x); the number of rows correspond
to the number of categorical attributes in the dependent
variable (y); and each cell reports the proportion of the
sample for each type of relationship between variables.

causality:
A relationships between variables in which at least three
criteria are empirically established:
1. X and Y are correlated.
2. X precedes Y in time.
The X-Y relationship is nonspurious; no other
3. competing variables account for the observed X-Y
relationship.
Carter (2001: 19) offers a fourth and final criteria:

4. The X-Y relationship is intuitively pleasing; it fits

with our current understanding of how the world
functions.

 
  

spuriousness:
A relationship between independent and dependent
variables in which the hypothesized relationship is really
caused by the influence of a third variable that is
independent and antecedent to the other two.

In partial crosstab tables, spuriousness is revealed when

the direction and strength of the originally hypothesized
relationship (i.e., the difference of percentages in cells of
each row) diminishes or disappears to zero after a third
variable is controlled for with the use of partial tables.

multivariate model:
A hypothesis in which the effect of more than one
independent variable is studied.

In partial crosstab tables, a multivariate model is revealed

by changed but consistent relationships in the originally
hypothesized relationship after a third variable is
controlled for with the use of partial tables. (Hint: compare
the same cells across the two partial tables.)

intervening variable:
A third variable that logically falls in a time sequence, and
systematically explains the hypothesized relationship,
between the independent and dependent variables.

In partial crosstab tables, an intervening variable is

revealed when the direction and strength of the originally
hypothesized relationship (i.e., the difference of
percentages in cells of each row) diminishes or
 disappears to zero after a third variable is controlled for by
constructing partial tables. Note that this has the same
appearance as spuriousness; logical reasoning about the
sequence of the third variable is needed to determine
whether it is an intervening variable or hides a spurious
relationship.

interaction effect:
The tendency for a third variable to interact with the
independent variable, thereby altering the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. Thus,
the originally hypothesized relationship between the
independent and dependent variables will vary under
different conditions of the third variable.

In partial crosstab tables, an interaction effect is revealed

when the originally hypothesized relationship maintains
itself in one partial table but diminishes or disappears to
zero in the other after a third variable is controlled for.

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September 26

 
cross-sectional analysis :
An analysis of data gathered at one point in time.

 
  

trend analysis:
As part of a longitudinal (i.e., over time) research design, an analysis of
comparable data gathered in different years from different subjects.

panel analysis :
As part of a longitudinal (i.e., over time) research design, an analysis of
comparable data gathered in different years from the same subjects.

unit of analysis:
The kind of empirical case or unit that a researcher
observes, measures, and analyzes in a study.

secondary data analysis:

Research in which one does not gather original data
oneself but uses data previously gathered by someone
else.

regression analysis:
A form of multivariate statistical analysis that can isolate
one independent variable's effect while simultaneously
controlling for the effect of all other independent variables.
A regression equation expresses the relationship between
two or more variables algebraically, estimating the
average change in a dependent variable given a change
in the independent variable(s). In its simplest (linear) form,
a regression equation is usually written:

Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + ... + bkXk + e

where...

Y is the dependent variable

a (alpha) is the constant (a.k.a. intercept)

b (beta) is the regression coefficient (a.k.a. slope)

X is the independent variable

e is the error term

dummy variable:
An operational construct that represents a categorical
variable as a two-category numerical variable to make its
statistical analysis possible. E.g., for gender: female = 1,
male = 0.

adjusted R2:
A measure of error that indicates the total proportion of
change in the dependent variable explained by changes
in all the independent variables.

index:
 A measure that sums or combines many separate
measures of a variable.

scale:
An index that measures the intensity, direction, level, or
potency of a variable constructed along a continuum.
Most scales measure ordinal variables.

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September 28

survey research:
Quantitative social research in which one systematically
asks many people the same questions, then records and
analyzes their answers.

questionnaire:
A measurement instrument that provides written
instructions and questions which respondents self-
administer in order to provide data for analysis.

 
 interview schedule:
A measurement instrument that provides instructions and
questions which the researcher verbally administers to
informants and records their responses in order to gather
data for analysis.

closed-ended questions:
Survey research questions in which respondents choose
from a fixed set of answers.

open-ended questions:
Survey research questions which respondents answer in
their own words.

  

response rate:
The percentage of respondents who complete a
questionnaire or interview. Although researchers disagree
about what constitutes an acceptable response rate, most
consider anything below 50% to be poor and anything
over 90% to be excellent.

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 October 10

  

sample:
A group of subjects that are selected for study in order to
make generalizations about a broader population.

population:
The group of all subjects, either known or unknown, from
which a sample is selected.

elements:
The individual units, often individual persons, that
comprise a sample.

probability sampling methods:

Methods for drawing a sample in which the probability of
selecting population elements is known. The researcher
uses random sampling so that the representativeness of
the sample characteristics to the (known) population
characteristics can be statistically calculated.

nonprobability sampling methods:

Methods for drawing a sample in which the probability of
selecting population elements is not known. To satisfy
concerns about the sample's representativeness, the
researcher must explicitly explain how the sample
represents the population from which it was drawn.

sampling frame:
The list from which the elements of the population are
selected. Sampling methods are only as sound as the
sampling frame operationalizes the population.

availability sample:
A nonprobability sample in which elements are drawn
based on their availability to the researcher. Also known
as a convenience sample.

snowball sample:
A nonprobability sample in which the researcher asks the
initial elements, usually people, to refer other potential
elements for inclusion in the sample. The process is
repeated until the sample grows (i.e., "snowballs") to the
size desired by the researcher.

purposive sample:
A nonprobability sample in which the researcher selects
elements for a specific purpose, usually because of the
unique characteristics of the elements.
  

stratified random sample:

A probability sample that is organized to capture known
group differences among the population. In the first stage,
elements are sorted into separate groups (called "strata")
according to the selected group characteristics, e.g., men
and women, different racial and ethnic groups. In the
second stage, elements are randomly sampled from
within strata.

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October 31

qualitative research:
Research that observes and analyzes the meanings,
concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors,
symbols, and descriptions of things. (By contrast,
quantitative research counts and measures things.)

ethnography:
Literally, "people" + "writing." The description of a group,
culture, or social practice as its members understand it.

participant observation:
A method of research involving participating and
observing first hand in the social behavior and groups you
are studying.

field research:
Research about social groups and behavior observed in
their natural social environment. Field research can entail
any research methods, not just participant observation.

inductive research:
Research that begins with the observation stage.
Typically, inductive researchers let their research
questions emerge from their initial observations and
analysis.

exploration:
Scientific analysis in which a typically unstudied
phenomena is first examined in order to discover and
identify relevant features and meanings.

unstructured interview:
An interview that does not utilize a fixed schedule of
questions, often because the interviewer does not know in
advance what all the relevant questions would be.
  

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November 7

open setting:
A setting for social behavior where the field researcher
can enter without permission.

closed setting:
A setting for social behavior where the field researcher
must obtain permission from members before entering.

covert research:
Research conducted without the knowledge or consent of
those being studied or by misrepresenting the role of the
researcher.

field notes:
Writings in which a researcher records his or her personal
observations of the field. Field notes constitute the sole
data in participant observation. They tend to include at
least three kinds of writing: (1) thick descriptions, (2)
 running hypotheses, and (3) notes for further
investigation.

triangulation:
A method of corroborating observations by drawing
together multiple types of evidence gathered from
different sources and/or different methods.

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November 9

experiment:
A research method that uses careful methods of
comparison to isolate the effects of an independent
variable on a dependent variable, typically under strictly
controlled conditions.
The classical experiment has three features: the
experimental and control group are given the pretest, an
experimental group is given the treatment, and the
experimental and control group are given the posttest.

 
 treatment:
The independent variable that is administered to subjects
in an experiment.

experimental group:
A comparison group who is exposed to the influence of
the independent variable (e.g., the treatment in an
experiment).

control group:
A comparison group who is not exposed to the influence
of the independent variable (e.g., the treatment in an
experiment).

pretest:
In an experiment, the baseline measure of the dependent
variable that is taken before the treatment is given.

posttest:
In an experiment, the measure of the dependent variable
that is taken after the treatment is given and is compared
to a pretest.

 
 internal validity:
The extent to which an experiment has actually caused
what it appears to cause.

external validity:
The extent to which an experiment can be generalized to
other settings, other treatments, and other subjects.

posttest distortion:
In an experiment, the degree to which the observed effect
of the treatment is actually due to the effect of measuring
the dependent variable twice (i.e., in pretest and posttest
measures).

reactivity:
A problem of validity that occurs when subjects are aware
they are being studied and alter their behavior from its
"natural" patterns.

Hawthorne effect:
A kind of reactivity that occurs when subjects demonstrate
the expected effect of the treatment not because of its
actual influence, but because they try to behave the way
they think the researcher is looking for.

 
  

Solomon four-group design:

An experimental design with two experimental and control
group pairs, one of which is not exposed to pretest
measures.

posttest-only control group design:

An experimental design where neither the experimental
nor the control group is exposed to pretest measures.

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November 23 

 
content analysis:
A method for analyzing texts that involves four stages.
deciding which characteristics or
1. variable themes of the texts are to be
construction: analyzed and how they are to be
observed
2. sampling: selecting the texts to be analyzed
code (or measure) each text for the
3. observation:
characteristics or themes
aggregate the measurements and
4. analysis: make numerical descriptions of the
texts.
  

manifest content:
Elements of a text that are already observable and readily
measurable without (much) interpretation by the content
analyst.

latent content:
Elements of a text that require interpretation by the
content analyst before they can be observed and
measured.

intercoder reliability:
In content analysis, the principle of confirming the
accuracy of a coder's measurements by checking (usually
some sample of) them against a second coder's
measurements.