Energy 118 (2017) 127e138

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Experimental investigation on the behavior of a direct injection diesel

engine fueled with Karanja methyl ester-biogas dual fuel at different
injection timings
Debabrata Barik a, b, *, S. Murugan a, N.M. Sivaram b, E. Baburaj c, P. Shanmuga Sundaram c
a
Internal Combustion Engines Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Karpagam University, Coimbatore 641021, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore 641032, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present investigation explores the possibility of using Karanja methyl ester (KME) as a pilot fuel in a
Received 11 August 2015 biogas run direct injection (DI) diesel engine of rated power 4.4 kW at 1500 rpm, with compression ratio
Received in revised form of 17.5:1. The biogas was inducted with the intake air, and KME was injected directly into the combustion
4 November 2016
chamber. The injection timing of the pilot fuel, in the biodiesel dual fuel mode (BDFM) was varied from
Accepted 6 December 2016
Available online 18 December 2016
21.5
CA bTDC to 27.5
CA bTDC in steps of 1.5
CA. The BDFM with injection timing was denoted as
BDFMX, where X indicates the injection timing. BDFM24.5 (biodiesel dual fuel mode of 24.5
CA) gave
better performance and lower emissions than those of other injection timings. The results showed that,
Keywords:
Biogas
the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) for BDFM24.5 was found to be higher by about 23.9% than
Karanja methyl ester that of KME, at full load. About 6.6% increase in the brake thermal efficiency was observed for BDFM24.5
Combustion in comparison with BDFM23.0, at full load. BDFM24.5 gave a reduction in the CO, HC and smoke
Performance emissions of 17.1%, 18.2% and 2.1%, in comparison with the BDFM23.0, at full load, respectively. But, the
Emission NO emission for BDFM24.5 was higher by about 5.5% than that of BDFM23.0, at full load.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Currently, the world is very keen to search the alternative en-
ergy sources, because of the steep increase in fuel cost, overcome
the crisis of fossil fuel depletion, and reduce the environmental
pollution. Although harnessing energy from solar and wind energy
are focused by several researchers, utilization of biofuels which can
be derived from variety of biomass sources, is also of great interest
today. This is because of renewable nature, abundant availability
and low CO2 generation of biomass sources. Three biomass based
biofuels are mainly focused as alternative fuels today for IC engines,
which are (i) alcohols (ii) biodiesel and (iii) biogas. Many developed
countries and some of the developing countries use ethanol in the
range of 10e15% in blended form with gasoline, while biodiesel was
used by 5e10% with diesel fuel in vehicles for transport applica-
tions. In this context, production of biodiesel from different edible
* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karpagam
Academy of Higher Education, Karpagam University, Coimbatore 641021, India.
E-mail address: debabrata93@gmail.com (D. Barik).
and non-edible oils has been investigated and reported by several
researchers [1e4]. Biodiesel is biodegradable, nontoxic, environ-
ment friendly and non-explosive [2]. Biodiesel can be used in pure
form or blended with diesel, without any major modification to the
engine and its components [3,4].
Due to the increasing demand of biodiesel, many commercial
biodiesel plants are being installed and in operation worldwide. In
biodiesel plants, after extraction of oil from the oil seed, the de-
oiled seed cake remains as a solid organic waste. The edible de-
oiled cakes are used for manure preparation and cattle feed. The
non-edible de-oiled cakes cannot be used as cattle feed, or can be
used in agrarian farms directly, because of its toxic nature (i.e.,
existence of crucin and saponins). Hence, the non-edible de-oiled
cakes are basically dumped in open land, which emit various
anthropogenic gases, such as methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which cause increase in the
global warming potential (GWP) [5]. Recently, extraction of energy
from such non edible oil cakes through pyrolysis [6e8] and
anaerobic digestion [5,9e11] have been documented. Pyrolysis oil,
gas and char are produced from the pyrolysis process, while biogas

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.12.025
0360-5442/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
128 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138

Nomenclature CA Crank angle, deg

PM Particulate matter
A/F Air/fuel ratio CH4 Methane
HC Hydrocarbon, g/kWh ROPR Rate of pressure rise, bar/
CA
aBDC After bottom dead center CI Compression Ignition
HRR Heat release rate, J/deg.CA RT Retention time
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials CNG Compressed natural gas
HRT Hydraulic retention time, day SI Spark Ignition
aTDC After top dead center CO Carbon monoxide, g/kWh
ID Ignition delay,
CA SOC Start of combustion
bBDC Before bottom dead center CO2 Carbon dioxide, g/kWh
KME Karanja methyl ester TDC Top dead center
BDC Bottom dead center Cp Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK
KO Karanja oil V Instantaneous cylinder volume, m3
BDFM Biodiesel dual fuel mode Cv Specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgK
LHV Lower heating value, MJ/kg VOCs Volatile organic compounds
BG Biogas DAS Data acquisition system
MFB Mass fraction burned g Ratio of the specific heats
BMEP Brake mean effective pressure, bar DFM Dual fuel mode
N2O Nitrous oxide l Excess air ratio
BPR Biogas premix ratio, % DI Direct injection
NDIR Non-dispersive infrared q Crank angle,
CA
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption, kg/kWh EGT Exhaust gas temperature,
C
NH3 Ammonia mpb Mass of premixed biogas
bTDC before top dead center GWP Global warming potential
NO Nitric oxide, g/kWh hcomb Combustion efficiency, %
BTE Brake thermal efficiency, % H2S Hydrogen sulfide
NOx Oxides of nitrogen, g/kWh

is produced by the anaerobic digestion process. Compared to py-
rolysis oil, biogas produces low pollutants and easily transported
when they are used in combustion devices.
The higher octane number of the biogas gives a higher resis-
tance to knock and makes it suitable for engines with a relatively
higher compression ratio in order to maximize the thermal effi-
ciency and reduced smoke-NOx tradeoff level [10,11]. Biogas can be
used as a fuel in CI engines in a dual fuel mode, with a minor
modification to the engine intake manifold [12e14].
Dual fuel operation, with biodiesel or diesel as a pilot fuel, with
gaseous fuels such as methane, propane, compressed natural gas
(CNG), hydrogen, and biogas, as primary fuels was investigated
with the original injection timing and varying the injection timings
by several researchers [15e44]. The ignition delay and peak cylin-
der pressure increased with the advanced pilot injection timing
[17,20,36e38]. The low load performance and BTE of the engine
was improved with advanced injections [30,39,40,43]. But,
advancing injection timing beyond certain injection timing led to
knocking at full and medium load operations [41]. The CO and HC
emissions were found to be reduced [21,30,36,38e40,45]. The NOx
and CO2 emissions were reported to be higher [21,24,27,30,39,40].
The smoke emission was found to be lower in some cases
[23,25,37,43] and higher in others [42]. The particulate matter (PM)
emission was found to increase with a higher advanced injection
[36].
In this study, biogas derived from Karanja seed cake by anaer-
obic digestion process was used as a primary fuel, while biodiesel
obtained from the Karanja oil by transesterification process was
used as a pilot fuel in a direct injection diesel engine, modified to
operate in dual fuel mode. The combustion, performance and
emission characteristics of the engine were analyzed, with varying
the injection timing of the pilot fuel. The results of the investigation
are compared with diesel operation in the same engine and re-
ported in this paper.
2. Methodologies and experimental details
2.1. Test fuels
The production of KME and biogas from Karanja seed by
transesterification and anaerobic digestion respectively are illus-
trated by the block diagram in Fig. 1. The KME was purchased from
Bannari Amman biodiesel industry, Tamil Nadu, India, while biogas
was produced from a floating dome type biogas digester installed at
NIT Rourkela. The transesterification process for obtaining KME has
been documented by several researchers. The biogas production
from Karanja seed by anaerobic digestion has been recently docu-
mented by Barik and Murugan [5].
2.2. Test fuel properties
The important physical properties of diesel and KME are given in
Table 1. The properties of biogas obtained from the mixture of
Karanja de-oiled cake and cattle dung are compared with those of
biogas produced from only cattle dung (100%) and given in Table 2.
A comparison of the gas constituents in biogas were measured with
the help of a non-dispersive infrared biogas analyzer and given in
Table 3.
2.3. Experimental setup
The experimental investigation was carried out at the Internal
Combustion Engines Laboratory of National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, India. Fig. 2 shows the schematic representation of the
 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138 129

Fig. 1. Block for energy extraction from Karanja seed.

experimental setup. Table 4 gives the detail technical specification pressure transducer was connected to a charge amplifier and
of the engine used for the investigation. For loading the engine an mounted on the cylinder head of the engine, and flushed into the
eddy current dynamometer was coupled to the engine. The air clearance volume, to measure the instantaneous cylinder pressure
consumption by the engine was measured with the help of an air and volume with respect to crank angle. A crank angle encoder was
flow meter fitted on the intake air flow duct of the air box. The used to measure the crank angle and TDC position of the piston.
biogas generated in the biogas plant was stored in a biogas storage For a particular cycle, a total of 1200 data points for both cyl-
balloon of capacity 3 m3 (Material: Synthetic rubber, Make: Arjun, inder pressure and volume were recorded at each load. The heat
Dimension: 2.74 m  1.21 m  0.91 m). The stored biogas from the release rate at a particular load was calculated by considering
storage kit was supplied to the engine at pressure of 1.5 bar with twenty cycles. The detailed discussion for the heat release rate
the help of a low pressure compressor. The flow rate of biogas was calculation is provided in Section 3.1.
measured with a gas flow meter. A gas-air mixing kit (multi hole Furthermore, the smoothing of the instantaneous pressure data
type) was connected to the intake manifold of the engine for was done by using the following equation:
ensuring proper air-biogas mixture supply to the engine. The
mixing kit was of cylindrical in design and venturi type. Multiple ½ðPn1 Þ þ 2ðPn Þ þ ðPnþ1 Þ
holes (each diameter 3 mm) were provided to the inner periphery Pn ¼ (1)
4
of the mixing kit. During the suction stroke of the engine the
pressure reduction in the venturi tends to be proportional to the The change of pressure for unit crank angle was determined by
square of the intake air speed and, hence the biogas flushes to the using the equation
intake air stream. The KME and diesel consumption by the engine
was measured with a burette fitted with two optical fuel level dP ½ðPn2 Þ  8ðPn1 Þ þ 8ðPnþ1 Þ  ðPnþ2 Þ
¼ (2)
sensors. The in-cylinder pressure and rate of pressure rise (ROPR) at dq ½12ðDqÞ
every 0.6
crank angle interval was measured with a quartz
For the in-cylinder combustion analysis, the signals from the
piezoelectric pressure transducer (KISTLER, Model: 5395A). The
crank angle encoder and pressure transducer were trapped to the
charge amplifier. A data acquisition system (DAS) was used for
Table 1 collecting the data, and the acquired data stored in the computer
Properties of diesel and KME [11,16]. for analysis. A combustion analyzer kit was used to analyzes heat
Properties Test method, ASTM Diesel KME release rate (HRR), ignition delay (ID), start of combustion (SOC),
mass fraction burned (MFB) inside the cylinder. The engine speed
Density, kg/m3 D4052 830 880
Lower heating value, kJ/kg D4809 43800 40960
was measure with a non-contact type optical sensor mounted near
Auto-ignition temperature,
C E659 210e350 170e320 the flywheel. A total of three K-type thermocouples were installed
Flash point,
C D93 50 230 at various locations for measuring the exhaust gas temperature,
Fire point,
C D93 56 258 inducted air temperature and biogas temperature.
Pour point,
C D97 6 3
The engine exhaust emissions such as CO, HC, NO, CO2, and O2
Carbon residue, % D4530 0.1 0.71
Cetane number D613 50 57.6 were measured with a five-gas analyzer (AVL 444). The ASTM
Carbon, wt% D3178 85.3 65.74 D6522 standard was followed during emission measurement. At
Hydrogen, wt% D3178 13.19 10.04 each module of experiment, during steady state operation of the
Sulphur, wt% D3177 0.3 0.001 engine, the exhaust gas was allowed to surge through the probe,
Oxygen, wt% E385 Nil 24.01
and then filtered and became moisture free by a condensation trap.
130 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138

Table 2
Properties of biogas [10,11].

Properties Test method, ASTM Karanja de-oiled cake þ cattle dung Cattle dung

Lower heating value, MJ/kg D1945 27.53 17.2

Density at 1 atm @ 15
C, kg/m3 D3588 1.2 1.31
Flame speed, m/s D7424 25 21
Stoichiometric A/F, kg of air/kg of fuel D4891 12.17 10.44
Flammability limits, vol% in air D6793 7.5e14 7.5e11.7
Octane number D2699 130 110
Auto-ignition temperature,
C e 600e650 640e670

Table 3
Comparison of gas constituents present in biogas produced from different feed stocks [5,11,16].

Gas constituents Karanja de-oiled cake þ cattle dung, % vol Cattle dung, % vol Jatropha curcas, % vol Municipal solid waste, % vol [43]

CO2 17.37 25e30 20e30 20e40

O2 1.5 0e3 1e2 <1
CnH2nþ2 Nil e e <1
CO Nil e e e
H2 1.4 0e1 0e1 e
CH4 73 50e70 60e68 40e60
N2 6.5 0e10 1e15 2e20
H2S 0.23 0e3 0e2 40-100 ppm

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the experimental setup. 1 engine, 2 intake manifold, 3 fuel injector, 4 pressure transducer, 5 biogas-air mixing kit, 6 air box, 7 air flow meter, 8
air intake, 9 biogas intake, 10 biogas filter, 11 biogas flow meter, 12 solenoid valve, 13 low fuel level optical sensor, 14 high fuel level optical sensor, 15 burette, 16 fuel tank, 17 exhaust
gas sensor, 18 exhaust manifold, 19 smoke meter, 20 exhaust gas analyzer, 21 crank angle encoder, 22 coupling, 23 speed sensor, 24 dynamometer, 25 resistive load cell, 26 control
panel, 27 data acquisition system, 28 computer.

The moisture free dry exhaust gas was passed to the NDIR (Non-
dispersive infrared) sensor for CO, HC and CO2 measurement. The
NO emission was measured with the help of an electro chemical
sensor. The intensity of smoke emission was measured with the
help of a diesel smoke meter (AVL 437C).
2.4. Experimental design
The engine was first run up to the warmed up condition in order
to ensure the steady state operation. After achieving the steady
state, the base line data for diesel and KME were collected. Then the
engine was operated in dual fuel mode with KME as pilot fuel and
biogas as inducted fuel, with the variation in injection timing of the
pilot fuel. In dual fuel mode, the biogas flow rate was kept constant
at 0.9 kg/h, which was found to be optimum from the previous
investigation by the authors [16]. During the investigation the flow
rate of pilot fuel was controlled and governed by the governor ac-
cording to the variation in load and speed of the engine. The in-
jection timing of the pilot fuel was varied by changing the thickness
of the shims used in the fuel pump. Each shim had thickness
0.3 mm, by adding and removing one shim, the injection timing
was retarded and advanced by 1.5
CA respectively. For the diesel
 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138 131

Table 4
Test engine specification.

1=2
UR ¼ B2R þ P2R (3)
Make/model Kirloskar TAF 1
Engine type Single cylinder, four stroke, CI,
naturally aspirated UR is the uncertainty of the physical parameter considering 5%
Injection type Direct significance [17]. BR and PR are the systematic and random un-
Brake power, kW 4.4 certainties respectively.
Rated speed, rpm 1500
" #1=2
Xn 1 vR 2
Cooling system Air
Displacement volume, cm3 662 (stroke 11 cm, bore 8.75 cm) BR
Burning clearance, mm 1.1e1.2
¼ i¼1 R vX i
B (4)
R i
Injection nozzle hole 3-hole
Nozzle opening pressure, bar 200
" #1=2
Xn  1 vR 2
Injection timing,
CA bTDC 23
Compression ratio 17.5 PR
¼ i¼1 R vX i
P (5)
Inlet valve open,
CA bTDC 4.5 R i
Inlet valve close,
CA aBDC 35.5
Exhaust valve open,
CA bBDC 35.5
Exhaust valve close,
CA aTDC 4.5 in the equation cited, R is the physical parameter that depends on
the variable Xi . The symbols PR and Pi denote the uncertainty in R
and the measurement level, respectively. For the uncertainty
analysis 20 sets of observation have been taken in the same engine
Table 5
Experimental test conditions.
and same operating condition, and as a result, the maximum un-
certainty of the instruments obtained was ±2.20%.
Test fuels Diesel, KME, KME þ biogas By conducting the repeatability of the experiments the uncer-
Engine speed, rpm 1500 (constant)
Ambient air temperature,
C 35
tainty for the parameters such as BTE, BSFC, EGT, HC, CO, NO and
Intake biogas temperature,
C 28 smoke opacity was calculated. The total uncertainty percentage for
Biogas induction pressure, bar 1.5 the experiment was calculated as, ½ðBTEÞ2 þ ðBSFCÞ2 þ ðEGTÞ2 þ
Biogas þ air induction timing 4.5
CA bTDC to 35.5
CA aBDC during suction ðHCÞ2 þ ðCOÞ2 þ ðNOÞ2 þ ðsmokeÞ2 1=2 ¼ ½ð0:5Þ2 þ ð0:5Þ2 þ ð0:15Þ2
Pilot fuel injection pressure, bar 200
þð0:5Þ2 þ ð0:03Þ2 þ ð1Þ2 þ ð1Þ2 1=2 ¼ ±1:66%.
Engine load variation, % 0, 25, 50, 75, 100

2.6. Premix ratio and combustion efficiency

and KME operations, the injection timing was set at 23
CA bTDC. In
dual fuel operation, the injection timing was varied from 21.5
CA
bTDC to 27.5
CA bTDC in a regular interval of 1.5
CA. During
experimentation, the engine was loaded from 0% load (no load) to
100% load (full load) in steps of 25%. The experimental test condi-
tions are given in Table 5. In the diesel, KME and KME-biogas op-
erations, the engine was set to run at a constant speed of 1500 rpm,
at an injection pressure of 200 bar with a standard compression
ratio of 17.5:1. The mass of pilot fuel consumption was regulated by
the conventional governor control mechanism, according to the
variation in load, speed and supply of primary fuel. The test matrix
and the acronyms used for diesel, KME and KME-biogas dual fuel
operation are given in Table 6.
2.5. Uncertainty analysis and instrument details
Uncertainty is the means for measuring the error of a result or
an instrument. Without such measure it is impossible to judge the
fitness value. To estimate the bounds on the accuracy of an esti-
mated parameter, the uncertainty analysis is highly recommended.
The evaluation of uncertainty from some known physical value can
be obtained by using the formula described by Coleman et al. [46].
Table 7 lists the uncertainties of the instruments used in the pre-
sent investigation.
The percentage of premixed fuel is defined as the energy ratio of
premixed biogas to the total energy ratio of biogas þ KME.
mpb  LHVpb Q Premix biogas
½BPRdual fuel ¼ ¼ (6)
mpb  LHVpb þ mKME  CVKME Q Total
where, ½BPRdual fuel is the biogas premixed ratio, mpb is the mass of
premixed biogas (kg/h), mKME is the mass of KME (kg/h), LHVpb is
the lower heating value of the premixed biogas (kJ/kg), and LHVKME
is the lower heating value of KME (kJ/kg). Table 8 gives the biogas
premixed ratio for different experimental modules.
In the dual fuel operation, the biogas premix ratio greatly affects
the combustion efficiency and pollutant emissions, because, under
fuel-rich operating conditions the deficiency of oxygen results in a
more incomplete combustion, and a fraction of the fuel's chemical
energy is not released during the combustion process. In the diesel
operation, the combustion efficiency is generally in the range of
98e99% [11,47].
In the dual fuel operation, the premixed primary fuel (biogas)
is inducted and that takes part in the combustion. This premixed
fuel affects the combustion efficiency at relatively low and part
load operations. The combustion efficiency of the dual fuel
operation is defined as the ratio between the accumulated heat

Table 6
Test matrix and acronyms used for diesel, KME and KME-biogas dual fuel operation.

Mode Fuel used CR IT,
CA bTDC Acronyms used

Diesel Diesel 17.5 23.0 Diesel

Biodiesel KME 17.5 23.0 KME
Biodiesel þ biogas dual fuel KME þ biogas (0.9 kg/h) 17.5 21.5 BDFM21.5
Biodiesel þ biogas dual fuel KME þ biogas(0.9 kg/h) 17.5 23.0 BDFM23.0
Biodiesel þ biogas dual fuel KME þ biogas(0.9 kg/h) 17.5 24.5 BDFM24.5
Biodiesel þ biogas dual fuel KME þ biogas(0.9 kg/h) 17.5 26.0 BDFM26.0
Biodiesel þ biogas dual fuel KME þ biogas(0.9 kg/h) 17.5 27.5 BDFM27.5
132 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138

Table 7
Range, accuracy, and uncertainty of the instruments used [10].

Instruments used Parameter measured with units Range Accuracy Uncertainty, %

Load cell Engine load, watt 250e6000 ±10 ±0.2

Thermocouple Temperature,
C 0e900 ±1 ±0.15
Burette Fuel consumption, cm3 1e30 ±0.2 ±0.5
Air flow meter Air consumption, m3/min 0.5e50 ±0.1 ±0.5
Biogas flow meter Biogas consumption, m3/min 0.1e25 ±0.1 ±0.02
Speed sensor Engine speed, rpm 0-10,000 ±10 ±1
Charge amplifier Amplifies input voltage, volt e ±1% ±0.1
Pressure transducer In-cylinder pressure, bar 0e110 ±0.1 ±0.15
Crank angle encoder Crank position,
CA 0e720 ±0.6 ±0.01
Data acquisition system Converts signal to digital values, bit 16 ±0.1 ±0.001
Smoke meter Smoke opacity, % 0e100 ±1 ±1
Exhaust gas analyzer Exhaust emission
NO, ppm NO: 0e5000 ±50 ±1
HC, ppm HC: 0e20,000 ±10 ±0.5
CO, % CO: 0-10 ±0.03 ±0.03
Over all uncertainty e e ±2.201

Table 8
Biogas premixed ratio for different experimental modules.

Mode of Load, Brake BMEP, Mass of pilot Mass of biogas, Energy equivalent of pilot Energy equivalent of Pilot fuel energy Biogas premixed
operation % power, kW bar fuel, kg/h kg/h fuel, kW biogas, kW share, % ratio, %

Diesel 0 0 0 0.484 e 5.88 e 100 e

25 1.14 1.37 0.613 e 7.46 e 100 e
50 2.36 2.97 0.796 e 9.68 e 100 e
75 3.54 4.55 1.033 e 12.5 e 100 e
100 4.38 5.63 1.186 e 14.4 e 100 e
KME 0 0 0 0.482 e 5.49 e 100 e
25 1.14 1.37 0.715 e 8.14 e 100 e
50 2.36 2.97 0.896 e 10.1 e 100 e
75 3.54 4.55 1.155 e 13.1 e 100 e
100 4.38 5.63 1.373 e 15.6 e 100 e
BDFM21.5 0 0 0 0.196 0.9 2.23 6.88 24.4 75.7
25 1.14 1.37 0.312 0.9 3.55 6.88 34.0 65.9
50 2.36 2.97 0.628 0.9 7.14 6.88 50.9 49.0
75 3.54 4.55 0.986 0.9 11.2 6.88 61.9 38.0
100 4.38 5.63 0.981 0.9 11.1 6.88 61.8 38.1
BDFM23.0 0 0 0 0.210 0.9 2.39 6.88 25.8 74.1
25 1.14 1.37 0.233 0.9 2.66 6.88 27.8 72.1
50 2.36 2.97 0.550 0.9 6.25 6.88 47.6 52.3
75 3.54 4.55 0.835 0.9 9.50 6.88 57.9 42.0
100 4.38 5.63 0.894 0.9 10.1 6.88 59.6 40.3
BDFM24.5 0 0 0 0.190 0.9 2.16 6.88 23.9 76.0
25 1.14 1.37 0.202 0.9 2.29 6.88 25.0 74.9
50 2.36 2.97 0.443 0.9 5.04 6.88 42.3 57.6
75 3.54 4.55 0.656 0.9 7.46 6.88 52.0 47.9
100 4.38 5.63 0.800 0.9 9.11 6.88 56.9 43.0
BDFM26.0 0 0 0 0.152 0.9 1.73 6.88 20.1 79.8
25 1.14 1.37 0.182 0.9 2.08 6.88 23.2 76.7
50 2.36 2.97 0.394 0.9 4.48 6.88 39.4 60.5
75 3.54 4.55 0.677 0.9 7.70 6.88 52.8 47.1
100 4.38 5.63 0.832 0.9 9.47 6.88 57.9 42.0
BDFM27.5 0 0 0 0.157 0.9 1.79 6.88 20.7 79.2
25 1.14 1.37 0.190 0.9 2.16 6.88 23.9 76.0
50 2.36 2.97 0.412 0.9 4.69 6.88 40.5 59.4
75 3.54 4.55 0.712 0.9 8.10 6.88 54.0 45.9
100 4.38 5.63 0.868 0.9 9.88 6.88 58.9 41.0

release and the gross heat supplied by the total fuel. However, the
2 3
gross total heat released in the cylinder is hard to measure P
accurately in practice. So, the combustion efficiency is calculated 6 i ei LHVi 7
hcomb ¼ 41   5  100 (7)
from the exhaust components like CO, H2 and HC. The higher ðmpb $LHVpb þmKME $LHVKME Þ
amounts of these species reflect the combustion efficiency ðmair þmpb $LHVpb þmKME $LHVKME Þ
[11,48]. The combustion efficiency in a dual fuel diesel engine can
be quantified as follows: where, hcomb is the combustion efficiency (%). ei is the mass fraction
of HC, CO, H2 and particulates in the exhaust gas (kg). LHVi is the
lower heating value of each exhaust components (kJ/kg). The
 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138 133

Table 9
Effects of BPR on l for the dual fuel operations at different injection timings.

Operation Biogas quantity, kg/h l Biogas premix ratio,%

Load

Idling 100% Idling 25% 50% 75% 100%

Diesel e 4.27 1.72 e e e e e

KME e 4.41 1.41 e e e e e
BDFM21.5 0.9 1.13 0.63 75.7 65.9 49.0 38.0 38.1
BDFM23.0 0.9 1.07 0.59 74.1 72.1 52.3 42.0 40.3
BDFM24.5 0.9 1.06 0.58 76.0 74.9 57.6 47.9 43.0
BDFM26.0 0.9 1.03 0.57 79.8 76.7 60.5 47.1 42.0
BDFM27.5 0.9 1.01 0.55 79.2 76.0 59.4 45.9 41.0

fraction of H2 can be calculated from the combustion reaction ki-

netics. The particulates are not considered, because of the very low
emission from dual fuel engines.

2.7. Calculation of excess air ratio

For an in-depth analysis of dual fuel operation, the excess air

ratio (l) was calculated from the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. The
excess air ratio, l equals the air-fuel ratio over the stoichiometric
ratio. The expression for the excess air ratio in dual fuel operation
was calculated from the following correlation [16].

m_ air
ldual ¼ h i h i
A
F biogas stoic $m_ biogas þ A
F KME stoic $mKME
_
h  i h  i
Where, A and A are the stoichiometric
F F
biogas stoic KME stoic
air-fuel ratios of biogas and KME respectively. The l for dual fuel
operation was in the range of 1.13 to 0.55, from no load to full load.
The effect of BPR on l in the dual fuel operation with different in-
jection timings is given in Table 9.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Combustion analysis
3.1.1. Cylinder pressure
The analysis of cylinder pressure is an important parameter to
diagnose the combustion characteristics of the engine because
cylinder pressure history directly influence the performance and
exhaust emissions. Fig. 3 portrays the variation of cylinder pressure
with the crank angle at full load, for the diesel, KME and BDFM
operations with the advanced and retarded injection timings.
It can be observed that, the peak cylinder pressure for the diesel
and KME operations are about 75.7 bar and 71.33 bar, which occur
at 7.41 and 6.83
CA aTDC respectively. For BDFM21.5, BDFM23.0,
BDFM24.5, BDFM26 and BDFM27.5, the peak cylinder pressure was
about 67.8 bar, 73 bar, 78 bar, 82.6 bar and 87.6 bar, occur at
9.24
CA aTDC, 8.18
CA aTDC, 6.26
CA aTDC, 4.77
CA aTDC and
3.17
CA aTDC respectively. The BDFM23.0 gives a higher cylinder
pressure than that of KME at full load. This is due to the supply of
biogas with the intake-air charge brings about a decrease in oxygen
concentration, and higher auto-ignition property of biogas, may
cause ignition delay to extend, leading to a higher rate of increase in
pressure in the premixed combustion stage [11,16,49]. It is also
observed that, the peak cylinder pressure increases with the
advanced injection of KME in the dual fuel operation. This is due to
the formation of a fuel rich zone inside the combustion chamber.
With the advanced injections, the combustion takes place in the
earlier crank angles in the cycle, and more rapid burning takes place
in the premixed phase of combustion. Hence, maximum amount of
fuel burns before TDC and the pack cylinder pressure moves closer
(8)
Fig. 3. Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle at full load.
to TDC [11,20,50].
3.1.2. Heat release rate
The heat release rate at each crank angle for the diesel, KME and
dual fuel operations were calculated using the following correlation
derived from the first law analysis, and is given below.
    
dQ n g dV 1 dP
¼ P þ V þ Q_ LW (9)
dq g  1 dq g  1 dq
where dQ dq
n
the heat release rate (J/
CA), P is the instantaneous cyl-
inder pressure (N/m2), V is the instantaneous cylinder volume (m3),
q is the crank angle (
CA), and g is the ratio of the specific heats,
Cp/Cv (kJ/kgK). g is a function of temperature and influences the
magnitude of dQ dq
n
and Q_ LW . The existence of CO2 in biogas lowers
the value of g. But a typical range 1.3e1.35 for the value of g did not
affect the dQdq
n
and Q_ LW . For this investigation, a constant value of
g ¼ 1.35 is considered. The wall heat transfer loss (Q_ LW ) and the
blow by losses are not considered in this study to calculate the heat
release rate inside the cylinder.
Fig. 4 portrays the variation of heat release rate with crank angle
at full load for the diesel, KME and BDFM operations with the
advanced and retarded injection timings. It can be observed from
the figure that, the maximum heat release rate of 56.5 J/
CA is
noticed in the diesel operation at 8.91
CA aTDC. This is due to the
higher energy density of diesel [19]. The dual fuel operation with
the advanced injection timings gives an increase in the heat release
rate than that of BDFM23.0. This is due to the accumulation of
biogas during the relatively longer delay period, which gives the
combined combustion effect of KME and methane in biogas in the
vicinity of combustion and ignition centers of the pilot fuel, and
extends the flammability zone of the charge [51,52]. Also, the
occurrence of heat release rate for BDFM 24.5, BDFM 26.0 and
134 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138

Fig. 5. Variation of ignition delay with the variation in load and injection timing.

Fig. 4. Variation in heat release rate with crank angle at full load. the increase in load for all the test fuels. This is due to the con-
sumption of more quantity of fuel at relatively higher loads. In
diesel and KME operation, the combustion duration is found to be
BDFM 27.5 is earlier than that of BDFM 21.5 and BDFM 23.0. This about 37.4
CA and 39.3
CA respectively, at full load. For BDFM23.0,
may be due to the advanced injection of KME which gives a full the combustion duration is found to be about 40.8
CA, at full load.
spray and higher injection quantity. Hence, the combustion starts The reason for the increase in combustion duration for the
earlier with respect to TDC and maximum percentage of fuel burns BDFM23.0 than that of KME is due to the slower rate of burning of
in the premixed phase giving more energy [15,20]. The heat release biogas-KME mixture. For BDFM24.5 the combustion duration de-
rate for KME is 52.47 J/
CA, which occurred at 6.83
CA aTDC, creases, but while advancing the injection timing to 26
CA and
whereas for BDFM21.5, BDFM23.0, BDFM24.5, BDFM26.0, and 27.5
CA, the combustion duration increases, which may be
BDFM27.5 the values were about 50.4 J/
CA, 53.2 J/
CA, 54.3 J/
CA, attributed to the suppression of the charge due to the induction of
54.8 J/
CA, and 55.4 J/
CA, which occurred at 9.18
CA aTDC, biogas and lower temperature of the compressed air at too much
8.18
CA aTDC, 5.07
CA aTDC, 3.57
CA aTDC, and 2.57
CA aTDC advanced injections [50]. Another reason for this may be the
respectively. inducted biogas, which contains CO2 in it, and alters the properties
of the compressed charge, reduces the oxygen concentration, and
3.1.3. Ignition delay causes slower diffusion combustion and prolongs the duration of
The ignition delay is a time period measured in degree crank combustion [49]. At lower load, with too much advance injection of
angle between the start of injection and start of combustion of fuel. BDFM27.5, the in-cylinder charge temperature is low, and the flame
The variation of ignition delay with the load for the diesel, KME and front cannot propagate fast enough and far enough to consume the
BDFM operations with the advanced and retarded injection timings entire mixture within the time period available, leading to longer
is depicted in Fig. 5. combustion duration [49].
It is observed that KME exhibits a shorter ignition delay than
that of diesel and dual fuel operations throughout the load spec-
3.2. Performance analysis
trum. This is due to the higher cetane number of KME and the
existence of oxygen in the fuel. The ignition delay in the dual fuel
3.2.1. Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
operation of BDFM23.0 is longer than that of KME. This is due to the
Fig. 7 portrays the variation in brake specific fuel consumption
induction of biogas through the intake manifold replaces the fresh
with load for the diesel, KME and BDFM operations with the
air supply, which reduces the oxygen concentration in the charge
advanced and retarded injection timings.
and effects the pre-ignition of KME-biogas mixture, leading to
It can be observed from the figure that, the BSFC decreases with
delayed in ignition [17,30]. It can also be observed that the ignition
increase in load for all the test fuels because, as the load of the
delay in the dual fuel operation decreases with the retarded in-
engine increases the combustion quality and efficiency increases.
jection timing due to the high in-cylinder pressure and tempera-
ture [53]. In dual fuel operation, the ignition delay was found to be
longer with the advanced injection of pilot fuel. This may be due to
the low in cylinder temperature at early injections that delayed the
pilot ignition [17]. At full load, a shorter ignition delay is noticed
than that of no load, for all the test fuels, due to the higher cylinder
temperature at full load. The ignition delay for diesel and KME are
found to be 11.5
CA and 10.5
CA, whereas BDFM21.5, BDFM23.0,
BDFM24.5, BDFM26.0 and BDFM27.5 exhibit a longer ignition delay
of 10.9
CA, 11.3
CA, 11.9
CA, 12.5
CA, and 12.8
CA at full load
respectively.

3.1.4. Combustion duration

The variation of combustion duration with the load for the
diesel, KME and BDFM operations with the advanced and retarded
injection timings is shown in Fig. 6.
It can be observed that, the combustion duration increases with Fig. 6. Variation of combustion duration with the variation in load.
 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138 135

40
1.2
Diesel KME
Diesel KME BDFM21.5 35
BDFM21.5 BDFM23.0
1 BDFM23.0 BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0 BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0
30
BDFM27.5
BDFM27.5

BTE [%]
BSFC [kg/kWh]

0.8 25

20
0.6
15
0.4
10

0.2 5

0
0
25 50 75 100 25 50 75 100
Engine load [%]
Engine load [%]

Fig. 8. Variation of BTE with load.

Fig. 7. Variation in brake specific fuel consumption with the variation in load and
injection timing.

3.2.3. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)

The BSFC in dual fuel operations, at low and intermediate load
conditions, is considerably higher in comparison to those of diesel
and KME operation. This may be due to the slower premixed
controlled combustion during the initial stages of combustion at
low load [11,39]. The dual fuel operation, with the advanced in-
jections, the use of large quantity of pilot fuel leads to a total higher
heat release during the controlled premixed combustion. This in-
creases the cylinder charge temperature and biogas achieves its
ignition temperature, and affects the rate of combustion of biogas
in the second phase of combustion (diffusion combustion) [12,39].
Moreover, for each pilot fuel amount, BDFM24.5 leads to a gradual
decrease in BSFC, in comparison to that of BDFM23.0 throughout
the load spectrum. The difference between the BSFC for BDFM23.0
and BDFM24.5, BDFM26.0 and BDFM27.5 is not significantly
different at full load, because at full load the fuel-energy conversion
efficiency is relatively similar and less energy from fuel is required
at full load compared to low load, due to increased cylinder tem-
perature at full load [38]. The BSFC for diesel and KME are about
0.27 kg/kWh and 0.31 kg/kWh respectively at full load. The BSFC for
BDFM21.5, BDFM23.0, BDFM24.5, BDFM26.0 and BDFM27.5 is
found to be higher by about 35.4%, 29%, 22.5%, 25.8%, and 29%
respectively, than that of KME at full load. The details on the
amount of pilot fuel saving is given in Table 8.
The variation of exhaust gas temperature with the load for the
diesel, KME and BDFM operations with the advanced and retarded
injection timings is illustrated in Fig. 9. The KME operation gives the
highest exhaust gas temperature than that of diesel and dual fuel
operations throughout the load spectrum. The presence of oxygen
in the ester molecules enhances the combustion process, and re-
sults in a higher exhaust gas temperature. The dual fuel operation
gives a lower exhaust gas temperature than that of diesel and KME
operation. This may be due to the presence of biogas in the fuel-air
mixture, absorbs the heat from the compressed charge to auto
ignite during the combustion process, and decreases the local
adiabatic flame temperature [38]. Another reason for the drop in
the EGT may be the dilution of CO2 (about 17%) in biogas. With the
advanced injection timing the exhaust gas temperature increases.
This may be due to the effect of advanced injection, which gives a
longer spray of KME, which enhances the rate of combustion, and
gives a higher cylinder temperature [18]. The EGT for diesel and
KME are found to be 331.8
C and 355.8
C, whereas the EGT for
BDFM21.5, BDFM23.0, BDFM24.5, BDFM26, and BDFM27.5 are
found to be lower by about 21.2%, 17%, 12.7%, 10%, and 9.3%
respectively, than that of KME at full load.
3.3. Emission analysis

3.3.1. Carbon monoxide (CO) emission

3.2.2. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
The variation in brake thermal efficiency for diesel, KME and the
KME-biogas dual fuel mode for different injection timings is
depected in Fig. 8. Diesel gives the highest BTE through out the load
sprectrum than that of KME and KME-biogas dual fuel opeartion
with different injection timings. This may be due to the higher
energy density of diesel than those of KME and KME-biogas oper-
The variation of CO emission with the load is illustrated in
Fig. 10. In general, the CO emission is formed due to the incomplete
combustion of the fuel. The CO emission for KME is considerably
lower than that of diesel throughout the load spectrum. This is due
to the presence of oxygen in KME, gives complete oxidation of CO,
400
Diesel KME
350
Exhaust gas temperature [oC]

BDFM21.5 BDFM23.0
ation. The BTE for the test fuels increases with the increase in load. 300 BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0
This is obvious due to the increased cylinder temperature at rela- BDFM27.5
tively higher loads [49,54]. The BTE for diesel and KME operations is 250
about 30.3% and 28% at full load. Whereas, for BDFM23.0 the BTE is 200
about 25.6%. A drop in BTE of 2.4 is observed for BDFM23.0 in
150
comparision with the KME operation. This drop in BTE may be
attributed to the incomplete combustion of KME-biogas mixture, 100
due to drop in the volumetric efficiency, caused by the induction of 50
biogas through the intake manifold [17,30]. It can be observed from
Fig. 8 that, BDFM24.5 gives BTE of 27.3%, which is 3.1%, 1.7%, 0.6% 0
0 25 50 75 100
and 1.2% higher than that of BDFM21.5, BDFM23.0, BDFM26.0, and Engine load [%]
BDFM27.0 respectively at full load. BDFM24.5 gives a higher BTE of
1.7% than that of BDFM23.0 at full load. Fig. 9. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with the variation in load.
136 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138

0.06 It can be observed that KME gives a lower HC emission than that
Diesel KME of diesel and dual fuel operations with injection timings. This is due
0.05 BDFM21.5 BDFM23.0 to the existence of oxygen in the KME gives a complete combustion
BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0
CO emission [g/kWh]

BDFM27.5
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
25 50 75
Engine load [%]
Fig. 10. Variation of CO emissions with load.
hence CO reduces [55]. In dual fuel operation with the variation in
injection timing the CO emission is marginally higher than that of
KME, throughout the load spectrum. This is due to the existence of
flame extinction region and the incomplete oxidation of premixed
biogas in dual fuel mode. The reason for the incomplete oxidation is
due to the dilution of the charge with the CO2 in biogas. Hence, the
flame is suppressed in the ignition region of the pilot fuel, and does
not proceed until the biogas-air mixture reaches its auto-ignition
temperature [36]. It is observed that the CO emission is higher at
part load operations. This is due to the formation of lean fuel-air
mixture in the adjacent zone of the injection spray, in which the
flame struggles to propagate, and the local temperature falls, which
reduces the oxidation reaction, and results a higher CO emission at
part load operation. The CO emission decreases with the increase in
load. This is attributed to the higher cylinder gas temperature
boosts the rate of combustion [54e56]. BDFM24.5 gives a lower CO
emission than that of other injection timing cases. This is because;
advancing the injection timing gives a higher cylinder temperature,
and enhances the oxidation between carbon and oxygen. But,
advancing the injection timing to 26.0
CA and 27.5
CA, the igni-
tion is delayed (as demonstrated in Fig. 5), allowing less time to the
fuel for oxidation, and gives a higher CO emission [11,17]. The
BDFM24.5 operation gives a lower CO emission of 17.1% than that of
BDFM23.0 at full load.
3.3.2. Hydrocarbon (HC) emission
The variation of HC emission with the load for the diesel, KME
and BDFM operations with the advanced and retarded injection
timings is depicted in Fig. 11.
[23]. The HC emission decreases with increase in load for all the test
fuel cases. This may be due to increase in ignition energy, improved
pilot fuel spray atomization, increase in turbulence intensity,
increased heat transfer to air fuel mixture, and increase in number
of ignition centers in the combustion chamber of the cylinder
[36,49]. The KME-biogas dual fuel operation with different injec-
tion timing gives a higher HC emission than that of KME. This may
be due to the induction of biogas through the intake manifold, re-
duces the volume of the inducted air, and forms a fuel rich mixture
100
zone, increases the partial burning with less oxygen [39,57].
BDFM23.0 operation gives 62% higher HC emission than that of
KME at full load. But with the advanced injection timing in dual fuel
operation the HC emission decreased. BDFM24.5 gives 18.2% lower
HC emission than that of BDFM23.0, at full load. This reduction in
HC emission with the advanced injection timing is due to the earlier
start of combustion relative to TDC, hence the cylinder charge
temperature becomes higher and a smoother combustion of the
KME-biogas mixture gives lower HC emission [29].
3.3.3. Nitric oxide (NO) emission
The variation in NO emission with the load for the diesel, KME
and BDFM operations with the advanced and retarded injection
timings is illustrated in Fig. 12.
It can be observed that the NO emission for KME is higher than
that of diesel through the load spectrum. This is due to the higher
oxygen concentration in KME [58]. The concentration of NO emis-
sion in the dual fuel operation is considerably lower than that of
KME. This may be due to the presence of CO2 in biogas, dilutes the
charge and lowers the cycle temperature significantly, and thereby
the NO emission is suppressed [59,60]. Another possible reason can
aid to this is the drop in volumetric efficiency in dual fuel operation.
The BDFM23.0 gives a lower NO emission of 26.3% than that of KME
at full load. With the advanced injections in the dual fuel operation
the NO emission increases steeply. The BDFM24.5, BDFM26.0 and
BDFM27.5 exhibit a higher NO emission of 5.5%, 9.9% and 14.3% than
that of BDFM23.0 at full load, but BDFM24.5, BDFM26.0 and
BDFM27.5 gives 22.2%, 19% and 15.7% lower NO emission than that
of KME, at full load. This increase in NO emission in the dual fuel
operation with advanced injection timing is due to the advanced
injection, increases the peak cylinder pressure and temperature,
because more fuel burns close to the TDC [20,59].
3.3.4. Smoke emission
Fig. 13 portrays the variation of smoke emission with the load for

0.1 7
Diesel KME BDFM21.5 BDFM23.0 Diesel KME BDFM21.5
6 BDFM23.0 BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0
0.08 BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0 BDFM27.5
HC emission [g/kWh]

BDFM27.5
NO emission [g/kWh]

5
0.06
4

0.04 3

2
0.02
1

0 0
25 50 75 100 25 50 75 100
Engine load [%] Engine load [%]

Fig. 11. Variation in HC emission with the variation in load. Fig. 12. Variations in NO emission with the variation in load and injection timing.

30
Diesel KME
25 BDFM21.5 BDFM23.0
BDFM24.5 BDFM26.0
Smoke opacity [%]
20 BDFM27.5
15
10
5 oiled seed cake of karanja - an organic industrial waste from biodiesel in-
0 from pyrolysis of Pongamia glabra deoiled cake. Bioresour Technol 2014;165:
0 25 50
Engine load [%]
Fig. 13. Variation of smoke emission with load.
the diesel, KME and BDFM operations with the advanced and
retarded injection timings.
It can be observed from the figure that, KME gives a lower smoke
emission than that of diesel throughout the load spectrum. This is
due to the lower stoichiometric air requirement for KME, because of
available oxygen in it [23]. BDFM23.0 exhibits a lower smoke
emission of 12.5% than that of KME at full load. This may be
attributed to the flame temperature reduction, due to the available
CO2 in biogas [16]. Another reason may be the presence of methane
in biogas, as the main constituent, that is the lower member in the
paraffin family, and have a very small tendency to produce soot
[18,43]. It is also observed that with the advanced injection timing
in dual fuel operation the smoke emission decreases. It is apparent
that the BDFM24.5 operation gives a lower smoke emission of 2.1%,
than that of BDFM23.0 at full load.
4. Conclusions
The conclusions of the results obtained from the investigation
are as follows:
▪ BDFM24.5 gave an optimum result for combustion, performance
and emission characteristics, than those of other injection
timing cases.
▪ The BSFC for BDFM24.5 is found to be higher by about 23.9%
than that of KME, but it is 5.1% lower than that of BDFM23.0, at
full load.
▪ About 6.6% increase in BTE was observed for BDFM24.5 in
comparison with the BDFM23.0, at full load.
▪ BDFM24.5 gives a reduction in CO, HC and smoke emission of
17.1%, 18.2% and 2.1%, in comparison with BDFM23.0, at full load,
respectively.
▪ The NO emission for BDFM24.5 was higher by about 5.5% than
that of BDFM23.0, at full load.
The biogas produced from the mixed inoculums of Karanja de-
oiled cake and cattle dung, seems to be potentially usable in a DI
diesel engine in dual fuel mode, for heat and power generation. The
adoption of this dual fuel technology will boost the proportion of
the farms renewable energy usage, and can reduce the KME pro-
duction cost. It is a promising technique for on farm electricity
generation. Also, the disposal problem of the huge amount of toxic
de-oiled seed cake, obtained from the biodiesel production plants,
can be eliminated effectively.
References
[1] Hassan SN, Sani YM, Abdul Aziz AR, Sulaiman NMN, Daud WMAW.
D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138 137
Biogasoline: an out-of-the-box solution to the food-for-fuel and land-use
competitions. Energy Convers Manag 2015;89:349e67.
[2] Rahman SMA, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Abedin MJ, Sanjid A, Rahman MM.
Assessing idling effects on a compression ignition engine fueled with Jatropha
and Palm biodiesel blends. Renew Energy 2014;68:644e50.
[3] Jayed M, Masjuki H, Saidur R, Kalam M, Jahirul M. Environmental aspects and
challenges of oilseed produced biodiesel in Southeast Asia. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2009;13:2452e62.
[4] Lu X, Ji L, Ma J, Huang Z. Improved NOx and smoke emission characteristics of
a biodiesel-fueled engine with the port fuel injection of various premixed
fuels. Energy Fuels 2008;22:3798e805.
[5] Barik D, Murugan S. Assessment of sustainable biogas production from de-
dustries. Fuel 2015;148:25e31.
[6] Chutia RS, Kataki R, Bhaskar T. Characterization of liquid and solid product
75 100 336e42.
[7] Prasad L, Subbarao PMV, Subrahmanyam JP. Pyrolysis and gasification char-
acteristics of Pongamia residue (de-oiled cake) using thermogravimetry and
downdraft gasifier. Appl Therm Eng 2014;63:379e86.
[8] Kumar D, Pant KK. Production and characterization of biocrude and biochar
obtained from non-edible de-oiled seed cakes hydrothermal conversion.
J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2015.06.014.
[9] Barik D, Murugan S. Effects of diethyl ether (DEE) injection on combustion
performance and emission characteristics of Karanja methyl ester (KME)-
biogas fueled dual fuel diesel engine. Fuel 2016;164:286e96.
[10] Barik D, Murugan S. Investigation on combustion performance and emission
characteristics of a DI (direct injection) diesel engine fueled with biogas-diesel
in dual fuel mode. Energy 2014;72:760e71.
[11] Barik D, Murugan S. Experimental investigation on the behavior of a DI diesel
engine fueled with raw biogas-diesel dual fuel at different injection timing.
J Energy Inst 2016;89:373e88.
[12] Bari S. Effect of carbon dioxide on the performance of biogas/diesel dual-fuel
engine. Renew Energy 1996;9:1007e10.
[13] Bora BJ, Saha UK, Chatterjee S, Veer V. Effect of compression ratio on per-
formance, combustion and emission characteristics of a dual fuel diesel en-
gine run on raw biogas. Energy Convers Manag 2014;87:1000e9.
[14] Bedoya ID, Saxena S, Cadavid FJ, Dibble RJ. Exploring strategies for reducing
high intake temperature requirements and allowing optimal operational
conditions in a biogas fueled HCCI Engine for power generation. ASME J Eng
Gas Turb Power 2012;134:1e9.
[15] Bora BJ, Saha UK. Improving the performance of a biogas powered dual fuel
diesel engine using emulsified rice bran biodiesel as pilot fuel through
adjustment of compression ratio and injection timing. ASME J Eng Gas Turb
Power 2015;137:1e14.
[16] Barik D, Murugan S. Simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke in a dual fuel
DI diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 2014;84:217e26.
[17] Kyunghyun R. Effects of pilot injection timing on the combustion and emis-
sions characteristics in a diesel engine using biodiesel-CNG dual fuel. Appl
Energy 2013;111:721e30.
[18] Papagiannakis RG, Rakopoulos CD, Hountalas DT, Rakopoulos DC. Emission
characteristics of high speed, dual fuel, compression ignition engine operating
in a wide range of natural gas/diesel fuel proportions. Fuel 2010;89:
1397e406.
[19] Sayin C, Canakci M. Effects of injection timing on the engine performance and
exhaust emissions of a dual-fuel diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag
2009;50:203e13.
[20] Sahoo BB, Sahoo N, Saha UK. Effect of engine parameters and type of gaseous
fuel on the performance of dual-fuel gas diesel engines - a critical review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:1151e84.
[21] Sayin C, Uslu K, Canakci M. Influence of injection timing on the exhaust
emissions of a dual-fuel CI engine. Renew Energy 2008;33:1314e23.
[22] Shahir SA, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Imran A, Ashraful AM. Performance and
emission assessment of dieselebiodieseleethanol/bioethanol blend as a fuel
in diesel engines: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;48:62e78.
[23] Yoon SH, Lee CS. Experimental investigation on the combustion and exhaust
emission characteristics of biogasebiodiesel dual-fuel combustion in a CI
engine. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:992e1000.
[24] Tarabet L, Loubar K, Lounici MS, Khiari K, Belmrabet T, Tazerout M. Experi-
mental investigation of DI diesel engine operating with eucalyptus biodiesel/
natural gas under dual fuel mode. Fuel 2014;133:129e38.
[25] Liu H, Wang X, Zheng Z, Gu J, Wang H, Yao M. Experimental and simulation
investigation of the combustion characteristics and emissions using n-
butanol/biodiesel dual-fuel injection on a diesel engine. Energy 2014;74:
741e52.
[26] Bahlouli K, Atikol U, Khoshbakhti Saray R, Mohammadi V. A reduced mech-
anism for predicting the ignition timing of a fuel blend of natural-gas and n-
heptane in HCCI engine. Energy Convers Manag 2014;79:85e96.
[27] Deb M, Sastry GRK, Paul A, Debroy D, Panua RS, Banerjee R, et al. An exper-
imental investigation of performance-emission trade off characteristics of a CI
engine using hydrogen as dual fuel. Energy 2015;85:569e85.
[28] Lounici MS, Loubar K, Tarabet L, Balistrou M, Niculescu DC, Tazerout M. To-
wards improvement of natural gas-diesel dual fuel mode: an experimental
investigation on performance and exhaust emissions. Energy 2014;64:
200e11.
138 D. Barik et al. / Energy 118 (2017) 127e138
[29] Yang B, Wei X, Xi C, Liu Y, Zeng K. Ming-Chia Lai. Experimental study of the
effects of natural gas injection timing on the combustion performance and
emissions of a turbocharged common rail dual-fuel engine. Energy Convers
Manag 2014;87:297e304.
[30] Paul A, Panua RS. Durbadal Debroy, Probir Kumar Bose. Effect of compressed
natural gas dual fuel operation with diesel and Pongamia pinnata methyl ester
(PPME) as pilot fuels on performance and emission characteristics of a CI
(compression ignition) engine. Energy 2014;68:495e509.
[31] Jatana GS, Himabindu M, Thakur HS, Ravikrishna RV. Strategies for high ef-
ficiency and stability in biogas-fuelled small engines. Exp Therm Fluid Sci
2014;54:189e95.
[32] Ashok B, Denis Ashok S, Ramesh Kumar C. LPG diesel dual fuel engine - a
critical review. Alexandria Eng J 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.aej.2015.03.002.
[33] Yaliwala VS, Banapurmathb NR, Gireeshb NM, Tewarib PG. Production and
utilization of renewable and sustainable gaseous fuel for power generation
applications: a review of literature. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;34:
608e27.
[34] Chandra R, Vijay VK, Subbarao PMV, Khura TK. Performance evaluation of a
constant speed IC engine on CNG, methane enriched biogas and biogas. Appl
Energy 2011;88:3969e77.
[35] Behera P, Murugan S, Nagarajan G. Dual fuel operation of used transformer oil
with acetylene in a DI diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 2014;87:840e7.
[36] Liu J, Yanga F, Wang H, Ouyang M, Hao S. Effects of pilot fuel quantity on the
emissions characteristics of a CNG/diesel dual fuel engine with optimized
pilot injection timing. Appl Energy 2013;110:201e6.
[37] Ma S, Zheng Z, Liu H, Zhang Q, Yao M. Experimental investigation of the effects
of diesel injection strategy on gasoline/diesel dual-fuel combustion. Appl
Energy 2013;109:202e12.
[38] Nwafor OMI. Effect of advanced injection timing on emission characteristics of
diesel engine running on natural gas. Renew Energy 2007;32:2361e8.
[39] Papagiannakis RG, Hountalas DT, Rakopoulos CD. Theoretical study of the
effects of pilot fuel quantity and its injection timing on the performance and
emissions of a dual fuel diesel engine. Energy Convers Manag 2007;48:
2951e61.
[40] Alla GHA, Soliman HA, Badr OA, Rabbo MFA. Effect of injection timing on the
performance of a dual fuel engine. Energy Convers Manag 2002;43:269e77.
[41] Nwafor OMI. Knock characteristics of dual-fuel combustion in diesel engines
using natural gas as primary fuel. Sadhana 2002;27(3):375e82.
[42] Jayashankara B, Ganesan V. Effect of fuel injection timing and intake pressure
on the performance of a DI diesel engine e a parametric study using CFD.
Energy Convers Manag 2010;51:1835e48.
[43] Barik D, Murugan S. Effects of pilot fuel injection timing on the performance
and emission characteristics of a diesel engine fuelled with biogas. Int J Oil Gas
Coal Technol 2016;13(4):407e27.
[44] Barik D, Murugan S. Performance and emission characteristics of a biogas
fueled DI diesel engine. In: SAE paper 2013-01-2507; 2013.
[45] Demirbas A. Biogas production from the organic fraction of municipal solid
waste. Energy Sources Part A 2006;28:1127e34.
[46] Coleman HW, Steele Jr WG. Experimentation and uncertainty analysis for
engineers. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1989.
[47] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. New York: McGraw-
Hill; 1988.
[48] Yao M, Chen Z, Zheng Z, Zhang B, Xing Y. Study on the controlling strategies of
homogeneous charge compression ignition combustion with fuel of dimethyl
ether and methanol. Fuel 2006;85:2046e56.
[49] Duc PM, Wattanavichien K. Study on biogas premixed charge diesel dual
fuelled engine. Energy Convers Manag 2007;48:2286e308.
[50] Agarwal AK, Srivastava DK, Dhar A, Maurya RK, Shukla PC, Singh AP. Effect of
fuel injection timing and pressure on combustion, emissions and performance
characteristics of a single cylinder diesel engine. Fuel 2013;111:374e83.
[51] Mustafi Nirendra N, Raine Robert R. Verhelst Sebastian. Combustion and
emissions characteristics of a dual fuel engine operated on alternative gaseous
fuels. Fuel 2013;109:669e78.
[52] Karim GA. Combustion in gas fueled compression ignition engines of the dual
fuel type. ASME J Eng Gas Turb Power 2003;125:827e36.
[53] Jaichandar S, Senthil Kumar P, Annamalai K. Combined effect of injection
timing and combustion chamber geometry on the performance of a biodiesel
fueled diesel engine. Energy 2012;47:388e94.
[54] Prakash R, Singh RK, Murugan S. Experimental investigation on a diesel en-
gine fueled with bio-oil derived from waste wood-biodiesel emulsions. En-
ergy 2013;55:610e8.
[55] Barik D, Murugan S. Investigation on performance and exhaust emissions
characteristics of a DI diesel engine fueled with Karanja methyl ester and
biogas in dual fuel mode. In: SAE technical paper 2014-01-1311; 2014.
[56] Kyunghyun R. Effects of pilot injection pressure on the combustion and
emissions characteristics in a diesel engine using biodieseleCNG dual fuel.
Energy Convers Manag 2013;76:506e16.
[57] Saravanan S, Nagarajan G, Lakshmi Narayana Rao G, Sampath S. Theoretical
and experimental investigation on effect of injection timing on NOx emission
of biodiesel blend. Energy 2014;66:216e21.
[58] Barik D, Satapathy AK, Murugan S. Combustion analysis of the dieselebiogas
dual fuel direct injection diesel engine-the gas diesel engine. Int J Ambient
Energy 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2015.1086681.
[59] Krishnan SR, Srinivasan KK, Singh S, Bell SR, Midkiff KC, Gong W, et al. Stra-
tegies for reduced NOx emissions in pilot-ignited natural gas engines. ASME J
Eng Gas Turbines Power Trans 2004;126(3):665e71.
[60] Violeta M, Egle S, Saugirdas P, Alfredas R, Ricardas V. Performance and
emission characteristics of biogas used in diesel engine operation. Energy
Convers Manag 2013;75:224e33.