NOTES OF SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION

DEFINITION:

Friedlander (1955)

Social' work is a professional service, based on scientific knowledge and skill in

human relations, which assists individuals or in groups, to obtain social and personal
satisfaction and independence."

Indian Conference of Social Work (1957)

Social work is a welfare activity based on humanitarian philosophy, scientific

knowledge and technical skills for helping individuals or groups or community, to
live a rich and full life.

Characteristics of Social Work

Social work in its theoretical aspect is based on the knowledge of human relations
with regard to the solution of psycho-social problems. In its applied aspect, social
work is a professional service based on scientific method and skills. It seeks to
approach the social work scientifically. In the field of social sciences, social work
occupies a very important place. The following characteristics reveal its
distinctiveness and peculiarity.

(i) Professional Service

In its present form, social work is a professional service which assists individuals,
groups and communities. On the one hand, it attempts to help the individuals in the
social milieu and on the other hand it removes the barriers which obstruct people
from, achieving the best which they are capable.
(ii) Based on Scientific Knowledge
Social service is based on scientific knowledge and technical skills. It has its own
methodology which distinguishes it from other types of welfare activities.
(iii) Humanitarian Philosophy
Social work drives its inspiration from the humanitarian philosophy. It seeks
happiness and property for the individuals, groups and community.
(iv) Solution of Psycho-Social Problems

Social work aim to solve the psycho-social obstacles which prevent the effective
functioning of groups, community and society.

In its practical aspect, social work assumes two main forms, namely, private and
public. Social work performed by individual in their private capacity and by
voluntary organization is known as private social work. Such voluntary
organizations get only financial aid from the government. On the other hand, public
social work is performed by the government.

Characteristics of Private Social Work

Private social work has its own characteristics. These characteristics are as follows:

(1) The private agencies are very efficient in their working. They are regulated by
selfless persons.
(2) The social work programmes undertaken by private agencies are free from
bureaucratic defects. In fact, the private organizations have played a tremendous role
in the field of social work.
(3) Workers emerged and engaged in public agencies are not very efficient but in
private sectors social workers are very efficient. They seek public cooperation
without any difficulty.
Characteristics of Public Social Work
Social work carried on by public agencies also reveals certain characteristics, these
are as follows:

(1) The public agencies of social work are regulated by the government.
Therefore, these agencies are financially sound.
(2) The public agencies employ workers who are fully trained and experienced
workers. The central point of their work is public welfare.
(3) The public agencies are regulated in accordance to the provisions of certain
state acts and laws. Consequently, these organizations are well organized.
 Limitations of Public and Private Social Work
The private as well as public agencies of social work suffer from many
limitations, chief among them are as follows:

I. Private Agencies
Financially, the private agencies are not very sound. They depend on contributions,
state grants and assistance. Social workers engaged in the private agencies are low
paid. Lastly, private agencies have very limited resources. Therefore, they could not
undertake social work programmes on an extensive scale.

2. Public Agencies
Public agencies are organized by the government. Therefore, they suffer from legal
formalities. Secondly, they are organized on bureaucratic lines as such suffer from
red tapism.
Objectives of Social Work

Objectives are statements or formulations of what we are trying to do in social work.

Friedlander mentioned three objectives of social work

- Change in painful social situations,
- Development of constructive forces and provides opportunities
- For experiencing democratic and humanistic behaviour.

In general, social work has the following objectives

a. To solve psycho social problems

b. To fulfil humanitarian needs
c. To create self sufficiency,
d. Strengthening and making harmonious social relations
e. Develop democratic values
f. Provide opportunities for development and social progress
g. Conscientise the community on various issues and problems
 h. Provide socio-legal aid
i. Bring change in social system for social development.

Apart from the above, Professional social worker can extend their services in the
fields of agriculture, economic, education, environment, health, etc.
Principles of Social Work

In general, Social Work is based on the following principles

1. Principle of Individualization

The principle of individualization is fundamental for effective social work

practice since the betterment of the individual is the primary purpose of social
work. Indeed, a belief in the uniqueness of the individual and his inherent value
lies at the heart of social work practice. Boethius defines as an individual
substance of rational nature. Each person’s nature is capable of integrating and
directing its own forces in a way that is different from that of every other
individual nature. As we move from understanding him simply as a human being
to understand him as this particular human being, we find that with all his general
likeness to others, he is as unique as his thumb print, by nuance and fine line and
by the particular way his bone and spirit are joined, he is born and grows as a
personality different in some ways from every other individual of his family,
genus or species.

In working with the client as a person the social worker involves him in the
characterization of action and experience. It is this approach which individualizes
the client so far as the relationship is concerned. Individualization takes place in
three ways. In the present, through the personal relationship between client and
social worker in which the social worker’s actions structure the client’s
experience, in description of the past, in which the client describes and may
enrich his biography as an individual person, and last, in discussing future action
with the client, in which the worker is also contributing to his/her identity as a
person.
2. Principles of Meaningful Relationship

This is the principle which differentiates social work and some other professions
like surgery, medicine, law. In these professions a good interpersonal relationship
is desirable for the perfection of the service, but it is not necessary for the essence
of the service. But in social work, a good relationship is necessary not only for the
perfection, but also for the essence, of the service in every setting. The quality of
relationship is the corner stone of helping in social work.

The relationship is the medium through which the client is enabled to state his
problem and through which attention can be focused on reality problems, which
may be as full of conflict as emotional problems. Within the democratic frame of
reference the professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared
responsibilities, recognition of other’s rights, acceptance of difference, with the
goal, not of isolation, but of socialized attitudes and behaviour stimulating growth
through interaction. A good relationship in social work is the professional one-one
that services the purpose and includes those elements which will assist the
purpose and exclude those elements which will not.

There are five ways in which the professional relationship differs from other
social relationship. Social relationship is open ended in duration but the
professional relationship ends when the problem is solved. The time that is spent
with clients emerges from the needs of the clients and the objectives of
professional involvement. Clients are seen in institutions or in their homes; they
are not invited for tea or dinner. The focus of professional relationships is not
mutual, but the clients needs. Wide aspects of client’s life and feeling are
examined and brought into play. Rather than mutual, the relationship in social
work is the helper and the helped.
Helping relationship is developed in social work by demonstrating the interests in
client. Client is perceived as a real person with spontaneity and capacity for
responsiveness. He is convinced of the social worker’s warmth as an individual,
and conveys respect and caring for him. Social worker tries to understand what is
happening in his mind. He tries to share the situations on an emotional plane.
He/she helps the client to trust in his objectivity and feel secured as a worthwhile
individual.

1.1.1 Principles of Self Determination

Social responsibility, emotional adjustment and personality development are

possible only when the person exercises his/her freedom of choice and decision.
Today, one of the basic convictions of the social work profession is the client’s
right of self determination. Under the ethics of the profession, the social worker
must learn to accept others’ distinct personalities with their own right of self
realization and self determination. Social workers have always considered the
clients right of self determination to be very important, although there has been
serious disagreement among social workers as to the interpretation of this
principle. But the general opinion is that if this principle is not followed in its
spirit, the social work practice will not be effective.

Social work believes that through the experience of the client worker relationship,
the client will become mature and thus be able to deal with his/her life situation
better. Obviously, when once the client has experienced thinking through a
problem and arriving at a decision, he/she will become a less dependent
individual. Social worker always tries to stimulate the client to think
independently and rationally about his/her own problem situation and arrive at a
decision for himself. Social workers must guide the client to avail the facilities
and opportunities available to them. The client using his inner resources and the
resources of the community, grow in the potential to work out his/her own
problems, to move along at his/her own speed and in his own way.
1.1.2 Principles of Acceptance

Social work accepts the individual as he is and with all his limitations. Not
out of personal friendship but as a quality of life, its offers warmth, acceptance,
and understanding, in quiet illustration of quality in human relations that might
have values everywhere. Social work believes that acceptance is the crux of all
help. It embraces two basic ideas – one negative and one positive. Social worker
does not condemn or feel hostile towards a client because his/her behaviour
differs from the approved one. He/she feels genuine warmth to form a bridge
across which help may be given.

Acceptance is essential for the relationship. Except in social work service, the
client becomes the subject of various social control mechanisms like legal
condemnation, ostracism, avoidance, beletting, nagging by others or by his own
conscious. These methods have failed. Therefore, social work offers the new
approach of acceptance and it is out of this that a useable relationship grows.

The principle of acceptance implies that social workers must perceive,

acknowledge, receive, and establish a relationship with the individual client as he
actually is, not as we wish him to be or think he should be. It means that no matter
how much the client may have distorted reality, no matter how much our
perception of it may differ from him, or how greatly our values may differ from
him. We must acknowledge and accept him as he is if we are to help him, but
rather that the art of helping, like any other art, depends on accepting the material
with which we propose to work as it actually exists, with its limitations as well as
its potentialities. This principle could be restated by saying that social work one
begins where the client is and, at every stage in the helping process, relates one
self to the client as he is at each given moment.

1.1.3 Principles of Communication

Communication is a two way process. Most of the problems that give pain are
precisely the problems of communication. When the communication is inadequate
or insufficient, the problems appear either automatically or because of
misunderstanding. There are three ways in which social worker conceives that
clients may have problems of communication of feeling
i. The client may confronted with a difficulty practical problem
which arouses such strong feeling in him that he is unable to cope
effectively with the problem.
ii. The client may have certain feelings of apprehension or difference
about asking for help.
iii. The client’s feelings may be the main problem about which he is
asking for help.
Social worker always takes the responsibility of letting the communication
culminate wholesomely between himself and the needy (individual, group or
community). Communication of feeling is not only important to diagnose the
problem but most of the maladies which be fall a man may be removed by re-
establishing full and goal directed communication between the sufferer and the
social worker. Each of the Communication for the client depends on his physical
comfort but his emotional comfort will be crucial. Some of the elements of
emotional comfort are
i. time,
ii. warm
iii. a focus on the client
iv. Skill to meet particular communication needs.
Communication is an important skill each and every social worker should possess.

1.1.4 Principles of Social functioning

The principle of social functioning has been amply elaborated by Barlett who
thinks that in social work it is frequently used to refer to the functioning of people
in their social roles and relationships, with emphasis on their relation to the
environment focuses not on the behaviour of people but on the exchange between
them and their environment. The concept of social functioning involves two sub
concepts ie. Task and coping. Task implies the demands made upon people by
various life situations. These demands may pertain to issue of daily living, family
life, entry into the world of work or inability to do so, marriage and divorce,
illness or financial difficulties and so on. The concept of coping emphasizes the
conscious, cognitive, and rational aspects of behaviour also. The common base of
social work consists in a central focus on social functioning an orientation
towards people involved in the situation, use of social work values and the
combined bode of social work knowledge for working with individuals, group.

1.1.5 Principles of Social Learning

Social learning is a pre- requisite to the changes that are inevitably

involved in problem solving. Change in individual, group or community depend
on their capacity to learn new facts, attitudes and ways of behaving. Social
learning is an essential part of social work practice whether change is initiated by
social action or other methods of social work.

Goldstein identifies six stages of problem solving.

i. Need of difficulty felt or observed
ii. Formulating, locating and defining the need or difficulty
iii. Surveying the information required around the need/ difficulty.
iv. Formulating possible solutions
v. Appraising the consequences of possible solution
vi. Testing, accepting and internalizing the solution

Goldstein suggests that the social learning processes which go with these stages
are:
i. Arousing and focusing attention and concern
 ii. Organizing and evaluating the problem and planning further action
iii. Searching for and acquiring new information and perceptions
iv. Experimenting with alternative means, behaviors and
consequences
v. Rehearsing for action, verifying solutions and gains
vi. Acting, evaluating, incorporating the gains and reformulating the
problems.

1.1.6 Principles of confidentiality

Clients have the right of personal information about themselves in their

relationship with a social agency during and following the process of
obtaining service, a right which may be superseded in exceptional
situations. Recognition of this right requires adherence to the following
principles.

i. The client should be used as the primary source of

information about himself and information sought from him should
be limited to that which is essential to provide service.
ii. Within the agency information regarding a client should
be revealed only to those persons and to the extent necessary
services.
iii. Other agencies and individuals should be consulted
only with the client’s consent and within the limits of that consent.
iv. Only that information should be recorded and these
records maintained that are essential to provide service and the use
of records should be determined by agency function and the
consent of the client.
It is a tribute to the reputation that social work has that clients frequently
assume that they are talking in confidence and do not very often need
 specific reassurance about this. There are three classes of confidential
information
i. the natural secret that information if disclosed, would
defame the person,
ii. the promised secret promise is made not to reveal the facts,
iii. entrusted secret
It implies a contractual agreement which binds him not to reveal the fact.
1.1 Concept clarification

1.2.1 Social Service

Every civilized society, in order to enable its members to lead an emancipated, respectful.
decent and dignified life and for that to promote proper personality development through
optimum realization of their potentials -talents and abilities, makes provision for varied
kinds of services like health, housing, education, recreation, etc. Broadly speaking, the
term service means "an act of helpful activity; help" (Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged
Dictionary 1 996: 1 304). The term help never means spoon feeding.

It has been etymologically derived from Teutonic 'helping' which means aid or assistance
given to another through some kind of reinforcement or supplementation of the other's
actions or resources to make him/her more effective in terms of performance of socially
expected roles as a responsible member of society (Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged
Dictionary 1996:659). Thus social service in its broadest sense means any aid or
assistance provided by society to enable its members to optimally actualize their
potentials to effectively perform the roles expected prescribed by society and to remove
obstacles that come in the way of personality development or social functioning.

According to H.M. Cassidy (1 943:13) the term "social services" means those organized
activities that are primarily and directly conceded with the conservation, the protection
and the improvement of human resources", and "includes as social services: social
assistance, social insurance, child welfare, corrections, mental hygiene, public health,
education, recreation, labour protection, and housing" (Friedlander, 1963 :4).

Social services thus are those services which are envisaged and provided by society to its
members to enable them to develop optimally and help them to function effectively and
to lead life of decency, dignity, and liberty. These services directly benefit all the
members of society, irrespective of their religion, caste, race, language, region, culture
etc. The two other terms used in literature are: public services and social welfare services.
A finer distinction between 'public services' and 'social services' is that the former are
envisaged and organized by the state as an institution created by society to manage its
affairs, to the citizens whereas the latter are envisioned and provided by people in society
as enlightened persons for promoting human and social development. Despite this fine
distinction both the terms are quite often used inter- changeably and taken as synonyms
of each other.

At present when the state is gradually withdrawing from social sector leaving every thing
to market forces1corporations or corporate bodies or organizations and civil society
organizations, it is more appropriate to use the term 'social services' as compared to
public services. Social welfare services are those 'social public services' which are
specifically visualized and designed for weaker and vulnerable sections of society to
enable them to effectively compete with other sections of society to join the mainstream.

Social Welfare

Ail civilized societies throughout the globe have been praying for the well being of the
entire mankind. In India our sages longed for 'May all be happy' and worked for devising
such institutions as could promote the welfare of all and strengthening them from time to
time. Derived from 'welfare', the term 'welfare' means "the state or condition with regard
to good, fortune, health, happiness, prosperity, etc". (Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged
Dictionary, 1996: 1 6 19). While expressing his views on he concept of welfare, Sugata
Dasgupta (1 976:27) has observed: "By welfare we refer to the entire package of services,
social and economic, that deal with income support, welfare provisions and social
security, on the one hand, and view the whole range of social services, on the other."

According to Friedlander (1 963 :4), " 'Social Welfare' is the organized system of social
services and institutions, designed to aid individuals and groups to attain satisfying
standards of life and health, and personal and social relationships which permit them to
develop their full capacities and to promote their well-being in harmony with the needs of
their families and the community."

Durgabai Deshmukh, the first chairperson of Central Social Welfare Board in the country
(1960:VII) unequivocally said: "The concept of social welfare is distinct from that of
general social services like education, health, etc. Social welfare is specialized work for
the benefit of the weaker and more vulnerable sections of the population and would
include skcial services for the benefit of women, children, the physically handicapped,
the mentally retarded and socially handicapped in various ways."

Therefore, to define social welfare as specifically designed system of services and

institutions aimed at protecting and promoting the interests of weaker and vulnerable
sections of society who left to themselves will not be in a position to maximally develop
and effectively compete to enter the mainstream and to live with liberty, decency and
dignity.

Changing concept of social welfare

The following are the changing concept of social welfare

1. Residual to the institutional concept

2. Charity to Citizen Right
3. Special to universal
4. Minimum to optimum
 5. Individual to social reform
6. Voluntary to public
7. From the welfare for the poor to a Welfare Society

1.2.3 Social Reform

In every society cultural degeneration sets in of some point of time, particularly when its
followers forget the basic purpose behind varied kinds of customs and traditions. They
continue to religiously observe various rites and rituals associated with them, mainly
because their forefathers have been performing them. Consequently, they develop varied
kinds of social evils which hamper the personality development and obstruct effective
social functioning. For example, in India the open 'Varna' system degenerated into closed
caste system which further deteriorated into untouchability,
unseeability and even unapproachability.

When social evils start manifesting themselves on a very large scale and become fairly
widespread, some enlightened e p l e start giving a serious thought to them and devising
measures to get rid of them; and it is at this juncture that social reform begins. The term
'reform', according to Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary (1996:206) means
"the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc". Social
reform thus, broadly speaking, refers to eradication of immoral, unhealthy, corrupt and
wrong practices which thwart human and social development, According to M.S. Gore
(1987:83), “Social reform involves a deliberate effort to bring about a change in social
attitudes, culturally defined role expectations and actual patterns of behaviour of people
in a desired direction through processes of persuasion and public education."

Social Action
In social work, social action is an important aspect of study. Action is a
subject of study as it forms the part of an individual or group problem. But along
with this aspect, social action is an organised group process which is used to solve
the social problems. Under this process, public opinion is motivated towards
attaining the aim of social work. In other words, social action is a process which is
used for the achievement of social objectivity. It is used as an auxiliary method for
social work. According to Talcott Parsons, "Action is a process in the actor situation
system which has motivational significance to the individual actor, or in the case of
collectivity, its components are individuals."
HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN WEST AND INDIA

INTRODUCTION

The desire to help other people is stressed by the major religions, especially
Judaism and Christianity. The Bible tells of ways in which religious individuals
assisted the needy. For example, the ancient Jews paid a tax for the benefit of the
poor. The tax amounted to a tenth of a person's income. During the middle ages,
from the late A.D. 400 to the 1500 A.D. various religious groups devoted
themselves to healing the sick and feeding the hungry.
Great changes took place in society during the industrial Revolution, a period of
many new inventions and great industrial development that began in the 1700s. The
growth of populations and industries, together with the movement of people from
rural areas to cities, brought such problems as overcrowding, unemployment, and
poverty. Growing number of people began to depend on others for help. During the
1800's many private agencies were established in order to aid their people...

Working with needy became a distinct profession in the late 1800's. One agency the
charity organization society helped the needy in Great Britain, the United States, and
Canada. Its counsellors, called "Friendly Visitors" went to peoples' home and
performed services, some of which were similar to those of present day social
workers.
The New York School of Philanthropy was the first educational institution to train
people for jobs with social agencies. This school now the Columbia University
School of Social Work was founded by the charity organization society in 1898 in
New York City. However, the term social work did not come into widespread uses
until the early 1900's. By that time, the government of many countries had started to
provide social services. Governments financed these services by tax funds.
Today most professional social workers deal directly with the people they serve.
Others work as administrators, supervisors, planners or teachers. Professional social
workers do not require full professional training. They work as assistants to
professional personnel in community centers and agencies and mental health
centers. Many Para-professional social workers have a part time position, and
others volunteer their services.

The term "Social Service", "Social Work", and "Welfare Service" and such related
phrases as "Social Administration!' and most of the policies and programmes
involving these terms are essentially formation and practices of 20th century.--
Admitting in some form or other, most of the things done today done by individuals,
charitable societies or governments as social and welfare services have been done in
the past in many societies. The Mosaic Law, socio-political systems of classical
Greece and Roman Empire, the edicts of Asoka, the simple rules of early Christian
Communities, and the institutions of family, village and caste in lndia, to mention
only a few incidents contained elements of what are today called social and welfare
services. The Elizabethan English are known for their pioneering work in some
fields of social work and some welfare services, which they called "relief of the
Paupers". Close to current times, the Victorian reformers who were distressed by
poverty, child neglect and other social ills were pioneers in many of today’s social
and welfare services, although they too had called such services by various other
names such as "Organised Charity", "Philanthropic Work", or "Relief of
Destitution".

Broadly speaking, there have been two rationales for social work and social
welfare services. In some Eastern countries there are various social work projects
in the areas of education and health, groups that are socially, economically,
physically or mentally handicapped or special groups like children, youth, or the
aged. Social work is necessary function of any society, not only to provide for
unmet needs but to serve individuals and groups positively so that they may
develop and achieve to the fullest extent possible.

Industrial Revolution of the 1700's and 1800’s led to the development of social
security in Europe. Many people moved to cities to take jobs in factories. They
often received low wages and worked under dangerous conditions. If they became
disabled, they faced great hardship. Few could save for emergencies of their old
age. They were unable to support themselves. Till late 1800's there were no
compulsory government security programmes. Local communities offered some
aid and there were a few religious relief organizations. But most of the poor could
depend only on local charity or look forward to living in the misery of the poor
house. Generally speaking, wealthier people felt that the poor were to be blamed
for their misfortune.

Very different was the beginning of the social services.

In the first place, the church, throughout the middle ages and even to renaissance
and reformation, was much more attentive to what scholars wrote and thought about
man's mind and his behaviour in society from it was towards wl1at was being
studied and written in the physical sciences. From church's point of view, while it
might be important to see to it that thought on the physical world corresponded as
far as possible to that scripture said and witnessed, for example, in the famous
questioning of Galileo-it was far more important that such correspondence exist in
matters affecting the nature of man, his mind, spirit and soul. Nearly all the subjects
and questions that would form the basis of the social work in later centuries here
tightly moved into the fabric of medieval scholasticism and it was not easy for even
the boldest minds to break this fabric.

a) Historical Background

Factors that seem to have affected the status and course of social and welfare
services in developed countries have been growth of population, changes in the
composition of labour force, the change from agricultural to industrial
employment, migration from rural to urban areas, changes in the pattern of family
life, and the progress of medical and social sciences leading to a better
understanding of human needs, physical, psychological and social, and the
provisions for meeting them.

The history of social and welfare service can be traced to the personal charity
that has characterized human society from very early times. Either as natural
expression feelings of compassion or in a pursuit of virtue, individuals have always
exercised personal charity, but this seldom has been an adequate answer to
problems of needs and distress.

The English Poor Law of 1601 in the reign of the first Elizabeth is an instance
in point. Here the responsibility for poor relief in the United States in the 17th and
18th centuries followed the broad framework of the Elizabethan Poor Law. It was
only in the 18th century that the use of alms houses and work houses became
common. Earlier the poor were "auctioned" and given away to the lowest bidder
who "took care" of them on payment of the sum agreed upon. The church also used
to be active in charitable work, but it was generally confined to their own members.

SOCIAL PROVISION IN THE SOCIETY

Social work as a provision in the society is a product of this century.

Although its roots are well established in history from the time when people first
began to take responsibility for their neighbors through activities which were
called 'charity', 'poor relief', 'philanthropy', and 'social reform', social work did
not begin to gain provision status until the second decade of this century. The
emergence of social work as a provision has been greatly aided by the
development of responsible professional membership organizations, training
schools and literature. Mr. Benjamin Younghahl points out:

"The rise of social work to provision status has been relatively recent. Actually, it
was not until World War I that social work began to be recognized as a profession
despite the fact that its antecedents go far back into history in a wide variety of
activities associated with such terms as charity, philanthropy, poor relief and social
reforms." The social provision is, mainly for the people who are really very poor
and needy.

The first step in the formulation of the minimum needs programme was to
identify the priority areas of social consumption and to lay down for each of
these a minimum norm for attainment by the end of the Fifth Plan period. The
areas chosen were elementary education, rural health, and nutrition, and drinking
water, provision of house sites, slum improvement, rural roads and rural
electrification. In each of these areas concrete targets were determined.

In regard to elementary education, the objective was to cover 97 per cent of

the children in the are group of 6-11 years, and 47 per cent in the age group of 11-
14 years. This was to be achieved by building primary schools not more than'1.5
Km and middle schools not more than 5 Km away from the homes of the children.
Besides, other facilities like mid-day meals, free text books, additional classrooms,
etc. were to be provided. The enlargement of public health facilities was to be
made possible through the establishment of one primary health centre for a block
population of 80,000 to 100,000 people, supported by 8 to 10 sub-centers, each
serving a population of 10,000. Each primary health centre was to have received
drugs worth Rs. 12,000 a year and each sub-centre drugs worth Rs. 2,000 per
annum. Moreover, one in four primary health centers was to be upgraded to the
status of a 30-bed rural hospital. In this way, additional health facilities of 101
primary health centers, 11,036 sub-centers and 1,293 rural hospitals were planned
to be set-up.

The nutrition programme sought to provide malnourished children, pregnant

and lactating mothers from the weaker sections with an integrated programme of
supplementary feeding, health care, immunization and nutritional education. No
specific targets were mentioned, except that supplementary feeding would be
provided to children in the pre-school stage for 300 days and mid-day meals to be
served in schools for 200 days in the year. Some 11 millions were estimated to be
the beneficiaries of the programmes.

"The programme is essentially an investment in human resource

development. The provision of free and subsidized services through public
agencies is expected to improve the consumption levels of those living below the
poverty line and thereby improve the productive efficiency of both the rural and
urban workers. This integration of social consumption programmes with economic
development programmes is necessary to accelerate growth and to ensure the
achievement of plan objectives." The plan further says that for optimizing benefits,
these programmes have to be taken as a package and related to specific areas and
beneficiary groups. A sectoral approach in which programmes are formulated and
implemented departmentally will not be adequate either for the overall
development of the area or the bringing about the desired distribution of benefits.
The need for integration is especially greater at the micro-level where the
programmes are implemented.
H. DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN USA

I. Before 1800 A.D.

Social work was discovered in USA as a result of 1776 war of
independence. By then USA was ruled by British Government. During this period
church was the main agency for social work services. Able bodied homes were
established for the able beggars of the country. Such were the main activities
done by the church at that time.

II. 1800-1900 A.D.

During this period there emerged a lot of voluntary associations. But these
associations were not sincere to their cause. Duplication and exploitation of
services were common. The end of the 18th century saw the rising of different
charity organizations throughout the country. They raised funds jointly and
distributed it among different agencies. There were also joint survey in the field
of social welfare and other trainings in the field of social welfare. From 1898
training programme started for the members engaged in social work activities.
The first school of social: work was established at New York in the year of 1898.
It was called New York School of Social Work. It was established with the
purpose of imparting training to the members who were engaged in the field of
welfare services.

III. 1900-1935 A.D.

The main event during this period was the economic depression in 1929.
There were lot of people who lost their jobs and lot of crisis started, therefore
FERA-Federal Emergency Relief Act in 1933 was passed and it emphasized
Upon the appointment of trained social workers to work in the field of social
relief, like family counselling, case work, etc., thus the professionalism of social
work was experienced. Then FERA and Social Security Act, 1935 was passed by the
government. Thus, the professional social work found a prominent place in this period.
IV. I 935-onwards
From 1960 Anti-poverty programme started in the urban and rural areas. There was lot
of people, during that time. Martine Luther King, the leader of the congress along with
other leaders pressurized the government to give equal rights to every citizen irrespective
of black and white collars. At present, three professional associations are working in that
field of social work. People who want to practice social work are required to get the
license and without it no person can practice social work in voluntary as well as
government agencies.

I. DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN U.K.

I. Before 1200 A.D.

It was called the primitive stage. During this period there was nothing of social work or
social welfare. If there was some problem, people believed that it was a curse from God.
So they have to face the problem willingly and there is no other way of escape from it.

II. 1200-1500 A.D.

It was really a Christian period. It had a wide effect on all over England. So many were
dedicated to charity work. In the church large number of missionaries, schools, parishes,
dioceses, hospitals and social welfare agencies came into existence.

III. 1500-1600 A.D.

This period was the intervention of Monarch to the charity work. The first constructive
measure taken by the government for relief of the poor was the statute of Henry VIll in
1531. It provided that mayors and justices of the place should investigate applications of
the aged and papers of those who were unable to work and were maintained by the
parish. They 'were to be registered and licensed and were allowed to be in an assigned
area. This law was beginning of recognition of public responsibility for the poor and
needy. Nationalization of churches and charity institutions were also made.

IV. 1600-1800 A.D.

Lot of changes took place in this period. Elizabethan Poor Law came to existence in the
year 1601. This was the first social legislation and under this legislation lot of provisions
for social welfare was made. Some are as follows:
(a) Residence
It provides for rendering services to the poor people, who were born and brought up in a
particular area. Those who have immigrated were not supposed to get residence and at
least three years staying in a place was necessary for getting the benefit of services.

(b) Relatives
If there is an earning member in a family of the destitute then he or she is not eligible for
any social services, because it is the duty of the relative to take care of him or her.

(c) Able-bodied Homes

There were some people who were physically able but they found begging an easy
way of living. For such people work homes were made and small work is given to the
people according to his or her ability and their needs were supported. Children of the
destitute were given shelter. Thus, mere charity work was very much discouraged.

V. 1800-1900 A.D.
In this period, when the members started working for the welfare of the people, many
social scientists gave their theories.

(a) Adam Smith Theory

According to this theory the government should minimize its involvement in any field
for any purpose as it will lead to much dependency.

(b) Malthusian Theory

He told that if there were lot of free services this will lead to desire for more
children. So he told to stop charity work.

Taking all these things in account a Royal Commission in the year 1832 emerged
and the committee' recommended the amendment of Elizabethan Poor Law.
Consequently, new poor law came into existence in the year 1834. According to this
law able-bodied continued to work in able-bodied homes and better help for slum-
dwellers were provided. Later a Slum Public Health Act came into force. In 1833,
Factories Act came into existence. Under this Act a minimum welfare facilities
ought to be provided to the industrial workers in the factories. Towards the end of
the 19th century many charity organization movements emerged: This was very
much related to professional social work. They started to provide training to their
own social workers. In each city this organization started extending their services to
the children, women and destitute. Taking all this into account they started a special
kind of training for professional social workers. Thus, the social work became
professional, consequently the first school of social work started in the year 1910.

VI. 1900 Onwards

In 1941, there were major changes that have taken place. A committee has been
established under the chairmanship of William Beveridge known as William
Beveridge Committee. He submitted a report taking comprehensive health and old
age services. In 1948, social security was given to all industrial workers.
Compensation was also given for industrial workers. It was the core of the
committee's suggestion that special grants shall be given at every important states of
life. In all these areas professional social workers were employed. They were given
much importance. Thus, every kind of social service was implemented by
professional social workers only. Professionalism is a gradual process and
everything is the result of industrialization.

J. DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA

I. Pre-British Period to 1800 A.D.
Pre-British system was dominated by caste system. There were four main castes,
which had some merits and demerits in the society. There was no interference for
giving and receiving services. Upper caste protected lower caste people in time of
some difficulties. Some of the important aspects are as follows:

Joint Family

It is like a trust sharing common property. In difficult situations the

members are given protection. It protected the aged, children and women. It
 served as a social trust.

Vii/age Community

In every village there was community. Indian villages were independent in

matters of food, clothing and shelter. And there were less chances of poverty. The
whole community used to take care each other.

ViIlage Temple

In every village there were temples. People donated money to the temple and
under this system socially backward people were protected. Beggars and other
people used to go to religious places and beg and pray for rest of the world.
People in the city were taken care by kings, -especially in times of natural
calamities and problems.

II. 1800 to 1900 A.D.

It is called as social reform movement. British rule was main inspiration for social
reform movement. Christian missionaries spread education, brought the theory of
equality, which in turn helped the special reforms to attack the evil customs and
inequality. There were no property rights for Indian women. Early marriage,
inequality and lack of education were the main problems, which were leading
India into a barbarian culture. Many social reformers came up to indicate these
social evils. Raja Ram Mohan Roy started the Brahma Samaj; Pandit Ramabhai
started the Arya Samaj,

Voluntary Organisations

Voluntary organisation is generally used for that action which is concerned

primarily with what the individual should do independently of the state. According
to Lord Beverage, "The term 'Voluntary Action', as used here, means private
action, that is to say, action is not under the directions of any authority wielding the
power of the state." A voluntary social service is interpreted generally to be
organisation and activities of the self-governing body of people, who have joined
together voluntarily to study or act for the betterment of the community. It is
generally inspired by two main motives -mutual aid and philanthropy. Today,
voluntary organisations are working in the field of education, social security in the
form of friendly societies, homes for the destitute, the disabled, etc.

Nature and Scope of Social Work

Social Work is recent branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific
solutions and treatment of the psycho social problems. The prime function of
social work is to give assistance to individuals in regard to difficulties, they
encounter in their use of an organized groups service or in their performance as
member of an organized group. The integrated aspects of social work deal with
the welfare of the people, the main aims of this are to help people in one or other
ways.

1.5.1 Scope of Social Work

Social work professions scope is gradually expanding. It is now international and

inter racial in scope. In the present context, core issue of social work is to provide
professional services to the children, adolescence, youth, women, older people,
disabled persons, handicapped destitute and dependents in the following areas
1. Public assistance
2. Social Insurance
3. Family services
4. Child Welfare Services
5. Community Welfare Services
6. Welfare Services for Handicapped
7. Women welfare services
8. Labour Welfare Services

Scope of Social Work

The functional philosophy of our modern century has been manifested in terms of
social work. Its principal aim is to solve the psycho-social problems which obstruct
the individual and social advancement. But its scope is gradually expanding. It is
now international and inter-racial in scope. Its methodology is useful in solving the
human problems of the unhappy. In the present society, social work provides many
services for the people, especially children, women, disabled, handicapped,
destitute and dependents. The various programmes of social work are carried out
through the following services:

(i) Public Assistance

Public assistance is kind of help which is provided in accordance to
economic and social needs of the applicant. It depends upon certain conditions
and legalities. Therefore, public assistance is granted on the basis of means test.
In some countries, certain amount of public assistance is given to old, blind,
disabled and destitute persons. Some times, institutional care is also provided to
the needy persons.

(ii) Social Insurance

Like public assistance, social insurance also covers certain contingencies
such as old-age, unemployment, industrial accidents and occupational diseases. It
does not insist upon means test. Benefits are granted to only those persons who
pay a certain amount of contribution. It is partly faced by the state. In its practical
shape, social insurances covers certain risks such as medical care and in times of
illness, medical care and cash allowance during employment injury, pension in
old-age after retirement, cash allowance to wife and children or dependent in case
of death and allowances during the period of employment. Under social
insurance, the benefits of applicant are pre-determined. They are based on legal
provisions.

(iii) Family Services

Family represents both an institution as well as an association. It is the
oldest as well as enduring among all social institutions. As a primary group, the
family is the first and most universal of all forms of associations. Social work
 renders a great role in the sphere of family organisation. It gives assistance and
counselling towards family and individual relations, marriage, health and
economic problems. In this field, the social worker bears the responsibility of
establishing harmonious relationship between the individual and his family.
Thus, by the way of assistance and advice, the social worker has to play a very
important role in the sphere of family organisation.

(iv) Child Welfare Services

Social workers also provide many welfare services for children. These
include residential institutions for the care, protection, education and
rehabilitation of socially handicapped children, viz. orphans, destitute,
founding’s, waifs and strays, children of unmarried mothers. Child welfare also
includes temporary homes for children, day care centres, recreational and
cultural centres and holiday homes for children of low income family.

. (v) Welfare Services for Women

Under these services, residential institutions and reception centers are
established for the care al9.d protection, training and rehabilitation of destitute
women and those in distress and rescued women. Further, w9men welfare
services also include maternity centres, condensed course of training, hostels for
working women and family counselling agencies.

(vi) Welfare Service for the Handicapped

These services includes institutions for the care and rehabilitation of
physically and mentally handicapped, hostels for the working handicapped, a
small production units for the handicapped; special schools for mentally retarded
and infirmaries for the chronic ill. Now-a-days handicapped persons are also
called as differently able persons.

(vii) Community Welfare Services

The community welfare services include establishment of urban services of
community centres including welfare aspect of slum improvement, clearance,
employment dormitories and night shelters, holiday homes for children and
 community welfare services in rural areas.

(viii) Medical Social Work

Under the medical social work, welfare services are provided to patients in
hospitals and medical institutions. Medical social workers help in such services to
their families in clinics, hospitals and other health care centres. These workers
assist doctors by providing information’s about the social and economic
background of patient. Many medical social workers specialize in a particular type
area. These includes child care, the care of dying patients and counselling, victims
suffering from certain diseases, such as cancer or kidney failure, etc.

(ix) International Social Services

Social work is also international in scope. At the international level it includes the
direction, supervision and administration of welfare services. The organisations
rendering social services at the international level are, The World Health
Organisation, The U.N. Technical Assistance Programme, The International
Conference of Social Work, The World Federation of Mental Health and The
International Red Cross Committee. Besides, the I.L.O. supervises the welfare
programmes for industrial labours.
Social work as a profession is a product of this century. Although its roots are well
established in history from the time when people 1st began to take responsibility for their
neighbors through activities which were called charity, poor relief, philanthropy and
social reform.

Social work is to fight against Five Evils as:

1. Physical want
2. Disease
3. Ignorance
4. Squalor
5. Idleness

Objective:

 To remove social injustice

  To relieve social injustice
 To reduce redress
 To prevent suffering
 To assist the weaker sections
 To rehabilitate the distress class people

Methods of Social work

All social work activities are classified into six major categories.

1. Social case work

2. Social group work
3. Community organization
4. Social action
5. Social welfare research
6. Social welfare administration

1. Social case work

Social case work is a method which helps by counseling the individual client to effect
better social relationships & a social adjustment that makes it possible him to lead a
satisfying & useful life. Gordon Hamilton points out that, “The objective of case work is
to administer practical services & offer counseling in such a way as to arouse & conserve
psychological energies of the client activity to involve him in the use of the service
towards the solution of her/his dilemma.”

2. Social group work

Social group work is an activity which helps to participate in the activities of a group for
their intellectual, emotional & physical growth and for the attainment of desirable goals
of the groups. Group work as such as a method by which the group worker enables
various types of groups to function in such a manner that both group interaction &
programme activities contribute to the growth of the individual & the programme
activities contribute to the growth of the individual & the achievement of desirable social
goals.

3. Community organization
Community organization is the process of planning & developing social services in order
to meet the health & welfare needs of a community or larger unit. Mildred Barry says,”
Community organization in social work is the process of creating & maintaining a
progressively more effective adjustment between community resources & commuity
welfare needs.”

4. Social action

It s an organized group process solving general social problems & furthering social
welfare objectives by legislative, social, health or economic progress. The term social
action refers to organized & legally permitted activities designed to mobiles public
opinion, legislation & public administration in favour of objectives believed to be
socially desirable.

5. Social Work research

Social Work research systematic critically investigation of questions in the social welfare
field with the purpose of yielding answers to problems of social work & of extending
generally social work concept. The methods applied in social work research have been to
a large extent derived from those used in sociology & social psychology as well as in
history and Anthropology.

6. Social welfare administration

Social welfare administration process is to organize & to direct a social agency. The
administrative aspects of social work have to do with the organization & management of
social agencies public & private, including in those terms general administrative
relationships among units of the same organization, personal problems, questions of
finance & so on.

Types of professional intervention

There are three general categories or levels of intervention. The first is "Macro" social
work which involves society or communities as a whole. This type of social work
practice would include policy forming and advocacy on a national or international scale.

The second level of intervention is described as "Mezzo" social work practice. This level
would involve work with agencies, small organizations, and other small groups. This
practice would include policy making within a social work agency or developing
programs for a particular neighborhood.

The final level is the "Micro" level that involves service to individuals and families.

There are a wide variety of activities that can be considered social work and professional
social workers are employed in many different types of environments. The following list
details some of the main fields of social work.

In the previous units of study, we have seen the Theories of Social Work – Models of
social work, developmental, welfare and radical models – Values and professional ethics
of social work – professional Associations – interface between professional and voluntary
social work. In this unit the fields of social work is applied and further an orientation is
also given to emerging areas in which the social workers presence is needed.

FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK

1.1 Child Welfare

Children represent the future generation. Therefore, our future progress and
prosperity is based on the well-being of the children. In order to have a healthy nation, it
is necessary that child is provided with all the basic services necessary for his physical,
mental, emotional and intellectual growth. Child welfare, therefore, refers to those
measures which are oriented towards the balanced development of child. Various
programmes of child welfare services are vocational training facilities, balwadies;
holiday homes, cultural education, emotional security, child health, nutrition services,
education for physically handicapped and mentally defective, deaf and dump, destitute,
child beggar, rehabilitation of· juvenile delinquent, etc.

1.2 Women Welfare

Women are the mother of the race and are the liaison between generations. Always
exemplary qualities are attributed to women such as patience, endurance, love, affection,
sympathy and generosity. Jawaharlal Nehru once said, "To awaken the people, it is the
women who must be awakened. Once she is on the move; the family, the village, the
nation moves." But these conditions are always changing. Woman is the victim of all
kinds of exploitations. They are treated as commodities not as _ a human being. The
main problems of women are as follows-sexual abuses, dowry problems, forced
prostitution and many other areas of life are exploiting them. Now Government has
come forward with new ideas of empowering the women from the old stage. Social
workers and government are trying to give more awareness to women so that they may
come up in life. Government and N.G.O.'s giving awareness in the area of importance of
right and status, education for adult women, health service, family planning scheme,
women cottage industry, working women hostel, programmes for victimized women,
after care service, etc.
1.3. Youth Welfare

The concept of youth services as a part of social welfare is of recent origin in India and
abroad. However, the process of growing up required considerable emotional and social
adjustments. The period of youth should stand for growth, development, preparation,
action and leadership. Youth matures quickly in an atmosphere in which there is
freedom, activity, recognition, and opportunity. The life of youth should not be over
occupied with training and education, but there should be opportunity for self-
expression, comradeship, community life and national services. It is through free
activities, freely undertaken, that the best in the young can come out. The young
therefore need to be guided not pushed, need to be gently led, not prodded.

1.4 Family Welfare

The family is by far the most important group in the society. Family is the basic unit in
which individuals receive most of their personal satisfactions, on which the personality
of child is formed. It is the centre of warm affection among its members as long as
normal, healthy conditions prevail. Therefore, it is essential that in terms of these values
to the individual members of the family as well as in the interest of society that family
life be protected and strengthened. Family service of social agencies has the purpose of
preserving healthy family life. Aim of family welfare service in to assist the individual
in the family and to develop their capacities to lead personally satisfying and socially
useful lives in the family unit.
1.5 Urban Community Welfare

In social work community organisation is the process of bringing about and

maintaining a progressively more effective adjustment between social welfare
resources and social welfare needs within an organisation, which are:

1) To determine the social needs,

2) To arrange to meet the community needs of the population, and

3) To mobilize the community to achieve the goal in a fastest way.

The urban community is a heterogeneous one and its complexity increases with
the size of the city. Therefore, community welfare programmes will assume different
forms with different types of cities. We may divide these cities into five classes:

1. The small old towns,

2. The large district towns,
3. The old cities of some special importance,
4. The large industrial and commercial cities, and
5. Townships of displaced persons and new industrial estates.

The pattern of community welfare must also differ according to the structure of that
area.

1.6 Rural Community Development

The term community development is currently used in relation to the rural areas
of less developed countries, where major emphasis is placed upon the activities for the
improvement if the basic living conditions of the community, including the satisfaction
of more of its non-material needs. Rural community development is mainly related to
agriculture and related matters, irrigation, communications, education, health,
supplementary employment, housing, social welfare and training. Hence, Community
Development Programmes and Panchayat Raj institutions have provided a new
dimension to rural development.

1.7 Labour Welfare

The term 'Labour Welfare' is very comprehensive and includes various types of activities
undertaken for the economic, social, intellectual or moral benefit of the labour
community. According to I.L.O., "Workers' welfare may be understood as meaning such
services, facilities and amenities, which may be established in or in the vicinity of
undertaking to enable the persons employed in them to perform their work in healthy,
congenial surrounding and provide with amenities conductive to good health and high
moral". Thus, under this definition we may include housing, medical, educational,
canteen facilities for rest and recreation, co-operative societies, day nurseries and crèches,
provision of sanitary accommodation, holidays with pay, social insurance measures
undertaken voluntarily by employee alone or jointly with workers, including sickness and
maternity benefit schemes, provident funds, gratuities and pension, etc.

1.8 Welfare of Backward Classes

The term weaker section, or backward classes, is used for the people who are
socially or educationally backward, particularly the scheduled castes and the scheduled
tribes. There is a vast socio-cultural gulf between the tribal or backward classes and the
people of the neighboring plains. In several parts of the country they live in varying
degree of concentration. Special offers have been made to develop the economics of
such areas more intensively by combining to the maximum extent possible resources
from different sectors with the separately allocated for the welfare and development of
tribal communities. To implement such integrated machinery, it is necessary to place
maximum to strengthen to existing administration and responsibilities to the institutions
and leadership of each tribal area and to give greater support of the efforts of voluntary
organisations and voluntary workers.
In other areas, where tribal communities live in scattered villages or groups of
villages, it is necessary to provide for special scheme for their needs.

1.9 Health and Social Work

Medical social work is the application and adoption of method and
philosophy of social work in the field of health and medical care. Medical social
work makes selected and medical extended use of those aspects of social work
knowledge and methods which are particularly relevant of helping persons who
have health and medical problems. Health and medical problems are isolated from
the Psychological aspects. In it the attitude of treatment plays very dominant role.
In other words, medical social work deals with those problems of the patient which
 are related to his physical and psychological environment.

1.10 Counselling
The term counselling generally refers to the process of professional guidance
offered to personal in the agencies operating in the field. Thus, counselling aims
not only at enabling individuals and groups in the counselling agency to realize
and enabling the potentials fully but also enables the counselor agency to utilize
effectively human and material resources within the agency and the community.
The objectives of field of counseling service are:

(i) To increase or supplement knowledge, understanding and skills,

(ii) To improve the ability for independent problem- solving,
(iii) To increase effective inter-relationships, and
(iv) To improve organisational functioning and services.

The field counsellor is expected to combine the roles of a change agent and
enables a process expert. As a change agent and enables, his role is neutral, while
as a process expert, he seeks to strengthen the counselor to undertake his
responsibilities effectively. In both, the emphasis is on modification of attitudes
and behaviour as well as on imparting knowledge and skills.

1.11 Social Welfare Work Administration

Voluntary organisation is generally used for that action which is concerned

primarily with what the individual should do independently of the state.
According to Lord Beverage, "The term 'Voluntary Action', as used here,
means private action, that is to say, action is not under the directions of any
authority wielding the power of the state." A voluntary social service is
interpreted generally to be organisation and activities of the self-governing
body of people, who have joined together voluntarily to study or act for the
betterment of the community. It is generally inspired by two main motives
-mutual aid and philanthropy. Today, voluntary organisations are working in
the field of education, social security in the form of friendly societies,
 homes for the destitute, the disabled, etc.

1.12 Emerging Fields of Social Work

The fields of social work mentioned above are few and it is possible that the
social worker can be employed any where based on their skills. It is quite possible that as
we progress towards the realization of the welfare state, some of the areas may abridged,
or even disappear. Till recently, the refugee problem, disasters, gender issues, HIV/AIDS
Climate Change and Global Warming under the umbrella of environment, just before that
the economic field and education fields were also the thrust areas for the social workers
to step in and work for the betterment of the society.

1.13 Different Scope of Social Work

Social work we mean work for the society. Social work is a work by which a social
worker can aware individual about their problems, identify their worth & dignity & give
a satisfactory and independent life which they can’t get by their own effort. The first
school of social work was set-up in Bombay in 1936.

Definition
According to Prof. Friedlander,”Social work is a professional service based upon
scientific knowledge & skill in human relations which assists individuals alone or in
groups to obtain social & professional satisfaction & independence.”

Scope of Social work

1. Child development
2. Medical social work
3. Clinical social work
4. Social work administrative & management
5. International social work
6. Social work in acute psychiatric hospital
7. Social work as community organizer
1. Child development:
Children are the most vital part of our Nation. They are the foundation of any nation.
For progress of any country their development is necessary. Their mental, physical,
 emotional, psychological, social development is important. The following services
has been organized by the Central Social Welfare Board for welfare of child in India.
They are:
 Right to education
 Right against exploitation
 Right for rehabilitation
 Right to speech & expression

Government policy
 Institutions for their protection, education & rehabilitation of the socially
handicapped children
 Temporary homes for the sick children suffering from TB & skin disease
 Children home, infant home, Balbadi, Nursery, Pre-primary school, day care
centre, recreation & cultural centres
 Holiday homes for the children of the family of economic weaker sections
 Child Health Centre
 Child Guidance Clinic
 Schools for Mentally retarded children

Social workers work in this institutions & tries their level best to solve their problems
and strengthen the path forth development of their personality. He also develop the
abilities & capabilities of the child.

2. Medical Social Work

The medical social work provide assistance to patient & their family who are coping with
many problems A social worker have the potentiality to aware the Doctor about the
problem and collect & analyse patient’s detail information to help other health
professions to understand the needs of the patients & their family
In fact when a doctor come into any conclusion in a minute, a social worker diagnosis a
problem thoroughly.

3. Clinical Social work

The clinical social work provides a full range of Mental Health Services including
assessment, diagnosis & treatment. It provide referral service to individuals, couples,
families & groups. Assist clients in adjusting to measure life style changes due to death of
loved one, disability, divorce or loss of a job.

4. Social work administration & management

To manage a programme planning is most important. The important of social worker

related to Fund raising & making grants
 Budget management
 Monitoring & evaluation of public & social policy
 Co-ordinate activities to achieve the agencies goal
 Staff co-ordination

5. International social work

The role of social work is to :

 Counsel & aid refugees to ensure a smooth transition into a new environment
 Facilitate international adoption
 Provide disaster relief in the time of crisis
 Counsel families to find better solution to their problems. Remove children from
abusive situation & place it to care homes
 Find employment & housing for homeless families
 Assist pregnant women, adoptive parents & adoptive children in crisis
 Provide assessment, support, counseling
 Provide assistants to women & their children who are victims of domestic
violence
6. Social work in an acute psychiatric hospital
A social worker can help to a psycho patient very trick fully because of her/his
professional quality. She/he can provide-
 Complete Intake
 Psycho-social assessment
 Participate in the treatment plan
 Provide patient & family education & support
 Provide individual treatment family & group therapy
 Provide discharge & after planning

7. Social work as community organizer

  Assist the community in defining a school problem
 Provide direction & guidance to the community in-order to mobilize & identified
cause by case work, group work & community organization
 Assist in establishing new programmes to meet the needs of individuals, groups
and families

Other Scopes
 Addiction Treatment
 Child abuse, adoption & welfare
 Criminal justice
 Crisis Intervention
 Developmental disabilities
 Disaster relief
 Domestic Relief
 Domestic Violence
 HIV/AIDS
 Military social work
 Political development
 Rural development
 Industrial development
 Women welfare

Types of professional intervention

1.1.1. Micro Level intervention

There are a wide variety of activities that can be considered social work and professional
social workers are employed in many different types of environments. The following list
details some of the main fields of social work.

1.1.2 Mezzo level

The second level of intervention is described as "Mezzo" social work practice. This level
would involve work with agencies, small organizations, and other small groups. This
practice would include policy making within a social work agency or developing
programs for a particular neighborhood.
1.1.3 Macro Level

The final level is the "Macro" level that involves service to individuals and families.

There are three general categories or levels of intervention. The first is "Macro" social
work which involves society or communities as a whole. This type of social work
practice would include policy forming and advocacy on a national or international scale.

1.2.1 Skills of Social Work

Skill is the workers capacity to apply knowledge and understanding to a given situation.
For their practice the social workers acquire and continuously develop the following
skills through education and training.

 Analyzing the situation and individual feelings

 Arriving satisfactory and fruitful relationships

 Serving client for self development

 Diagnosing

 Treatment

 Using agency and community resources

 Using his relationships with the client constructively

 Programming planning, organizing etc.,

Adding to the skills the social work has in its command the following

 Individual conscientization
 Group conscientization
  Organisation and planning

 Building and maintaining counter system and administrative aspects.

1.3.1 Techniques of Social Work

Social Workers in order to fulfill their responsibilities and to achieve the objectives of
social work have to make use of a number of tools and techniques which they acquire
during the course of their professional training.

There are four major conceptual tools the social worker has to learn to make use of in
their practice. They are

1. Conscious use of self

2. Constructive use of relationship

3. Verbal interaction

4. Programme planning and its usage

Besides that above mentioned tools social workers has its command over the following
techniques. For the convenience of easy understanding they can be arranged

1. Agreeing
2. advising

3. confronting

4. clarifying

5. counseling

6. disagreeing

7. educating
 8. interviewing

9. listening

10. observing

11. preparing

12. questioning

13. reviewing

14. reinforcing

15. reassuring and

16. supporting

ETHICS - AN INTRODUCTION

Ethics also called moral philosophy is concerned about what is right and what is wrong. It
can be divided into two sections - normative ethics and Meta ethics. Normative ethics
deals with the principles we live by. Meta ethics has a larger concern and its deals with
the nature and methodology of moral judgments. In other words, it deals with the basis on
which decisions should be made. Should the ultimate consequences of the decision, for
example be promoting happiness or promoting perfectionism in society? Religious people
base their decisions on what they believe to be the will of god and on god's word. As
social workers we are interested in ethics so that of relationships with clients, ow
colleagues, of superiors and our subordinates are within the framework of social work
values.
Social work rejects Social Darwinism and utilitarianism. Social work initially emerged in
the Western countries including U. S. A. and was therefore influenced by Judeo Christian
values. As the profession began to spread to Gulf and other parts of Asia, the religious
traditions of these countries also influenced the social work profession in these regions.
Social workers are trying to incorporate indigenous values into the profession so that the
profession gets better recognition and acceptance from the people. This process will be an
extended one, as most post-colonial societies are yet to recover, intellectually and
academically, from the colonial experience.

Scientific values and methods have also influenced the practice of social work. It may
seem strange that social work is influenced by two seemingly contrary values of science
and religion. Social work rejects those religious values that advocate that an individual
suffers due to other- worldly reasons like god's anger or predestination.

It believes that every individual has the capacity to solve his/ her problems if he/she is
provided with the necessary resources. Consequently factors that cause an individual's
problem or a social problem are identified using scientific methods namely observation,
description, classification and explanation. Solutions based on rationality are identified
and formulated. The following values are the basis of social work profession - social
justice, the dignity and worth of the individual importance of human relationships;
integrity, and competence.

You must have notice that professionals who deal with the human body, human psyche
and human relationships always have a code of conduct. Doctors have code of conduct
which they have to follow while they are practicing. Doctors pledge to prescribe only
beneficial treatment, according to their abilities and judgment; to refrain from causing
harm or hurt; and to live an exemplary personal and professional life. Lawyers have their
own code, which they have to follow when they are interacting with clients, pleading
before a judge and questioning witnesses. These codes have evolved over time during
which these professions emerged in society. As these professions emerged there were
several instances of misuse of these positions by unscrupulous individuals who harmed
the professions. The codes were formulated so that behaivour of these professionals are
controlled and society's trust in them is not lost.
Professions that have ethical codes generally have a body of fellow professionals who are
elected by the professional organisation to oversee their implementation. In advanced
countries these bodies have wide ranging powers. These include the power to censure the
offending member; impose a fine on the member and even revoke the member's license to
practice. when one former American President was found guilty of perjury the Bar
Association of his home state revoked his license to practice in the court and now he is
not allowed to practice law in that state. In India the license of a doctor-actor was revoked
by the Medical Council after it was alleged that he had advertised a medicine which did
not meet the standards set by the Council. Of course in both these high profile cases there
existed a political angle to the problem which lead the respective associations to take
such drastic steps. But these examples do show that the ethical codes of professions are a
serious matter and that professional bodies are powerful organizations. We shall now
specifically take up the social work code of ethics.

NEED FOR ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN SOCIAL WORK

Social work is a problem solving profession. The social worker comes across varied and
complex situations. Ethics help professionals to act morally in difficult situations. The
need for such behaviour in social work is important due to the following reasons.

Social workers during their interaction with clients and their significant others have to
sensitive information: The purpose of the client to share information is to enable the
social worker to get better insight into the problem and then help the client to solve the
problem. But if the social worker reveals this sensitive information inadvertently or
purposely to others helshe will be damaging the client's cause and furthering complicate
the problem. Strict observance of the principle of confidentiality is necessary in this
situation.

Social workers are often in situations wltere their decisions can causeserious damage
to the client: Social workers often deal with clients who are facing serious problems.
Their personalities are often disintegrated and they may be vulnerable to emotional and
physical abuse. Even otherwise there is a power relation between the social worker and
the client. The case worker has more knowledge and is in greater control of his/ her
emotions than the client. This power should not be used to the disadvantage of the client.
In some cases the caseworker may unconsciously commit an error which causes damage
to the client. The chances for such errors are minimized when the social worker has
internalized the social work ethics.

Basics of Social Work Social workers occupy positions of nutlzority in governmental

and non governmental organisntions:
Any position of authority has an element of accountability attached to it. Accountability
means 'to give count of. You have been entrusted with certain goods and after use you
have to account for what you have used, for what purpose, how and to what effect. Social
workers, unlike others have an additional responsibility - they have to see that the human
dignity and human self is preserved.

Probably no other profession deals with these aspects as directly as social work.
A policeman has to only think whether his action would reduce the crime rate and
whether he is following the due process of law when he is acting. The lawyer has to only
think whether hisher client's interests will be served by hisher actions. A priest has to only
worry whether his actions will help hlfill the individual's religious needs. But the social
worker's decisions should express concern for human dignity and human self.

Social workers are often in positions where they can allocate resources: In most cases,
allocating resources to one party means not allocating it to others who are also be needy.
This is true of a country like India where scarcity exists almost everywhere. In an
adoption center a social worker may be asked whether a particular couple can be allowed
to adopt a child. The social worker's opinion will have a bearing on the lives of at least
three individuals.
Social workers have to preserve professional autonomy: In a democratic country the
government is the ultimate authority and it plays an important role in regulating other
institutions. But some times this regulation becomes an intrusion into the internal affairs
of the professions which is not desirable. If the professionals themselves regulate their
affaires, government action becomes unnecessary and their professional autonomy can be
preserved.
2 Professional association

A professional association (also called a professional body, 'professional organization,

professional association or professional society) is a non-profit organization seeking to
further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession, and
the public interest.

The roles of these professional associations have been variously defined: "A group of
people in a learned occupation who are entrusted with maintaining control or oversight of
the legitimate practice of the occupation;" also a body acting "to safeguard the public
interest;" organizations which "represent the interest of the professional practitioners,"
and so "act to maintain their own privileged and powerful position as a controlling body."

Such bodies generally strive to achieve a balance between these two often conflicting
mandates. Though professional bodies often act to protect the public by maintaining and
enforcing standards of training and ethics in their profession, they often also act like a
cartel or a labor union (trade union) for the members of the profession, though this
description is commonly rejected by the body concerned.

Therefore, in certain dispute situations the balance between these two aims may get
tipped more in favor of protecting and defending the professionals than in protecting the
public. An example can be used to illustrate this. In a dispute between a lawyer and
his/her client or between a patient and his/her doctor, the Law Society of England and
Wales or the General Medical Council will inevitably find itself plunged into a conflict of
interest in (a) its wish to defend the interests of the client, while also (b) wishing to
defend the interests, status and privileges of the professional. It is clearly a tough call for
it do both.

Many professional bodies are involved in the development and monitoring of

professional educational programs, and the updating of skills, and thus perform
professional certification to indicate that a person possesses qualifications in the subject
area. Sometimes membership of a professional body is synonymous with certification,
though not always. Membership of a professional body, as a legal requirement, can in
some professions form the primary formal basis for gaining entry to and setting up
practice within the profession; see licensure.

Many professional bodies also act as learned societies for the academic disciplines
underlying their professions.

Professional associations

There are a number of professional associations for social workers. The purpose of these
associations is to provide advocacy, ethical guidance, and other forms of support for their
members and social workers in general.

Two of these are the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the
International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW).

At a national level there are organizations regulating the profession, as well. Some of
these are the British Association of Social Workers (United Kingdom), the Australian
Association of Social Workers (Australia), the Professional Social Workers' Association
(India), the Hellenic Association of Social Workers (Greece) and so forth.

The largest membership of professional social workers in the world is the National
Association of Social Workers (NASW)[1] with 150,000 members.

International Federation of Social Workers

The International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) is an international professional

organization for social workers. The society consists of 84 national chapters, divided into
five regional groups, and has over 480,000 members. The goal of this body is to promote
the profession of social work and the organization of professional social workers to
facilitate their work through international cooperation. The current president is David N.
Jones of the United Kingdom.
History

The organization began as the International Permanent Secretariat of Social Workers in

Paris in 1928. This group became inactive after the onset of World War II. During the
International Conference of Social Work of 1950 in Paris, the organization was
reorganized as the International Federation of Social Workers. Originally, seven national
social worker organizations agreed to become members. However, this new association
was not officially founded until 1956 at the International Conference on Social Welfare in
Munich, Germany

International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW)

The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) is the international

association of schools of social work and other institutions of learning. The IASSW
promotes the development of social work education throughout the world, develops
standards to enhance quality of social work education, encourages international
exchange, provides forums for sharing social work research and scholarship, and
promotes human rights and social development through policy and advocacy activities.
They also work in a consultative role with the United Nations. They host a biennial
conference of social work educators called the IASSW Congress and publish a newsletter.

The IASSW was founded in 1928 at the First International Conference of Social Work,
held in Paris. It initially comprised 51 schools, mostly in Europe, and was known as the
International Committee. Revitalized after World War II, the organization expanded its
membership to include a wider range of countries and was renamed the International
Association of Schools of Social Work. The association has member schools in all parts
of the world; 5 regional organizations in Africa; Asia and the Pacific; Europe; Latin
America; and North America and the Caribbean are affiliated with the IASSW and
represented on the Board of Directors.

British Association of Social Workers (BASW)

The British Association of Social Workers (BASW) is the largest professional
association of social workers in the United Kingdom.[1] It has created a code of ethics that
outlines good social work practice and works to support social workers through education
and resources. Headquartered in Birmingham, BASW has regional offices in England
(Birmingham), Northern Ireland (Belfast), Scotland (Edinburgh), Wales (Swyddfa
Cymru) (Penarth), and North Wales (Cymru Gogledd) (Pwllheli).

BASW was formed in 1970 by the amalgamation of the Association of Child Care
Officers, the Association of Family Case Workers, the Association of Psychiatric Social
Workers, the Association of Social Workers, the Institute of Medical Social Workers, the
Moral Welfare Workers' Association, and the Society of Mental Welfare Officers. These
were all members of the Standing Conference of Organisations of Social Workers
(SCOSW), which had been formed in 1962 to bring together the different branches of the
profession and which was wound up on the formation of BASW (the National
Association of Probation Officers was also a member, but decided against joining the new
association).

Australian Association of Social Workers (AASW)

The Australian Association of Social Workers (AASW) is the professional

representative body of social workers in Australia. It was formed in 1946 at the federal
level, although a number of state branches had formed prior to this. The AASW created a
code of ethics that governs the conduct of social workers and promotes the interests of
social workers in Australia.[1]

The Australian Association of Social Workers has a commitment to the international

social work community, and is a member of the International Federation of Social
Workers (IFSW)

Journal

The AASW publishes the quarterly journal Australian Social Work. It publishes
research and thinking by social workers on political, economic and social policies and
programs and on professional practice and education. It is a professionally edited and
refereed journal, led by a national committee of practitioners and academics.

AASW Code of Ethics

The Australian Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics outlines the organization’s
view of the role and character of social work.

In carrying out their professional tasks and duties, social workers strive to act in ways
that give equal priority to respect for human dignity and worth and the pursuit of social
justice. This commitment is demonstrated through service to humanity, integrity and
competence, which characterise professional social work practice. Social work
principles are derived from the values; together, they underpin ethical social work
practice.

They are further explained as below

 Human dignity and worth - Every human being has a unique worth and each
person has a right to well-being, selffulfilment and self-determination, consistent
with the rights of others.

 Social justice - Each society has an obligation to pursue social justice, to provide
maximum benefit for all its members and to afford them protection from harm.

 Service to humanity - To meet personal and social needs and to enable people to
develop their potential.

 Integrity - honesty, reliability and impartiality in social work practice.

 Competence - proficiency in social work practice.

Professional Social Workers' Association (PSWA)

The Professional Social Workers' Association (PSWA) is an association of Indian /
Tamil Nadu social work professionals, headquartered at Chennai. It is a legally registered
entity, formerly known as "Professional Social Workers' Forum" (PSWF).

The Association is functioning since 1985. They are also organizing an annual state level
seminar pertaining to current social work challenges and practices.

Social Work and Voluntary Action

Social work has also ensured the protection of human rights through various social
legislations. This enhances the happiness of the entire community by protecting from
injustice and by punishing those who do not conform to the social interest. Besides social
legislations tackle social problems like untouchability, child marriage. The dowry system,
sati, the devadasi system and various other social problems, thus helping to build a
wholesome community. The emerging new notion of social service as a force and
instrument in the promotion of planned social change and development enlarges the
scope or professional social work activity, which traditionally, has been associated with
such fields of practice as child and family welfare, medical and psychiatric social work,
school social work, correctional and group services. Social work has also taken up new
responsibilities by tying up with other disciplines to fight poverty and the problems of
modern society.

Voluntary Organization

A voluntary organization, properly speaking, is an organization which whether its

workers are paid or unpaid is initiated and governed by its own members without external
control. The independence of voluntary action does not however mean a lack of co-
operation between it and public action. But the term voluntary action means that the
agency undertaking it has a will and a life of its own. As defined by the National Council
of Social Service, a voluntary social service is interpreted generally as the organisation
and activities of a self-governing body of people who have joined together voluntarily to
study or act for betterment of the community.
Social Workers and People

Social workers work with clients at various le vels: the micro-level of individual and
family; the meso-level of community; and the macro-level of national and international
community. Concern for human rights must be manifested by social workers at all levels.
At all times social work is concerned with the protection of individual and group needs. It
is often forced to mediate between the people and the state and other authorities, to
champion particular causes and to provide support, when state action threatens or
neglects the right and freedom to individuals and/or groups. More than other
professionals, social work educators and practitioners are conscious that their concerns
are closely linked with respect for human rights. They accept the premise that human
rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, and the full realization of civil and
political rights is impossible without enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights.

1.4 Interface between Voluntary social work and Professional Social Work

Voluntary social work has always been regarded most commonly as the 'relief of distress'
or providing assistance to underprivileged and marginalized sections of society through
individual or group means. Associated with charity, sympathy, philanthropy and spiritual
urge to assist those in adversity, voluntary social work has become one of the exalted
values. It is underlined with true spirit of dedication with little or no motive for personal
enhancement, profit, prestige or political mileage.

Voluntary social work in fact has an age long tradition in India. As is common in
traditional community based society merits of charity, philanthropy, cooperation and
charitable disposition towards the poor have always been extolled. Compassion towards
the downtrodden have always remained the significant pillar of Hindu culture.

This voluntary service has been synonymous with honorary or unpaid services and thus
the paid worker does not get similar respect and the professional social worker is held in
lesser esteem. Though, in the present context the term 'voluntary' encompasses all
organized social work, paid or unpaid, under the management of government or non-
governmental agencies' voluntary social work without reward still occupies a significant
place in Indian society.

The fact that the history of social work welfare has existed since the birth of the
civilization can be supported from the fact that early men took initiatives and efforts to
support and protect weak in face of danger. Also, social insurance can be gauged fiom the
village panchayats, joint family and community that protected old and weak members in
face of danger. Besides, this normal philanthropic urge of in religion too played a crucial
role in facilitating voluntary social work by enjoining its members to give to needy and
underprivileged. Christian missionaries have a significant influence in instilling spirit and
venturing into the fields of service. This voluntary social work tinged with religious
favour gave way to societies birth of like Servants of India society. Soon, with the ascent
of Mahatma Gandhi in the political scene, philosophy of social work and developmental
activities received a new impetus. His views resulted in several constructive
developmental projects for the amelioration of some of the evils of the society. After,
independence, government itself entered the field of social work. It does not mean that
earlier government did not have social services, but that there has been a shift towards the
ideal of "welfare state". The acceptance of socialist pattern of society proved that more
areas of social work had come under the purview of government. This implies that it is
not social work per say but the management and administration of certain social sedices
by government which under ordinary course have been the areas of voluntary social
work.

In response to the changing demands of industrial society, this concept and interpretation
has both broadened and undergone vital changes. The efforts are no longer simply limited
to providing assistance and services to those in need but has developed as an organized
and systematic activity in providing relief services and assistance to facilitate adjustment
of individual, groups and community with their specific environment.
This change of social realities complemented with social reform movements led to the
organization of welfare activities on systematic lines. It necessitated imparting of
integrated skills and knowledge to develop a committed manpower capable of taking
actions to better serve the objectives of social development. Thus training was needed to
deal with and answer the complex issues afflicting the Indian society. Though the
humanitarian outlook of both voluntary and professional worker is alike what sets them
apart is this professional scientific training. However, with thin difference between the
voluntary and professional social work which primarily lies in the technique and mode of
delivery: increasing focus is now upon the need to build network between the state
agencies and voluntary sector to facilitate the effectiveness of the management of
developmental programmes.
This unit focuses on how theory may be used in a practical activity such as social work
and issues in social work theory identifies the range of social work practice theories and
goes on to look at debate about how we assess them. In general, a theory is an organized
statement of ideas about the world. Perspective, theory and model are all necessary in a
theory that is to be useful in practice. Because social work is a practical action in a
complex world, a theory or perspective must offer a model of explicit guidance.

Sibeon (1990) distinguish between formal and informal theory. Formal theory is written
down and debated within the profession and academic work. Informal theory consists of
wider theories and values that exist in society and constructions from practical
experience, those every day practices.

1.1 Psychodynamic Theory

Psychodynamic Theory is one of the oldest theories in psychology and applied in social
work methods, in which patients are treated are viewed within a model of illness that
attempts to identify something that may be lacking. Each individual is perceived to be
made up from a dynamic that begins in early childhood and continually progresses
throughout life. This way of thinking, however, is generally considered a watered-down
version of the more conservative and rigid psychoanalytic school of thought.
Psychoanalysis in itself emphasizes the belief that all adult problems are directly related
to events in one’s childhood. Very few therapists today can afford to practice strict
psychoanalysis anymore, and as a result, it is typically practiced only by psychiatrists
who have spent many personal hours being analyzed themselves as well as attending
psychoanalytic institute. This is more than likely the kind of therapy people imagine
when they think of therapy in terms of a “shrink.”

Therapists who practice this theory have a tendency to look at individuals as the
composite of their parental upbringing. Their focus is on the means for settling conflicts
between themselves and their parents as well as within themselves. Psychodynamic
therapists tend to believe in the theoretical constructs of the ego (which acts as a force
similar to a referee) and the superego (known as the conscience) as well as an id that
exists inside all of us that tends to act as a devil’s advocate working against the thought
process of the conscience. All of these constructs work together to make up the
personality and the role of the unconscious is emphasized meaning that contrary to what
else you may think, what you don’t know can indeed hurt you and more often than not, it
does just that.

The development of an adult’s personality is viewed in terms of whether he or she was

able to successfully maneuver through the psychosexual stage of childhood development.
Because of this belief, adults are unlikely to know how they are screwed up and as a
result may not even recognize the signs of mental distress or mental disorder. Most
psychotherapists tend to view adults with varying degrees of “bad.”

Mental Illness: What is it?

Mental illness is believed to be the result of an unsuccessful progression through

childhood development, which in turn resulted in problems with the personality structure.
Sex and aggression are emphasized as being the unconscious motives for most human
behavior. In other words, in the case of a person superego is stronger than it should be
and the ego is not always able to counteract its demands, the result may be a person who
is a perfectionist or has compulsive-obsessive tendencies. Keep in mind that this is all
unconscious just like the unresolved childhood conflicts, so the person is not even aware
why they act the way they do.

The Treatment

During therapy, psychodynamic therapists tend to emphasize the importance of insight

and interpretations within what is referred to as a “frame.” This “frame” is emphasized in
all forms of theoretical orientation, though to a lesser degree than with psychodynamic
therapies. The frame is described as being the setting and boundaries such as meeting
time, place, length of each session, and other pertinent information. It is believed that if
you cancel an appointment, a force greater than simply your car breaking down is at work
within you. Although there may be some truth to this, it is not felt that it is to the degree
that is emphasized within the psychodynamic therapy plan. The fact that the basis of
psychodynamic therapy is transference makes the frame much more important than in
other types of psychotherapy. The possibility exists that the patient may be engaging in
some type of transference that needs analyzed by the therapist and quite possibly
interpreted.

Both psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapists cam be said to be the best in

interpretations and listening. As noted with the missed appointment, the fact that that the
therapist was reading more into the situation than was there can be classified as an
interpretation. After all, an interpretation is no more than offering a reason or explanation
to the patient concerning that person’s behaviors, thoughts, or feelings. If an
interpretation is properly conducted, it leads to the patient being able to understand the
unconscious motivation for his former actions, reactions, feelings, or thoughts. Of course,
other therapists do interpretations as well, but psychodynamic therapists perform the best
interpretations.

Cognitive behavioural theory

Cognitive behavioural ideas come from two related streams of psychological writing.
Histroically, learning theory came first, and developed into clinical psychology using a
behaviour therapy based on psychological research.

Cognitive-Behavioral Theory is the concept that cognition

plays an important role in behavior change. More specifically,
the cognitions or thoughts of a client impact their behaviors,
and negative thoughts or beliefs can make it particularly
difficult for a client to make positive behavior change.

Cognitive-behavioral interventions combine cognitive and

behavioral strategies to solve a variety of behavioral and
psychological problems. They seek to “change a person’s
irrational or faulty thinking and behaviors by educating the
person and reinforcing positive experiences that will lead to
fundamental changes in the way that person copes.” In other
words, by learning to shift or alter their thinking processes, cli-
ents can think more clearly about the choices they make and
the behaviors in which they engage.

Cognitive theory is in part a development of behaviour theory and therapy, recently

building particularly on social learning theory. It also grew out of therapeutic
developments of a pragmatic kind, devised by writers such as Beck and Ellis who were
concerned with psychiatric conditions such as anxiety neurosis and depression. In social
work Glasser’s reality therapy which originates from residential work with young
women, has been important. Because originators of behavioral therapies were dealing
with disorders of mind, they moved towards trying to incorporate thinking within their
model of therapy.

Cognitive behavioural theory focuses on defining and addressing people’s problem

behaviours, particularly social phobias, anxiety and depression.
1.3. Systme

Systems Theory

‘Eco-systems theory is a metatheory that offers social work practitioners/clinicians a way

of thinking about and assessing the relatedness of people and their impinging
environments; it does not specify the what (problem-definition) or the how
(methodology) of practice. For that it relies upon the increasingly large repertoire of
available practice models, each one to make these specifications consistent with its
particular theoretical orientations’ (Meyer, 1983: 29-30)

So what does it offer social workers?

Systems theory offers a way of conceptualising the relationship between people and
environments and encourages a balanced approach to both domains of practice.
Emphasis is on the ‘goodness of fit’ between the client and their environment. Workers
can focus on how family, community, social, economic and political factors affect the
client’s situation.

According to Hoffman and Sallee, 1994, there are five principles of systems are:
 1. All systems seek goal attainment and balance.

2. All systems have boundaries.

3. All systems are made up of subsystems.

4. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

5. All systems create feedback.

The key assumptions of systems theories are that:

(i) individuals function as a part of many systems - they are affected by these
systems and affect the systems
(ii) because systems are in dynamic interchange, a change in one part of the
system will have consequences for other systems
(iii) problems arise because of a misfit between individuals and the systems of
which they are a part
(iv) the role of the social worker is to enhance the fit between the individual and
the systems affecting them

Principles of Systems Intervention

(i) the notion of partnership

(ii) the worker facilitates change but is not an expert about the system
(iii) sustained change
(iv) non-judgemental
 (v) holism and recognition of social connection

Application of Systems theory

The worker aims to enhance the fit between the individual and their environment. This is
done by developing, maintaining or strengthening supportive interventions and reducing,
challenging or replacing stressful systems

Stage 1: Systemic analysis

 recognizing multiple systems

 recognizing multiple levels (micro, meso, macro)
 each of these systems is interacting with, and reliant on, each other
Stage 2: Intervention

Intervention should be targeted at the system(s) that will offer most potential and most
leverage for change.

Social worker should think strategically about the possibilities and limitations for change
in the different systems affecting the client’s environment and have an understanding of
the possibilities for intervention in each system.

Major critique about this theory is, it is

- descriptive, not explanatory

- accepts systems as they are
- may disempower by taking away individual responsibility and agency

‘Almost without exception, the leading exponents of ecological-systems theory have

given priority to the interdependence of person and environment, and have failed to
explore the tension or dialectic between them’ (Kemp, Whittaker and Tracy (1997:44)
The Politics of Systems Theory within Social Work

Payne (2002) found that systems theory had a major impact on social work in the 1970s,
however, its rise and rise in the U.S. and its rise and fall in Britain (and Australia) was
associated with wider social changes rather than for intrinsic reasons of theoretical or
intellectual development.

Strengths and weaknesses of Systems Theory

Strengths
 focus on interactions between individuals and systems (doesn’t
pathologise)
 fosters sustained change between individuals and their social environment
 can move beyond ‘presenting problem’ and delve into other more far-
reaching problems and concerns
 recognises the value of the social context, especially the contribution of
formal and informal social systems
Weaknesses

 its underlying assumptions are questionable e.g. change in one part may
not lead to change in another – can underestimate the resistance to change
in a system
 can deny individual responsibility for change
 can support the status quo
 can bind workers and clients into long-term interactions with no beginning
or end
 difficult to evaluate service effectiveness, because of the absence of
‘causes’ and ‘effects’
Conclusion

It is concluded that how the Systems theory can be used in the social work practice based
on the following

 Intervention focus: Systems

 Change achieved through: Facilitating systems change

 Relationship between worker and client: Systems analyst and change agent

 Participation and partnership: Worker and client work together

 Measure of change: Enhanced integration of individual and systems

 Focus on broader political environment: Minimal

 Process of intervention: Multi-dimensional and open-ended

The contribution of general system theory to the understanding of social work method in
a generic situation is considered. An account of general system theory is given indicating
how human systems differ from other systems, taking their place in a larger continuum.
The implications of the theory for social work are then examined with special reference
to four levels. First there is the philosophical level, the view it presents of man and
society, as compared with other psychological and sociological theories. Secondly its
contribution to the perspective of social workers, making them aware of the range of
systems they should be considering. Thirdly its contribution to practice in providing a
model of the structure of systems as a guide to appraisal and intervention. In this
connection the model is related to Lippitt's ‘diagnostic orientations’. Fourthly its
contribution to the understanding of social work process is examined. In the conclusion it
is suggested that it is the contribution to the third level that justifies the expenditure of
effort in absorbing the theory.

THEORIES AND MODELS OF BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE

It begins with theories that focus on the individual’s psychological process, such as
attitudes and beliefs, then goes into theories emphasizing social relationships, and ends
with structural factors in explaining human behaviour. This separation is artificial as there
is inevitable overlap in categories. It might therefore be useful, as well, to see the theories
as a continuum of models moving from the strictly individually-centered to the macro-
level of structural and environmentally focused.

(A) FOCUS ON INDIVIDUALS

As HIV transmission is propelled by behavioural factors, theories about how individuals

change their behaviour have provided the foundation for most HIV prevention efforts
worldwide. These theories have been generally created using cognitive-attitudinal and
affective-motivational constructs (Kalichman, 1998). Nearly all the psychosocial theories
originated in the West but have been used for AIDS internationally with mixed results.
Only one of the psychosocial models discussed below, the AIDS risk reduction model,
was developed specifically for AIDS.

Psychosocial models of behavioural risk can be categorized into 3 major groups:

 those predicting risk behaviour,

 those predicting behavioural change and
 those predicting maintenance of safe behaviour.

Models of individual behavioural change generally focus on stages that individuals pass
through while trying to change behaviour. These theories and models generally do not
consider the interaction of social, cultural and environmental issues as independent of
individual factors (Auerbach, 1994). Although each theory is built on different
assumptions they all state that behavioural changes occur by altering potential risk-
producing situations and social relationships, risk perceptions, attitudes, self- efficacy
beliefs, intentions and outcome expectations (Kalichman, 1997).

Central to HIV prevention interventions based on psychological- behavioural theory is

the practice of targeted risk-reduction skills. These skills are generally passed on to
individuals in a process consisting of instruction, modeling, practice and feedback
(Kalichman, 1997). The psychological theories and models that have been most
instrumental in the design and development of HIV prevention interventions are briefly
described below.

Health belief model

The Health belief model, developed in the 1950s, holds that health behaviour is a
function of individual’s socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge and attitudes.
According to this model, a person must hold the following beliefs in order to be able to
change behaviour:

 Perceived susceptibility to a particular health problem (“ am I at risk for HIV?”)

 Perceived seriousness of the condition (“ how serious is AIDS; how hard would
my life be if I got it?”)
 belief in effectiveness of the new behaviour (“ condoms are effective against HIV
transmission”)
 cues to action (“ witnessing the death or illness of a close friend or relative due to
AIDS”)
 perceived benefits of preventive action (“ if I start using condoms, I can avoid
HIV infection”)
 barriers to taking action (“ I don’t like using condoms”).
In this model, promoting action to change behaviour includes changing individual
personal beliefs. Individuals weigh the benefits against the perceived costs and barriers to
change. For change to occur, benefits must outweigh costs. With respect to HIV,
interventions often target perception of risk, beliefs in severity of AIDS (“ there is no
cure”), beliefs in effectiveness of condom use and benefits of condom use or delaying
onset of sexual relations.

1.4. Social cognitive (or learning) theory

The premise of the social cognitive or social learning theory (SCT) states that new
behaviours are learned either by modeling the behaviour of others or by direct
experience. Social learning theory focuses on the important roles played by vicarious,
symbolic, and self-regulatory processes in psychological functioning and looks at human
behaviour as a continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental
determinants (Bandura, 1977). Central tenets of the social cognitive theory are:

 self-efficacy - the belief in the ability to implement the necessary behaviour (“ I

know I can insist on condom use with my partner”)

 Outcome expectancies - beliefs about outcomes such as the belief that using
condoms correctly will prevent HIV infection.

Programmes built on SCT integrate information and attitudinal change to enhance

motivation and reinforcement of risk reduction skills and self-efficacy. Specifically,
activities focus on the experience people have in talking to their partners about sex and
condom use, the positive and negative beliefs about adopting condom use, and the types
of environmental barriers to risk reduction. A meta-analysis of HIV risk-reduction
interventions that used SCT in controlled experimental trials found that 12 published
interventions with mostly uninfected individuals all obtained positive changes in risk
behaviour, with a medium effect size meeting or exceeding effects of other theory-based
behavioural change interventions (Greenberg, 1996).
Theory of reasoned action

The theory of reasoned action, advanced in the mid-1960s by Fishbein and Ajzen, is
based on the assumptions that human beings are usually quite rational and make
systematic use of the information available to them. People consider the implications of
their actions in a given context at a given time before they decide to engage or not engage
in a given behaviour, and that most actions of social relevance are under volitional
control (Ajzen, 1980). The theory of reasoned action is conceptually similar to the health
belief model but adds the construct of behavioural intention as a determinant of health
behaviour. Both theories focus on perceived susceptibility, perceived benefits and
constraints to changing behaviour. The theory of reasoned action specifically focuses on
the role of personal intention in determining whether a behaviour will occur. A person’s
intention is a function of 2 basic determinants:

 attitude (toward the behaviour), and

 ‘Subjective norms’, i.e. social influence.

‘Normative’ beliefs play a central role in the theory, and generally focus on what an
individual believes other people, especially influential people, would expect him/her to
do.

For example, for a person to start using condoms, his/her attitude might be “having sex
with condoms is just as good as having sex without condoms’” and subjective norms (or
the normative belief) could be “most of my peers are using condoms, they would expect
me to do so as well”. Interventions using this theory to guide activities focus on attitudes
about risk-reduction, response to social norms, and intentions to change risky behaviours.

Stages of change model

This model, developed early in the 1990s specifically for smoking cessation by
Prochaska, DiClemente and colleagues, posits 6 stages that individuals or groups pass
through when changing behaviour: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation,
action, maintenance and relapse. With respect to condom use, the stages could be
described as:

 has not considered using condoms (pre-contemplation)

 recognizes the need to use condoms (contemplation)
 thinking about using condoms in the next months (preparation)
 using condoms consistently for less than 6 months (action)
 using condoms consistently for 6 months or more (maintenance)
 slipping-up with respect to condom use (relapse)

In order for an intervention to be successful it must target the appropriate stage of the
individual or group. For example, awareness raising between stage one and two. Groups
and individuals pass through all stages, but do not necessarily move in a linear fashion
(Prochaska, 1992). As with previous theories, the stages of change model emphasizes the
importance of cognitive processes and uses Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy.
Movement between stages depends on cognitive-behavioural processes.

Among others, the CDC has used the Stages of Change model in its AIDS Community
Demonstration Projects for marginal populations in the US and in a research project
aiming to change women’s sexual behaviour with their main partners (Galavotti 1998).

AIDS risk reduction model

The AIDS risk reduction model, developed in 1990 (Catania et al), uses constructs from
the health belief model, the social cognitive theory and the diffusion of innovation theory
(a social model described below), to describe the process individuals (or groups) pass
through while changing behaviour regarding HIV risk. The model identifies 3 stages
involved in reducing risk for HIV transmission, including:
  behaviour labelling
 commitment to change
 taking action.

In the first stage, knowledge about HIV transmission, perceived HIV susceptibility, as
well as aversive emotions influence how people perceive AIDS. The commitment stage is
shaped by four factors: perceptions of enjoyment, self-efficacy, social norms and aversive
emotions. Again, in the last stage, aversive emotions, sexual communication, help-
seeking behaviour and social factors affect people’s decision-making process (Catania,
1990).

Programmes that use the AIDS risk reduction model focus on:

 clients’ risk assessment

 influencing the decision to reduce risk through perceptions of enjoyment or self-
efficacy
 clients’ support to enact the change (access to condoms, social support).

Conclusion

These psychosocial theories and constructs were very useful early in the epidemic to
identify individual behaviours associated with higher rates of HIV transmission. They
continue to provide important guidance to interventions in formulating design and
evaluation with diverse populations in a wide variety of settings. Theories also help in
understanding study results. It is important, however, to pay particular attention to these
theories across cultures and genders as nearly all the individually based theories were
developed in the West with little focus on the role of gender. Although numerous studies
have proven the usefulness of these theories, it has become increasingly evident that
alone they do not entirely explain why some populations have higher HIV prevalence
than others, nor the complex interactions between contextual factors and individual
behaviour.

Social Theories and Models

Overemphasis on individual behavioural change with a focus on the cognitive level has
undermined the overall research capacity to understand the complexity of HIV
transmission and control. Focus only on the individual psychological process ignores the
interactive relationship of behaviour in its social, cultural, and economic dimension
thereby missing the possibility to fully understand crucial determinants of behaviour.
Aggleton (1996) points out that, in many cases, motivations for sex are complicated,
unclear and may not be thought through in advance.

Societal norms, religious criteria, and gender-power relations infuse meaning into
behaviour, enabling positive or negative changes. A main difference between individual
and social models is that the latter aim at changes at the community level.

Sociological theories assert that society is broken up into smaller subcultures and it is the
members of one’s immediate surroundings, the peer group that some-one most identifies
with, that has the most significant influence on an individual’s behaviour. According to
this perspective, effective prevention efforts, especially in vulnerable communities that
do not have the larger societal support, will depend on the development of strategies that
can enlist community mobilization to modify the norms of this peer net-work to support
positive changes in behaviour (Kelly, 1995). A greater interest in the context surrounding
individual behaviour led to increased numbers of interventions guided by the following
theories and models.

Diffusion of innovation theory

The diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 1983) describes the process of how an idea is
disseminated throughout a community. According to the theory, there are four essential
elements: the innovation, its communication, the social system and time. People’s
exposure to a new idea, which takes place within a social network or through the media,
will determine the rate at which various people adopt a new behaviour. The theory posits
that people are most likely to adopt new behaviours based on favorable evaluations of the
idea communicated to them by other members whom they respect (Kegeles, 1996). Kelly
explains that when the diffusion theory is applied to HIV risk reduction, normative and
risk behavioural changes can be initiated when enough key opinion leaders adopt and
endorse behavioural changes, influence others to do the same and eventually diffuse the
new norm widely within peer networks. When beneficial prevention beliefs are instilled
and widely held within one’s immediate social network, individuals’ behaviour is more
likely to be consistent with the perceived social norms (Kelly, 1995).

Interventions using this theory generally investigate the best method to disperse messages
within a community and who are the leaders able to act as role models to change
community norms.

Social influence or social inoculation model

This educational model is based on the concept that young people engage in behaviours
including early sexual activity partly because of general societal influences, but more
specifically from their peers (Howard 1990). The model suggests exposing young people
to social pressures while teaching them to examine and develop skills to deal with these
pressures. The model often relies on role models such as teenagers slightly older than
programme participants to present factual information, identify pressures, role-play
responses to pressures, teach assertiveness skills and discuss problem situations (Howard,
1990). Social influence model has been used to reduce smoking among young people as
well.

1.5 Social network theory

The Social Network Theory looks at social behaviour not as an individual phenomenon
but through relationships, and appreciates that HIV risk behaviour, unlike many other
health behaviours, directly involves 2 people (Morris, 1997). With respect to sexual
relationships, social networks focus on both the impact of selective mixing (i.e. how
different people choose who they mix with), and the variations in partnership patterns
(length of partnership and overlap). Although the intricacies of relations and
communication within the couple, the smallest unit of the social network, is critical to the
understanding of HIV transmission in this model, the scope and character of one’s
broader social network, those who serve as reference people, and who sanction
behaviour, are key to comprehending individual risk behaviour (Auerbach, 1994). In
other words, social norms are best understood at the level of social networks.

One application of the Sexual Network Theory for HIV prevention is the concept of
‘bridge populations’ that form a link between high and low prevalence groups (Morris,
1997). In Thailand, men who have both commercial and non-commercial sex partners
form an important bridge population, which was an integral aspect of the spread of HIV
in Thailand. Programmes using this theory to guide them would investigate:

 the composition of important social networks in a community;

 the attitudes of the social networks towards safer sex;
 whether the social network provides the necessary support to change behaviour;
 whether particular people within the social network are at particularly high risk
and may put many others at risk.

Although few network-based interventions have been tried, the concept has proven
complementary to individual-based theories for the design of prevention programmes by
focusing on the partnership as well as the larger social group. Analysis of network mixing
provides the means to see efficiency of transmission and effective points of intervention.

Theory of gender and power

Unlike the psychosocial theories which are essentially gender-blind, the theory of gender
and power is a social structural theory addressing the wider social and environmental
issues surrounding women, such as distribution of power and authority, affective
influences, and gender-specific norms within heterosexual relationships (Connell, 1987).
Using this theory to guide intervention development with women in heterosexual
relationships can help investigate how a woman’s commitment to a relationship and lack
of power can influence her risk reduction choices (DiClemente, 1995).

Programmes using the theory of gender and power would assess the impact of
structurally determined gender differences on interpersonal sexual relationships
(perceptions of socially prescribed gender relations).

Conclusion

Social theories and models see individual behaviours embedded in their social and
cultural context. Instead of focusing on psycho-logical processes as the basis for sexual
behaviour, it tends to be social norms, relationships and gender imbalances that create the
meaning and determinants of behaviour and behavioural change. These theories dictate
that efforts to effect change at the community level will have the most significant impact
on individuals who are contemplating changes and on those who have made changes but
need support to sustain those changes. Social theories have been increasingly used with
populations especially vulnerable to effects of partners and peers. These theories and
models have been developed in the West and few examples have tested their relevance in
developing countries.

1.6. STRUCTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

Determinants of sexual behaviour can be seen as a function not only of individual and
social but of structural and environmental factors as well (Caraël, 1997, Sweat, 1995,
Tawil, 1995). These factors include civil and organizational elements as well as policy
and economic issues.
Theory for individual and social change or empowerment model

This theory asserts that social change happens through dialogue to build up a critical
perception of the social, cultural, political and economic forces that structure reality and
by taking action against forces that are oppressive (Parker, 1996). In other words,
empowerment should increase problem solving in a participatory fashion, and should
enable participants to understand the personal, social, economic and political forces in
their lives in order to take action to improve their situations (Israel, 1994). Werner (1997)
states that, “ empowerment is the process by which disadvantaged people work together
to take control of the factors that determine their health and their lives”. For this to
happen he explains that feelings of powerlessness, which can come from lack of skills
and confidence, have to be cast off. Although empowerment can only come from the
group itself, enabling empowerment is possible by facilitating its determinants. The
common struggle against gender or ethnic oppression, economic exploitation, political
repression or foreign intervention is what builds necessary confidence (Werner, 1997).

A distinction is made between personal, organizational and community empowerment.

Personal empowerment has to do with the psychological processes and is similar to self-
efficacy and self esteem. Organizational empowerment encompasses both the processes
that enable individuals to increase their control within the organization and the
organization to influence policies and decisions in the community. An empowered
community uses the skills and resources of individuals and organizations to meet
respective needs (Israel, 1994).
Interventions using empowerment approaches must consider key concepts such as beliefs
and practices that are linked to interpersonal, organizational and community change.
Intervention activities can address issues at the community and organizational level such
as central needs the community identifies, and any history community organizing among
community members. The theory would prescribe including participants in the planning
and implementation of activities.
Social ecological model for health promotion

According to this model, patterned behaviour is the outcome of interest and behaviour is
viewed as being determined by the following:

 intrapersonal factors - characteristics of the individual such as knowledge,

attitudes, behaviour, self-concept, skills;
 interpersonal processes and primary groups formal and informal social network
and social support systems, including the family, work group and friendships;
 institutional factors - social institutions with organizational characteristics and
formal and informal rules and regulations for operation;
 community factors - relationships among organizations, institutions and informal
networks within defined boundaries;
 public policy - local, state and national laws and policies (McLeroy, 1988).

Intervention strategies range from skills development at the intra-personal level to mass
media and regulatory changes at other levels (Laver, 1998). The theory acknowledges the
importance of the interplay between the individual and the environment, and considers
multi-level influences on unhealthy behaviour (Choi, 1998). In this manner, the
importance of the individual is de-emphasized in the process of behavioural change.

Socioeconomic factors

Several studies have shown that economic factors have a strong influence on individual
sexual behaviour, mostly through poverty and underemployment. Cross-nationally,
countries with the lowest standards of living are also the ones with the highest HIV
incidence (Sweat, 1995; Tawil, 1995). Within both rich and poor countries, poverty is
associated with HIV, and HIV intensifies poverty (Sweat, 1995). The proposed
mechanisms for this relationship are: non-cohabitation between young married couples
which can arise from critical economic situations forcing urban migration, seasonal work
and truck driving, sex work, civil disturbances and war. Civil disturbance and war lead to
displaced and refugee populations who not only lose their social and familial support
systems but become highly vulnerable to HIV owing to intense social and economic
strain in a alien culture (Caraël, 1997). In such situations, HIV concerns take a very low
priority in a risk hierarchy, and any previous or planned efforts for the control of HIV
transmission are disrupted, if not destroyed.

CONSTRUCTS ALONE AND TRANSTHEORETICAL MODELS

Perception of risk construct

As behavioural interventions are designed to reduce higher risk behaviours, perception of

risk is a construct in most individual psychosocial behavioural models and some
interventions use the construct without applying any of the models in their entirety.
Increasing perception of risk has been shown numerous times to increase HIV protective
behaviour (Stevens, 1998). Yet most behavioural models measure risk as individually
determined which might not be relevant in many contexts. Not surprisingly, many women
often perceive themselves at risk not because of their own behaviour, but because of the
past or current, perceived or real behaviour of their sexual partner. In addition, perception
of risk as a predictor of future behavioural change has further complexities in
circumstances where individuals report high perception of risk and high self-reported
behavioural change. This situation may demonstrate limited realistic further behavioural
change options, or feelings of fatalism.

Sexual communication

Sexual communication has been noted in various situations to be predictive of condom

use. Among incarcerated Latino adolescents with high numbers of sexual partners in the
USA, it was reported that youth who communicated with their sex partners about each
others’ sexual history were significantly more likely to use condoms (Rickman, 1994). In
central Africa condom use was more likely if women reported discussion with their
sexual partner about STDs or condoms (van der Straten, 1995). Sexual communication
has also been reported as a means to self-efficacy among heterosexuals in Holland
(Buunk, 1998).

Conclusion

Community level theories, models or factors see human behaviour as a function not only
of the individual or his or her immediate social relationships, but as depending on the
community, organization and the political and economic environment as well. They are
multidimensional with an emphasis on linking the individual to the surrounding larger
environmental systems. Interventions using this approach, thus, target organizations,
communities and policy.
In this unit an attempt is made to highlight the significance of the introduction into an
‘integrated’ or ‘unitary’ approach to social work. An attempt is made to clarify the
relationship between paradigms, theories and models. An integrated approach to social
work may represent a shift from a predominantly individualistic conceptual model of
practice to an interactionist one. These conceptual models are compared and critiques of
the integrated model are examined.

A welfare state is a concept of government where the state plays a key role in the
protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based
on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public
responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good
life. The general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization.

There are two main interpretations of the idea of a welfare state:

 A model in which the state assumes primary responsibility for the welfare of its
citizens. This responsibility in theory ought to be comprehensive, because all
aspects of welfare are considered and universally applied to citizens as a "right".
 Welfare state can also mean the creation of a "social safety net" of minimum
standards of varying forms of welfare.
There is some confusion between a "welfare state" and a "welfare society," and debate
about how each term should be defined. In many countries, especially in the United
States, some degree of welfare is not actually provided by the state, but directly to
welfare recipients from a combination of independent volunteers, corporations (both non-
profit charitable corporations as well as for-profit corporations), and government
services. This phenomenon has been termed a "welfare society," and the term "welfare
system" has been used to describe the range of welfare state and welfare society mixes
that are found.[2] The welfare state involves a direct transfer of funds from the public
sector to welfare recipients, but indirectly, the private sector is often contributing those
funds via redistributionist taxation; the welfare state has been referred to as a type of
"mixed economy."

Modern welfare states developed through a gradual process beginning in the late 19th
century and continuing through the 20th. They differed from previous schemes of poverty
relief due to their relatively universal coverage. The development of social insurance in
Germany under Bismarck was particularly influential. Some schemes, like those in
Scandinavia, were based largely in the development of autonomous, mutualist provision
of benefits. Others were founded on state provision. The term was not, however, applied
to all states offering social protection. The sociologist T.H. Marshall identified the
welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare and capitalism.
Examples of early welfare states in the modern world are Germany, all of the Nordic
Countries, the Netherlands, Uruguay and New Zealand and the United Kingdom in the
1930s..

Changed attitudes in reaction to the Great Depression were instrumental in the move to
the welfare state in many countries, a harbinger of new times where "cradle-to-grave"
services became a reality after the poverty of the Depression. During the Great
Depression, it was seen as an alternative "middle way" between communism and
capitalism.[8] In the period following the Second World War, many countries in Europe
moved from partial or selective provision of social services to relatively comprehensive
coverage of the population.
The activities of present-day welfare states extend to the provision of both cash welfare
benefits (such as old-age pensions or unemployment benefits) and in-kind welfare
services (such as health or childcare services). Through these provisions, welfare states
can affect the distribution of wellbeing and personal autonomy among their citizens, as
well as influencing how their citizens consume and how they spend their time.[9][10]

After the discovery and inflow of the oil revenue, Saudi Arabia,[11][12] Brunei, Kuwait,
Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates all became welfare states for its'
respective citizens.

In the United Kingdom, the beginning of the modern welfare state was in 1911 when
David Lloyd George suggested everyone in work should pay national insurance
contribution for unemployment and health benefits from work.

In 1942, the Social Insurance and Allied Services was created by Sir William Beveridge
in order to aid those who were in need of help, or in poverty. Beveridge worked as a
volunteer for the poor, and set up national insurance. He stated that 'All people of
working age should pay a weekly national insurance contribution. In return, benefits
would be paid to people who were sick, unemployed, retired or widowed.' The basic
assumptions of the report were the National Health Service, which provided free health
care to the UK. The Universal Child Benefit was a scheme to give benefits to parents,
encouraging people to have children by enabling them to feed and support a family. This
was particularly beneficial after the second world war when the population of the United
Kingdom declined. Universal Child Benefit may have helped drive the Baby boom. The
impact of the report was huge and 600,000 copies were made.

Beveridge recommended to the government that they should find ways of tackling the
five giants, being Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness. He argued to cure
these problems, the government should provide adequate income to people, adequate
health care, adequate education, adequate housing and adequate employment. Before
1939, health care had to be paid for, this was done through a vast network of friendly
societies, trade unions and other insurance companies which counted the vast majority of
the UK working population as members. These friendly societies provided insurance for
sickness, unemployment and invalidity, therefore providing people with an income when
they were unable to work. But because of the 1942 Beveridge Report, in 5 July 1948, the
National Insurance Act, National Assistance Act and National Health Service Act came
into force, thus this is the day that the modern UK welfare state was founded.

Welfare systems were developing intensively since the end of the World War II. At the
end of century due to their restructuration part of their responsibilities started to be
channeled through non-governmental organizations which became important providers of
social services.[13]

Two forms of the welfare state

There are two ways of organizing a welfare state:[14]

According to the first model the state is primarily concerned with directing the resources
to “the people most in need”. This requires a tight bureaucratic control over the people
concerned, with a maximum of interference in their lives to establish who are "in need"
and minimize cheating. The unintended result is that there is a sharp divide between the
receivers and the producers of social welfare, between "us" and "them", the producers
tending to dismiss the whole idea of social welfare because they will not receive anything
of it. This model is dominant in the US.

According to the second model the state distributes welfare with as little bureaucratic
interference as possible, to all people who fulfill easily established criteria (e.g. having
children, receiving medical treatment, etc). This requires high taxing, of which almost
everything is channeled back to the taxpayers with minimum expenses for bureaucratic
personnel. The intended – and also largely achieved – result is that there will be a broad
support for the system since most people will receive at least something. This model was
constructed by the Scandinavian ministers Karl Kristian Steincke and Gustav Möller in
the 30s and is dominant in Scandinavia.
SOCIAL WELFARE

Social Welfare or public charity, organized provision of educational, cultural, medical,

and financial assistance to the needy. Modern social welfare measures may include any of
the following: the care of destitute adults; the treatment of the mentally ill; the
rehabilitation of criminals; the care of destitute, neglected, and delinquent children; the
care and relief of the sick or handicapped; the care and relief of needy families; and
supervisory, educational, and constructive activity, especially for the young.

Early Forms of Assistance

Among the Greeks and Romans public assistance was given chiefly to those holding full
citizenship. It was early connected with religion, as among the Hebrews and, from them,
among the Christians and later the Muslims. The Christian Church was the main agency
of social welfare in the Middle Ages, supplemented by the guilds. Later, national and
local governmental agencies, as well as many private agencies, took over much of the
charitable activity of the church.

First of the extensive state efforts was the Elizabethan poor law of 1601, which attempted
to classify dependents and provide special treatment for each group on the local (parish)
level. During the Industrial Revolution, many entrepreneurs believed that social welfare
programs undertaken by the state violated the concepts of laissez faire and therefore
opposed such measures. Exceptions were such men as Robert Owen, who believed that
social welfare measures were essential but their implementation should be undertaken
cooperatively rather than as a function of the state.

Modern Welfare Programs

The first modern government-supported social welfare program for broad groups of
people, not just the poor, was undertaken by the German government in 1883. Legislation
in that year provided for health insurance for workers, while subsequent legislation
introduced compulsory accident insurance and retirement pensions. In the next 50 years,
spurred by socialist theory and the increasing power of organized labor, state-supported
social welfare programs grew rapidly, so that by the 1930s most of the world's industrial
nations had some type of social welfare program.

Not all governments have equally extensive social welfare systems. Great Britain and the
Scandinavian countries, often termed "welfare states," have wide-ranging social welfare
legislation. Britain's National Health Service, for example, was established (1948) to
provide free medical treatment to all. Private philanthropies and charitable organizations,
however, continue to operate in these countries in many areas of public welfare.
International relief bodies, such as the Red Cross, and agencies of the United Nations,
such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF), provide social welfare services throughout the world, especially during times
of distress and in poverty-stricken areas.

In the United States the Social Security Act of 1935 provided for federally funded
financial assistance to the elderly, the blind, and dependent children. Subsequent
amendments broadened the act in terms of coverage provided and eligibility; included
was the provision for medical insurance to the aged (1965) under the Medicare program
and to low-income families (1965) under the Medicaid program.

In the United States public assistance has increasingly come under state and federal
control, although private philanthropy still plays a major role. By the early 1990s the
Clinton administration approved changes in many states' welfare systems, including work
requirements in exchange for benefits (so-called workfare) and time limits. In 1996 the
president signed a bill enacting the most sweeping changes in social welfare policy since
the New Deal. In general the bill, which sought to end long-term dependence on welfare
programs, represented a reversal of previous welfare policy, shifting some of the federal
government's role to the states and cutting many benefits. Among the bill's major
provisions were the requirement that about a quarter of the population then on welfare be
working or training for work by 1997 (a goal that was reached in most states) and that a
half do so by 2002; the granting of lump sums to states to run their own welfare and work
programs; an end to the federal guarantee of cash assistance for poor children; the
limitation of lifetime welfare benefits to five years (with hardship exemptions for some);
the requirement that the head of every welfare family work within two years of receiving
benefits or lose them; and the establishment of stricter eligibility standards for the
Supplemental Security Income program (which excluded many poor disabled children
from benefits).

In terms of reducing the welfare rolls, the bill initially proved successful; in 1999 there
were fewer welfare recipients then there had been in 30 years. Most states also reported a
surplus of federal welfare funds. Those funds, which by law remained fixed for five
years, provided an unforeseen benefit for the states, enabling some states to increase
social welfare spending. Additional changes passed in 2005 forced states to increase the
hours worked by recipients while tightening the regulations for those who are affected by
the work requirements, raising concerns in a number of states with education and
addiction-treatment programs for welfare recipients.

PART I
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL WORK, AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Social development is a multi-disciplinary and cross-sectoral field of practice that seeks
to improve the social and material well-being of people everywhere (Estes, 1993b; Jones
& Pandey, 1981; Lowe, 1995; Meinert & Kohn, 1987; Midgley, 1995). Social
development is practiced across all geo-political borders and at all levels of social,
political, and economic organization (Estes, 1990; Hokenstad & Midgley, 1997; Midgley,
1997). In social work, social development also is practiced within the context of the
emerging field of international social work (Billups, 1990; Estes, 1992; Healy, 1992; Van
Soest, 1992), albeit much of development-oriented social work practice also occurs at the
local, state, and national levels (Cnaan, 1991; David, 1993; Elliott et al., 1990; Elliott &
Mayadas, 1996; Lee, 1988; Nayak & Siddiqui, 1989); Robinson, 1995; Twelvetrees,
1994).

According to the late Daniel Sanders, development practice in social work can be viewed
as a movement, a perspective, and a practice mode (Sanders, 1982). As the "means" of
"developmental social work," social development refers to the processes through which
people are helped to realize the fullness of the social, political, and economic potentials
that already exist within them. As the "goal" of develop-mental social work, social
development refers to the realization of new, but sustainable, systems of "inter-personal"
and "inter-national" relationships that are guided by a quest for peace, increased social
justice, and the satisfaction of basic human needs.

The Goals of Social Development

Wide agreement exists among development specialists concerning the goals of social
development prac-tice:
1. The realization of more balanced approaches to social and economic development
(Billups, 1990; Estes, 1993b, 1995; United Nations/ESCAP, 1992);
2. The assignment of the highest priority to the fullest possible human development
(UNDP, 1997);
3. The fullest possible participation of people everywhere in determining both the means
and out-comes of development (Mondros & Wilson, 1994; Simon, 1994);
4. The elimination of absolute poverty everywhere in the world (World Bank, 1990,
1997; UNDP, 1997);
5. the elimination of barriers to development which, in every society, have been used to
oppress historically disadvantaged population groups, but especially women, the
aged, the poor, children and youth, disabled persons, political and economic
refugees, the mentally ill as well as persons who have been disadvantaged on the
basis of race, religion, ethnicity, social class, caste, and sex-ual orientation
(Campfens, 1990; Keough, 1997; Estes, 1997)
6. the realization of new social arrangements that accelerate the pace of development and
assure the satisfaction of basic needs of people everywhere (Benjamin &
Freedman, 1989; Brandt Commis-sion, 1980; United Nations, 1990); and,
7. the transformation of societies toward more humanistic values based on social justice,
the promo-tion of peace, and the attainment of the fullest possible human
development (Khinduka, 1987; Falk, 1992; Van Soest, 1992).
The Assumptions of Social Development Practice
Agreement also exists among development specialists concerning the "orienting values"
and practice as-sumptions of social development (Bargal, 1981; Estes, 1995; Gil, 1981;
Meinert & Kohn, 1987; Van Soest, 1992; Vershelden, 1993):
1. that social, political, and economic events occurring in other regions of the
world have direct, often immediate, sometimes lasting consequences on the
quality of life in all other regions of the world;
2. that the underlying dynamics of human degradation and social injustice found
in local communi-ties often emanate from social, political, and economic
forces that are international in character;
3. that international social forces both contribute to and sustain social
inequalities in particular lo-cales (e.g., the international dimensions of global
poverty and discrimination on the basis of race, class and caste);
4. that only under conditions of peaceful co-existence can local, national and
international social development and, in turn, human development be
accelerated;
5. that a restructuring of the national and international social orders is
particularly urgent in reduc-ing the profound, largely unnecessary, levels of
human misery, degradation, and inter-personal violence that persist in many
countries and regions of the world;
6. that social development specialists possesses a unique body of knowledge and
skills that can positively impact upon the national and international social
situation, especially in helping to find sustainable solutions to recurrent local,
state, national and international social problems; and,
7. that acting individually and collectively, substantial numbers of social
development
1 specialists, including social workers, are continuing the national and international
social
2 movements begun by their predecessors toward the establishment of a more
peaceful and
3 socially just world order.
These assumptions are far-reaching and provide a framework for integrating the diverse
social change activities of the various disciplines and professions that contribute to social
development. These assumptions also bear directly on the purpose, goals, and structure of
professional programs of develop-ment education.

The Social Development Knowledge Base

Social development specialists draw substantially for their knowledge from sociology
(esp. stratification theory, the sociology of mass movements, processes of regional
development), political science (esp. power domains, political influence, and structures of
political parties), economics (esp. theories of eco-nomic production, distribution, and
consumption), education (esp. theories of adult learning), philosophy (esp. theories of
justice and social ethics) and, in some cases, from religion (e.g., the "liberation theology"
of Gustavo Gutierrez, et al., 1973). Developmental social workers also draw heavily from
group work, social planning, and community organization practice for much of their skill
base.
Levels of Social Development Practice

Chart 1 identifies the primary processes and major outcomes associated with eight
"levels" of social de-velopment practice: individual empowerment; group empowerment;
conflict resolution; institution-building; community-building; nation-building; region-
building; and world-building.1
1 For a partial listing of authors whose work is most closely associated with each level of
social development practice see Estes, 1995.
Chart 1.
LEVELS & DEFINITIONS OF SED PRACTICE IN SOCIAL WORK
Levels of SED Major Purposes, Outcomes, or Processes
Practice Associated With Levels of International Social Work Practice
 Individual & Through "self help," "mutual aid," and "conscientization" strategies
Group individuals and groups learn how to perceive and act upon the
Empowerment contradictions that exist in the social, political, and economic
structures intrinsic to all societies.
Conflict Efforts directed at reducing: (1) grievances between persons or
Resolution groups; or, (2) asymmetric power relationships between members of
more powerful and less powerful groups.
Institution- Refers both to the process of "humanizing" existing social institutions
Building and that of establishing new institutions that respond more effectively
to new or emerg-ing social needs.
Community- Through increased participation and "social animation" of the
Building populace, the process through which community's realize the fullness
of their social, political, and economic potential; the process through
which communities respond more equitably to the social and material
needs of their populations.
Nation-Building The process of working toward the integration of a nation's social,
political, economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of political
organization.
Region-Building The process of working toward the integration of a geo-political
region's social, political, economic, and cultural institutions at all
levels of social organization.
World-Building The process of working toward the establishment of a new system of
interna-tional relationships guided by the quest for world peace,
increased social jus-tice, the universal satisfaction of basic human
needs, and for the protection of the planet's fragile eco-system.

In addition to these eight levels of social development practice, developmental social

work prac-tice also includes:
1. The provision of personal social services to people in distress, e.g., war victims,
refugees, or-phaned children, etc. (Elliott & Mayadas, 1996; Estes, 1993a);
1 2. organizational efforts directed at helping poor and other powerless people
2 remove the sources of their oppression, e.g., corrupt landlords, unjust employers,
3 colonial administrators, racism, etc (Campfens, 1990; Cnaan, 1991; Friere, 1971;
4 Keough, 1997; Gutierrez, 1973);

3. the establishment of new social institutions, e.g., for credit unions, mutual aid
societies, commu-nity welfare centers, seed banks, social security schemes, etc.
(Estes, 1997; Omer, 1989; Robin-son, 1995; Umana & Brandon, 1992);
4. the reform of existing institutions so as to make them more responsive to the
needs of those forwhom the institutions were designed (Estes, 1995; Jones &
Pandey, 1981; Midgley, 1997);
5. Efforts that seek to accelerate the pace of social development in local
communities, states and provinces, nations, regions and, ultimately, the world
itself (Benjamin & Freedman, 1989; Rot-berg, 1993);
6. The promotion of internationally guaranteed human rights (UN/Center for
Human Rights, 1992);
7. Peace promotion (David, 1993; Khinduka, 1987; Sanders & Matsuoka, 1989;
Van Soest, 1992; Verschelden, 1993); and,
8. Protection of the planet's fragile eco-systems (WCED, 1987; WRI, 1997).
Hence, social development specialists can be found in every country and region of the
world and in all areas of professional practice. Within social work, development
specialists function as caseworkers and group workers, community organizers,
administrators, social planners, researchers, consultants, edu-cators, and members of
boards of directors. They also serve in the councils of governments and are members of
national parliaments. Developmental social workers also are employed by or serve as
con-sultants to the United Nations and other quasi-governmental bodies. And,
developmental social workers provide professional leadership to the tens of thousands of
non-governmental organizations that operate throughout the world (Burek, 1991).
Sectors of Social Development Practice
Social development is practiced across of broad range of sectors, i.e., public and private
institutions and organizations that seek to promote "the common good" through the
provision of highly specialized ser-vices and other activities (e.g., health, education,
transportation, communications, finance, etc.). Chart 2 identifies the major sectors in
which social development is practiced, albeit a larger number of sectors in which
development specialists work can be identified.
Chart 2.
MAJOR SECTORS OF SED ACTIVITY

Agriculture Energy Religion & Religious

Communications Environment Organizations
Consumer Security Food Rural Development
Criminal & Juvenile Justice Health Social Services
Culture Housing Sports
Defense Human Rights Technology
Economic Development Income Support Transportation
Education Leisure Time & Recreation Urban Development
Employment Population

MODELS OF EDUCATION FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIAL WORK

The vast majority of social development specialists function within one of four basic
models of practice: the Personal Social Services Model (PSSM); the Social Welfare
Model (SWM), the Social Development Model (SDM), and the New World Order Model
(NWOM). Each model of practice reflects a different ideological orientation with respect
to its formulation of the causes of national and international "mal-de-velopment." Each
model also prescribes a different set of solutions for advancing more balanced ap-
proaches to social and economic development and for helping historically disadvantaged
population groups and others achieve increased political equality.3 These models also
inform the specialized educa-tional goals, substantive content, and programmatic
structure of different programs of development edu-cation, including those that seek to
prepare social workers for leadership roles in social development.
The Personal Social Services Model
The Personal Social Services Model (PSSM) of social development practice seeks to
extend to people everywhere a range of basic social services that are needed to either
restore or enhance their capacity for social functioning. The model's primary goals are: 1)
to provide remedial and preventive services to indi-viduals, families, and groups whose
optimal social functioning is either temporarily impaired or inter-rupted; and 2) to extend
social protection to population groups that are threatened by exploitation or deg-radation.
The PSSM also seeks to ensure increased sensitivity and responsiveness on the part of
human service providers to the special service needs of culturally diverse population
groups.
The Social Welfare Model
The Social Welfare Model (SWM) of social development practice is rooted in
comparative social policy and comparative social research. The goals associated with the
SWM include: 1) self help; 2) mutual aid; 3) humanitarianism; and 4) the establishment
of effective, preferably universal, systems of formal social provision. The SWM also
views developmental social welfare practice as part of the worldwide movement that seek
to promote social security and social justice for people everywhere (Elliott et al., 1990;
Evers & Wintersberger, 1988; USDHHS, 1997).
The Social Development Model
The Social Development Model (SDM) has its origins in community organization and
community devel-opment practice and does, therefore, promote the fullest possible
participation of people in determining
3 Differences in practice orientation stem primarily from the varied social science
disciplines and intellectual traditions that inform the social work knowledge base (e.g.,
economics, political science, sociology, psychology, adult education, etc.). These
differences also reflect the multiple levels of intervention in which social workers are
involved, i.e., ranging from addressing the psycho-social needs of individuals and
families to cooperative activities with other development "stakeholders" in transnational
social movements.
8
both the means and goals of social development. In doing so, the model seeks to provide
a framework for understanding the underlying causes of human degradation,
powerlessness, and social inequality every-where in the world. The ultimate goal of the
SDM, however, is to guide collective action toward the elimination of all forms of
violence and social oppression.
The New World Order Model
The New World Order Model (NWOM) of social development practice is closely
associated with the writings of "visionary" economists, political scientists, legal scholars,
and environmentalists (Brandt Commission, 1981; Coates & Jarratt, 1989; Falk, 1992;
Henderson, 1992). Major components of the NWOM are reflected in the fundamental
social, political, and economic reforms in the existing interna-tional "order" that are being
sought by the United Nations (UN, 1990; UN/ESCAP, 1992b), the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP, 1997), the World Bank (World Bank, 1997) and other
leading international development assistance organizations. Elements of the NWOM also
have been described by social work theoreticians (Estes, 1995; Healy, 1992; Van Soest,
1992).
The NWOM asserts that the most serious problems confronting humanity are rooted in
the fun-damental inequalities that exist in the present world "order," i.e., in the system of
international social, political, and economic institutions that govern relationships between
nations and, within nations, be-tween groups of people. In promoting its social change
objectives, the NWOM calls for the creation of a "new world order" based on: 1)
recognition of and respect for the unity of life on earth; 2) the minimi-zation of violence;
3) the satisfaction of basic human needs; 4) the primacy of human dignity; 5) the re-
tention of diversity and pluralism; and 6) the need for universal participation in the
process of attaining worldwide social transformation.
The Models Contrasted
Chart 3 reports a formal analysis of the major features of the four models of social
development practice. The chart contrasts, for example, each model's: ideological
orientation; dominant values; social change goals; dominant change strategies; "targets"
of intervention; and pressures for change. The resulting analysis also suggests the broad
parameters within which formal programs of development education should be
structured.
Chart 3.
MODELS OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
PERSONAL SOCIAL SOCIAL NEW
SOCIAL WELFARE DEVELOPMENT WORLD
SERVICES MODEL MODEL ORDER
MODEL MODEL
BASIC At various times in their Owing to the Dominant Existing
ASSUMP- lives people require limited in- national and social,
TIONS assistance in coping terdependent international political,
REGARDING nature of systems and eco-
contemporary frustrate the nomic
so-ciety, all efforts of "world
people dis- order
systems"
are con-

PERSONAL SOCIAL SERVICES MODEL SOCIAL WELFARE MODEL SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT MODEL NEW WORLD ORDER MODEL
THE with confront enfranchised trolled by a
HUMAN problems of predictable people (and minori-ty of rich
CONDITION daily living social "risks" countries) in their and pow-erful
(e.g., serious for which efforts to achi- countries that
illness, disa- formally eve parity with have a vested
bility, family organized "so-cial haves." inter-est in
dys-function, programs of Persistent social, maintaining the
income social political, and economic and
insecurity, protection are eco-nomic political
etc.). needed (e.g., inequalities in dependen-cy of
Others, loss of income, developing coun- poorer, less
owing to seri-ous illness, tries result from: powerful,
more serious old age, solitary 1) a legacy of countries.
prob-lems, survivor-ship, colon-ialism; 2) Persistent
are unable to etc.). "victim-ization" inequal-ities
function Other groups of by in-ternational between rich and
indepen- people--owing systems that poor nations
dently and to factors that better serve the contribute
require more are largely interests of rich directly to
intensive beyond their and powerful recurrent wars,
assistance control--are countries; 3) civil strife, and
over the disad-vantaged internal corrup- in-creasingly to
long-term. by strati- tion; and 4) more serious
The personal fication norms "acci-dents" of problems of
social that reward geography that global poverty
services seek some, but trap resource and social
to restore or penalize many. poor countries in injustice.
enhance the Social welfare conditions of per-
social is viewed as the petual
function-ing pri-mary deprivation.
of people to mechanism Within rich cou-
 an optimal through which ntries, persistent
level of self- soci-eties inequalities
sufficiency. respond to the mirror patterns
legitimate that exist in the
needs of global system.
dependent
popula-tion
groups.

SOCIAL The The The Transformation of

CHANGE protection of establishment redistribution of existing world
GOALS socially of effective and power and mate- order systems to
vulnerable cost-efficient rial resources to systems that
population sys-tems of his-torically reflect: active
groups from social pro- disadvan-taged participation of
exploitation vision that population all people and all
and human benefit the groups, but rele-vant sectors
deg-radation. largest possible especi-ally to the in the
The number of poor, landless transformation
provision of people. persons, women, pro-cess; the
a range of Access to a minorities, and alleviation of
 services that basic standard others. human suffering
restore and, of social and everywhere; inc-
as possible, economic well-
enhance

10 PERSONAL SOCIAL SERVICES MODEL SOCIAL WELFARE MODEL SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT MODEL NEW WORLD ORDER MODEL
the capacity of being viewed as a basic Fuller participation of reased social
peo-ple to "right" of citi-zenship people at all lev-els of and
meet their so- or resi-dency. social organi-zation in the distributive
cial domi-nant political and justice; and
obligations. economic systems of their the attainment
countries. of world peace
and war
prevention.
CHANGE Individuals, The broader Groups, formal People at all
TARGETS fami-lies, and society with and informal levels of social
small groups special empha-sis organiza-tions, orga-nization
on the social and communities, including
economic well- national sub- people's move-
being of regions and ments, nations,
individuals and nations. world
family groups. subregions and
regions, and
international
co-operative
moveme-nts.
SPECIAL Increased Social work and Through a sense The model
INTERNA- sensitivi-ty so-cial welfare of identification empha-sizes
TIONAL and are viewed as with oppressed the need for
EMPHASIS responsive- world-wide people new
ness to the social move- everywhere, international
special ments that seek local groups are systems based
service needs to promote peace, assisted in on: global
of culturally social justice, and undertaking sharing rather
diverse social security change efforts than squan-
population for people that benefit dering; global
groups. everywhere. themselves and coop-eration
others. rather than
competition;
and global
conservation
rather than ex-
ploitation.
BASIC The provision The extension of A broad range of Change
CHANGE of various basic social group- and activities are
STRATEGIES forms of guaran-tees and commu-nity- multifaceted
psycho-social protections to building met- and draw from
treat-ment people every- hods are the full
and where, i.e., to employed: spectrum of
rehabilita- minimal conscientization governmental
tion. standards of (i.-e., social and non-
Limited
living and as- animatio-n), self- governmental
financial
sured access to at help, mutual aid, actors,
assistance
least basic health, conflict resolu- practice
and other
education, and tion, institution- methods, and
economic
oth-er essential building, etc. or-ganizational
services to
social services. skills.
the poor
 based on
eligibility and
es-tablished
need.

PRIMARY Professionals Interdisciplinary Teams of trained People and

and govern-
PERSONAL SOCIAL SERVICES MODEL SOCIAL WELFARE MODEL
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL NEW WORLD ORDER MODEL

AGENTS non- teams of Professionals ments working

OF professionals human ser- & de- cooperatively
SOCIAL employed by vice velopment in creating new
CHANGE public or private professionals experts in social systems
human service working in cooperation that reflect
organizati-ons. various with dramatically
welfare- governmental altered
related sec- enti-ties, international
tors (e.g., people's or- reali-ties.
housing, ganizations, &
health care, oth-er
edu-cation, collectivities.
income
security, etc.).
PRESSURES Increasing Recognition The social Recurrent
FOR numbers of of new or "anima-tion" crises
SOCIAL "dysfunctional" emerging of previously stemming from:
CHANGE or socially social needs oppressed 1) the inability
depen-dent coupled with peoples. of existing
people. a willingness International world sy-stems
Deteriorating to re-spond to pres-sures to to cope with
social those needs. respond more mounting
conditions that Social equitably to pressures for
th-reaten the life conflicts the legitimate change; or 2)
style or arising from a needs and the occurrence
economic secu- growing rights of of serious
rity of more "under class" disen- global ca-
advan-taged of people franchised tastrophes such
population -who are popula-tions. that
groups. unable to fundamental
participate changes to
 mean-ingfully existing world
in existing systems can-not
social order. be avoided.

Radical Social Work Approach: Social workers are not satisfied only with care of
the disabled and the deviants. In 1970, due to influence of Marxism, they advocate
oppression as the cause for many problems. They broadened their professional
responsibilities to include reform and development in order to bring about an
equitable social order.

Some radicals in the profession have gone beyond social reform and development.
The social workers aim is changing the system by bringing basic changes in the social
institutions and relationships instead of dealing with adjustment problems and seeing
individual as victims of an unjust social order. This is called radical social work and
for various reasons it has also failed to deal with the problems.

Progressive Social Work: Progressive social workers may identify themselves with
radicals, activistsetc., They are unhappy about the injustice in the society. The
progressive social wbrkers strive to alter the oppressive element in the society. They
help them heal their wounds and educate them to make proper choices so as to build
their future.

Feminist Social Work: Liberal feminism is the school of thought that emphasizes
equality of sexes and demands legal reforms and equal opportunities for suffrage,
education and employment to both men and women. Liberal feminists do not analyse
the roots of gender oppression in the society. Marxist feminists view women's
oppression as the outcome of capitalist mode of production. Where there is division
between domestic work and wage work, only b the latter is productive.

CONCLUSION

Events occurring in all regions of the world offer compelling evidence of the need for
new approaches to the education of human service workers (e.g., the dramatic rise in
global poverty in Asia and Latin Amer-ica; repeated famines in Sub-Sahara Africa; the
growing numbers of political and economic refugees in Asia, Africa, and the
Caribbean; the AIDS pandemic; growing problems of homelessness combined with
historically high levels of un- and under-employment in Europe, Australia-New
Zealand, and elsewhere), etc.. Indeed, many of the most difficult "domestic" social
problems confronting contemporary human service workers are rooted in
transnational forces that originate in other regions of the world.

Human service workers require new models of practice if they are to contribute
effectively to-ward the resolution of social problems that are rooted in worldwide
social, political, and economic reali-ties. At a minimum, these new models of practice
must reflect an understanding of the transnational na-ture of the social problems that
bring clients, client groups, and other constituencies to the attention of human service
workers. They also must be grounded on empirical evidence and must offer positive
guid-ance concerning a range of social development solutions that can be applied to
discrete social needs.
SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN INDIA

The first training course for social work as claimed by University Grants Commission
(Social Work in Education in Indian Universities, 1965) was organized by Social
Science League in Bombay in 1920. This was a short-term course meant for voluntary
workers engaged in welfare work. The first professional institution that provided
training for a career in social work was established in 1936 in Bombay. The genesis of
social work education in India has its roots in this establishment of Sir Dorabji
TataGraduate School of Social Work (later known as Tata Institute of Social
Sciences).
It admitted mainly graduates (sometimes few undergraduates also) and awarded
Diploma in Social Service Administration after two year course of training. Till 1942,
Institute admitted students every alternate year. It did not seek affiliation to University
as the management felt that it would hinder freedom to experiment. However,
University status was granted to TISS under Sec 3 of UGC Act.

After Independence, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi and College of Social Service,

Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Ahmedabad were established in 1947; In 1948, Delhi School of
Social Work, (DSSW) came under auspices of North YWCA of hdia with assistance
from Foreign Division of American YWCA. It is the pioneer institution offering two
years post graduate course leading to Master's degree. In 1949, University of Delhi
granted affiliation and took up management of School in 1961. The first school as part
of the University was established in Baroda in 1949-50 and Department of Social
Work, Lucknow University was established in 1949. Subsequently, first in south India
the Madras School of Social Work (l952) was started by the philanthropists Mrs.
Mary Clubwala Jadhav and others were-established across the length and breadth of
the country.

The emerging social scenario necessitates programmes and services for social change
in the area of social development, as also for welfare and crisis intervention, which in
turn required professionally, qualified manpower, with specialized knowledge and
skills.

Thus the effectiveness and efficiency of the developmental initiatives, social reform
and social action to enable the marginalized sections of society to participate in this
process is invariably linked with the quality of human resource in the developmental
and welfare institutions, both governmental and non governmental.

During the past six decades, the number of educational institutions within the
university Social Work system offering professional social work courses has
multiplied. At present the number of professional training institutions is more than h u
n w some of which offer Bachelor's and Master's degree and some offer Certificate
course in Social Work. Some of them also offer Ph. D program. Data shows that
Maharastra clearly leads in the field of social work education with roughly fifty
institutes established therein. Thus, while Maharastra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
having a cluster of institutions, there were . none till recently in states in extreme
north and east, such as Punjab, Jarnmu & Kashmir, and the Himalayas and the north
eastern hill states. This brings out the skewed nature of territorial representation of
Social Work institutes and the need to ensure a systematic development of social work
in terms of geographical distribution.

The University Grants Commission appointed the First Review Committee for Social
Work Education in 1960 and the Second Review Committee in 1975 for the
promotion, maintenance of standards of education, coordination of social work
education, training, research and practice. The report has been prepared with the
perspective in view that any profession must review its past and must look ahead to its
future so that it may be able to equip its members for practice. One of the important
decisions was to establish a National Council on Social Work Education for the
promotion and development of social work education in India. The Third Review
committee for social work education in 2001 has emphasized the need for linking
social work education to the social realities in which the profession is practiced. It
advocates that curriculum be divided into four sets or domains. The four domains are
the core domain the supportive domain, interdisciplinary domains and elective
domains.

The core domain consists of the philosophy, ideology, values, ethics, theory and
concepts, the supportive domain provides the knowledge and skills to assist the core
domain. The interdisciplinary domain has the theories and concepts from other
disciplines which are related to the social work profession. The elective domains are
optional courses. The committee also stressed the importance of giving the learners
opportunities for practice learning. Further it recommended the use of different
teaching methods for the all round development of student.

Association of Schools of Social Work in India, a voluntary standard setting organ of

the training institutions acts as a spokesman of the social work educators. Established
in 1959 it is national forum on all matters of social work education. It has played a
prominent role in organizing seminars for staff developments, constant review of
syllabi and course contents, research pertaining to social work education, preparing
teaching materials etc. It has always attempted to establish teaching standards but has
not been much success in enforcing due to its being an association of voluntary
nature.

Indira Gandhi National Open University, a pioneer in distance education has taken
initiatives in providing social work education. Seeking to replicate the model of
regular education in both fieldwork and classroom t e a c h , it has developed
curriculum with the learner in perspective. It aims to develop professional manpower
capable of performing tasks and functions that ultimately achieve the goals the
profession has set itself to seek and serve. This novel move of providing distance
education in this field marks a watershed in the history of professional education and
training of social work. Suitable steps have been undertaken to fill in several
loopholes in social work education for instance by evolving a curriculum/syllabi in
associations institutions and organizations at national level responsible for
maintaining academic norm; development of teaching aids and publications; evolving
syllabus that is relevant to current situation that meets the regional and local needs;
and develops integrated knowledge and skills in working with people.

Areas of concern for the Development of Social Work Education

While closing this discussion, we have also attempted to briefly mention the areas of
concern for the development of social work education. The primary concern for this is
to ensure a systematic development of social work education in terms of geographical
distribution and &liaison to recognized boards and universities. Sustained efforts must
also be made to provide a holistic framework of the development of a ladder
education programme with several termination points related to job functions in the
country, and to relate each phase with another. Constant endeavor to develop syllabi
relevant to social realities must be done. Together with these, other key concerns
relate to developing teachinglresearch materials for social work education for all
levels and developing research expertize and funding of research projects etc. Such
progress in desired direction requires organizational structures for bringing change
development and stability in growth. For instance, University Grants Commission has
a panel on Social Work Education on the same lines as of other disciplines. However,
suitable modifications are required for social work profession. Also, Department of
Social Welfare, Government of India has established space Division for Planning
Research, Evaluation and Monitoring (PREM) which has far reaching implications in
raising the professional practices. Its work in association with Planning Commission
in conducting research studies and compilation of statistics has made data accessible.

At present, there are about one hundred graduate schools and several under graduate
courses are being offered in a number of universities.

Components of Social Work Education

The social work education in India has basically three components

Class room theory based courses
Research project
Field work practicum
The class room theory based courses includes the foundation courses, allied courses
like sociology, psychology and the methods of social work during the first year. In the
second year of masters level the specialized courses were offered in human resource
management and integrated social work includes community development, medical
and psychiatric social work and family, youth, and child welfare and correctional
administration.

It understood that the research is an integral part of the social work curriculum. It
aims at making the students to understand and practice the basic research to
understand the methodological part such as sampling, research design not giving more
thrust is given to the qualitative aspect than the quantitative aspects to their research.
It is universally accepted fact that the field work practicum includes the concurrent
activities, observation visits, rural camp, summer field practicum, block placement
and study tour. During the first year most of the institutions follow the observation
visits, methods based field practicum for 15 compulsory hours in the field. In the
second year field work is specialized based field work practicum is followed. Rural
Camp, Study tour, Block field work practicum is the compulsory course completion
component where as the summer placement is optional one.
1.3 Globalisation, Liberalisation, Privatisation and Social Work
Amidst the frenzy of Liberalisation and Globalisation, Disinvestment and
Privatisation are inevitable. Whatever We SC&ST Dalits may say, reason out,
argue about, cry against and protest or weep, Liberalisation and Globalisation,
as well as Disinvestment and Privatisation will take place. Rather, they will all
be hastened up, and their Momentum will pick up in leaps and bounds. No
doubt, Liberalisation and Globalisation as well as Disinvestment and
Privatisation are not good, not only for We SC&ST Dalits, but also for the
whole Society, and in fact for the entire Nation. In fact, Liberalisation and
Globalisation, Disinvestment and Privatisation are more dangerous to the
Country at present, particularly what the present state of Politics is. So,
something has to be done in this front, that too at the earliest and urgently. But,
today We SC&ST Dalits are helpless and powerless. Reasons, for such a state
of affairs may be many. But they are not the issues here.
We must seriously think and contemplate, on the issues of Liberalisation and
Globalisation, and the dangers of Disinvestment and Privatisation. We must
also see what We SC&ST Dalits can do now. Sure helpless We are. But, that
does not mean that We can not act, or do anything else. Atleast what We could
not stop, we should either try to make use of, to the extent possible, or try to
adjust ourselves and be careful, least We are run over, and or are marginalised.
What We SC&ST Dalits must do now, We must Think! Think, We must -
individually, with friends, in groups and publicly in a collective manner. We
have very little time left with us to act.
Liberalisation, and opening up of the economies to the private sector including
MNCs and foreign MNCs these days, is widening everywhere the gap between
the rich and the poor. Therefore, Liberalisation and the associated
Globalisation, Disinvestment and Privatisation have to be deftly steered
appropriately, with extreme care and due caution, to ensure that they serve the
Social Aspirations, Needs and Development of the People, apart from the
commercial interests of the private sector. Extensive and detailed Planning, at
least as comparable to that the FMNCs do to increase their profits, power,
influence, range and horizon, has to be ensured. Only this can help focus that,
investments in business, trade and industry lead to, Programmes that suitably
address long-term Development, Growth and Welfare of the whole Society, to
benefit all. The Role of the Govts should be, to guide and regulate the pace and
extent of the Liberalisation Policies, focus Foreign Direct Investments towards
investing more in Socially and Environmentally safe and sustainable
Developmental Processes and Growth Initiatives. This is the most urgent task
before all of us, particularly the educated and well employed SC&ST Officials.

Privatisation always violates and go against the Interests of –

· all People, particularly the Weaker Sections such as the SC&ST Dalits,
most Backward Classes including the Minorities - more specifically the
Muslims – the poor, labour and in general most Women and all the
Working Classes with out really any exception
· Economy, Education, Society, Justice and Peace Movements,
HealthCare, Human Rights, Leisure, Social Welfare, Sports etc
· Agriculture, Food Security, Heritage Centres, Historic Places, Public
Properties, Common Assets and Common Ownership of Community
Centres Land and other Properties
Here now, are some Issues and Reasons behind them - for every one of ours
kind consideration, discussion, criticisms, additions, alterations and
improvements –
· In the regime of Liberalisation, Globalisation, Disinvestment and
Privatisation, Power and Responsibility for Decision making shift to
private sector, particularly MNCs; and hence rests with many private
individuals
· Private Sector and MNCs, are invariably interested in making Profits -
Huge Profits, that too quickly and in a short time
· Interested in huge quick profits, all that the private sector work for is
to ensure huge and unreasonable profits
· On an average, private sector desire to make a very heavy profit, at
least 25 to 30 % so that, they can recover their investments, along with
interests there on, and also make profits for their leisurely luxurious but
wasteful lives, with in a period of 5 to 6 years
· Profits can always be made, only when the Customers are exploited,
Workers are squeezed, Suppliers are harassed, Govts are cheated, and
 the People at large in the Society are swindled and comfortably kept in
darkness and taken for a ride, down the garden path
· Money will keep tinkling in the coffers of any industry or business or
enterprise, only when the needs aspirations and interests of the elites in
the Society, Bureaucracy, Political Parties and Govts are met
· The poor and poorest, even amongst the most marginalised, neglected
and exploited Minority Backward Weaker Sections of the Society,
become easily vulnerable with Development and Time
· With the private sector making huge profits, they have grown
stinkingly rich powerful, arrogant even if they are otherwise publicly
polite, and become a force to reckon with in their own rights, developing
their own vested interests
· As the private sector becomes powerful, they tend to influence the
Govts’ Priorities, Decisions and Actions and control the Govts of the day
· As the private sector grows, the individual units compete - not with
each other, but at the cost of common individuals first, then groups of
people, local community, whole society, economy, the Govts and Nation
– to become MNCs and Global Players, by regulating their own Govts to
control the Govts abroad, as well as their decisions policies and actions
in their favour and easy profits
Privatisation only promotes,
· artificial demands too far and too fast than the purchasing capacity of
the People and the society, and the carrying capacity of the area
· large and perpetually increasing needs and shortages, as well as
increased consumption by the People and the Society, particularly the
rich influential and the powerful
· rapid use of resources including the limited scarce water, fertile lands
and power
· increasing rates of wastages
· avoidable pollution
· dangers of Urbanisation and Centralisation – bribery, corruption,
emergence of underworld, growth of mafia, organised crime, robbery,
theft, white collar crimes
· alcoholism, arms running, drug peddling, trafficking in women etc
 · all round penury, human indignities, homelessness, landlessness,
relative poverty and absolute misery
All MNCs, particularly foreign MNCs, in the end analysis, go against the
Interests and Welfare of the People. They and their actions adversely affect the
local, regional, National and Global Environment – in that order - by over
exploitation and indifference, resulting in ruination of Social, Economic and
real Interests of the People, since all the three are inter-related. In view of the
above We must ensure that -
· All International Treaties, Conventions and Mechanisms are carefully
and meticulously studied and evaluated, on the basis of social economic
and environmental issues
· All Agreements and MOUs are addressed suitably and at the earliest,
to uphold the National Interests and Welfare of the whole Society,
particularly the Weaker Sections
· The Decisions and Actions of MNCs and FMNCs are closely and
constantly monitored, for sustainable and effective Management of
Resources
· Sustainable Management of Resources is done with the participation
of all stake holders – in the decision making, as well as management of
clearly available resources
· Close watch is kept at all functional levels of managing resources,
including optimal utilisation of all man-power
· Every legal means available to the people are fully made use of, in an
extremely diplomatic manner, as the private sector have powerful
battery of attorneys and jurists, as well as legislators and administrators
on their sides
· All National Decisions are vigilantly scrutinised with utmost care and
caution, to strengthen and support every form of Democratic Institution
and Forum in the Society, as emergence and involvement of independent
Democratic Institutions generally lead to better and more Sustained
Management of Resources
· Private Investments does not replace direct Involvement and
Mobilisation of Funds by the Govt for Social Development, since No
 Development through private investments will reach the Weaker
Sections of the Society, particularly in Sectors relevant for the poorest
· Private Investments at best are only additives to Social Development
and Welfare of the People themselves, which is only possible with the
active catalytic role of the Govts, and not as a replacement for
Developing the Society as a whole, at any time
· Every Development Process preserves and opens up for All People
Access to safe potable water, balanced diet, clean air, better sanitation,
viable health care
· Future leads on to better physical and social environment and
rationally liberal education to every citizen, as basic Fundamental Rights
· Special Measures are taken to enforce effectively and immediately just
Laws, beneficial to the Welfare of all Citizens, without any exceptions,
and bring specifically the leaders, administrators, jurists and rich, feudal
forces in uniform within the ambit of Law, Courts and Justice
Whatever We may achieve or however much We may succeed in the above
spheres, We must urgently address ourselves to the Problems of –
· Fighting all forms of Injustices, taking a leaf from the life of our
Messiah, Baba Saheb Dr BR Ambedkar
· Educate our Children to face Challenges, beyond the immediate things
they can see or visualise
· Prepare all our Children to effectively meet the Challenges of others,
in the so-called competitive Liberalised World, particularly in the cut-
throat culture of the private sector
· Help our Girl Children and Women to handle diplomatically and with
extreme care, the wolves in the academic institutions, private sector,
public sector, police, Govts, Judiciary and also in the public places
· Prepare our Boys and the best of our educated to carefully deal with,
the World of calculative Girls and Women, from falling prey to all their
flirtations, temptations and allurements

1.4 Social Work and Conservation

When you look around you at all the machines that are running, the lights, fans, cars,
etc., you simply cannot imagine life without all these. But can you imagine the
amount of energy that is being used to run all this? Fortunately, people all over the
world are becoming aware of the problem of consuming too much energy and are
making a conscious effort to conserve it and thereby put less pressure on the earth. By
conserving energy we also lower the amount of pollutants we release into the air and
thereby help to keep the air clean.

The interaction between the natural resources and the population has to be maintained
at a balance in order to ensure the continuity of the human race. Energy is essential to
life and its conservation has become an absolute necessity.

There are two types of energy, renewable and non-renewable sources of energy. The
non-renewable sources of energy such as coal, natural gas, and mineral oil are
gradually becoming exhausted as we are over-tapping these resources. People are now
looking towards alternative sources of energy such as wind, sun, the ocean, etc. for
taping energy. These are the renewable sources of energy and will not exhaust.

India’s overall consumption of energy is very low, but compared to its gross domestic
production its relative consumption is very high. The cost of commercial energy is
also high compared to that in most other countries. The industrial sector consumes
about 50% of the total commercial energy produced. There is a growing need to bring
about improvement in the efficiency of energy use in the industrial sector.

Concerns over the negative environmental impacts of inefficient uses of energy are
growing, both globally and regionally. Such concerns require greater national efforts
and greater international cooperation to promote energy efficiency and energy
conservation. Local air pollution, emissions of greenhouse gases, and acidification of
soil and water can all be reduced if energy and resource conservation concepts are
more widely applied. Such concerns require greater national efforts and greater
international cooperation to promote energy efficiency and energy conservation. More
efficient energy use can increase productivity and economic competitiveness as well
as lower greenhouse gas emissions per unit of output.

Energy conservation has been recognized as a national priority for a very long time,
but concrete steps have not been taken seriously and the few that have been taken lack
in perspective and determination. The growth and demand for energy is increasing at
a very fast rate, specially in the industrial sector, the transport sector and the house
hold sector, thereby putting a great deal of pressure on the available resources. The
need of the hour has now become conservation and preservation. Conservation and
efficient use of energy in industry has for a long time been a priority of the
Government of India. People on their part should become aware of the seriousness
and do their best to conserve and preserve this energy.

Social Work and Water Conservation

A step to conserve water is the step to secure the future. The most essential among all
the natural resources on earth is water. A drop of water is worth more than a sack of
gold for the thirsty man. If each one of us make efforts to save water today , it will
save us later. Water conservation is the most effective and environmentally sound
method to fight global warming. Water conservation is what that can reduce the
scarcity of water. It aims to improve the efficiency of use of water, and reduce losses
and waste.

Social Worker can highlight the tips to save water among the community during
their field work and research
 Avoid leakage of water from the taps.
 Turn the tap off when not in use especially when you brush your teeth or wash
clothes.
 Rainwater harvesting is the another method to conserve water.
 The water supply should be limited in those areas which enjoys the unlimited
water supplies.
 Check the leakage of water in the toilets. Also get check the hidden water
leaks.
 Educate the mind of the people in the rural areas to save the water.
 Promote the conservation of water through media and wall posters.
 Never throw the water unnecessary on roads which can be used for gardening
and cleaning.
 Avoid unnecessary flushing the toilets. Dispose off the tissues, cigarettes and
other waste into the bin instead of toilets.
 Use minimum amount of water to bath.
 Water Waste restrictions.
 Improvement in the water distribution system.
 Water your lawn only when it is needed.
 Use a broom instead of hose to clean the sidewalks or to wash the car.
 Capture the water that is leaking and repair it as soon as possible.
 You can use washing machine to wash clothes that does not consume much
water.
 Donot leave the tap running while washing the dishes in the kitchen.
 Install small shower heads to reduce the flow of water.

Benefits to Conserve water :

 If you save water it can save your money bills.
 Reduction in interior water use cuts waste water flows, especially overflowing
of gutters which contaminates the environment.
 Environment benefits include eco system and habitat protection.
 Water conservation helps in improving the quality of your drinking water.

Technical methods to conserve water :

Rainwater Harvesting :

Rainwater harvesting is the gathering and collection of water from the rooftop. The
traditional method of rain water harvesting is the most effective and simple way to
conserve the water. It means utilization of rain water for the domestic as well as
agricultural purposes. There are three technical methods of rain water harvesting such
as Catchment, Conveyance and storage.

Historical Water Bodies :

There are many traditional water bodies which have been in disuse for the longer
time. These bodies can be reused as the recharging points.

Ponds :

Steps should be taken to avoid dumping of sewage into the village ponds. Efforts need
to be made to deepen these ponds with the dragline machines. Garbage and other
waste should not be dumped into the ponds.

1.4. Human Rights and Social Work

Human rights are fundamental to the stability and development of countries all around
the world. Great emphasis has been placed on international conventions and their
implementation in order to ensure adherence to a universal standard of acceptability.

With the advent of globalization and the introduction of new technology, these
principles gain importance not only in protecting human beings from the ill-effects of
change but also in ensuring that all are allowed a share of the benefits.

However the efficacy of the mechanisms in place today has been questioned in the
light of blatant human rights violations and disregard for basic human dignity in
nearly all countries in one or more forms.

In many cases, those who are to blame cannot be brought to book because of political
considerations, power equations etc. When such violations are allowed to go
unchecked, they often increase in frequency and intensity usually because perpetrators
feel that they enjoy immunity from punishment.

Definition and Meaning

The following definition expresses clearly the meaning of human rights:

“A human right is a universal moral right, something which all men, everywhere, at
all times ought to have, something of which no one may be deprived without a grave
affront to justice, something which is owing to every human simply because he is
human.”
An alternative explanation was provided by the philosopher Kant. He said that human
beings have an intrinsic value absent in inanimate objects. To violate a human right
would therefore be a failure to recognize the worth of human life.

Different counties ensure these rights in different way. In India they are contained in
the Constitution as fundamental rights, i.e. they are guaranteed statutorily. In the UK
they are available through precedence, various elements having been laid down by the
courts through case law. In addition, international law and conventions also provide
certain safeguards.

Classification

Human rights have been divided into three categories:

i) First generation rights which include civil and political rights.

ii) Second generation rights such as economic, social and cultural rights.
iii) Third generation rights such as the right of self-determination and the right
to participate in the benefits from mankind’s common heritage.

Human rights may be either positive or negative. An example of the former is the
right to a fair trial and an example of the latter is the right not to be tortured.

Origin of Human Rights

The concept of human rights can be found as far back in time as the age of the Greek
philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Their writings on the idea of natural law
contain many of the same principles that are associated with human rights.

The Magna Carta (1215) is considered a milestone in the history of human rights and
several great thinkers such as Grotius, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau and Kant talk about
the concept.
Some religious texts also are said to reflect the principles of human rights. The Rig
Veda promotes conduct that is based on equality. i Even certain Bible passages have
similar content. For instance, in the Old Testament, when the midwives of Pharoah
disobey his order to kill all male babies, they do so on the basis of higher and more
fundamental laws that they felt bound to follow.

The American and French declarations of independence in the 18 th century were

important in promoting human rights that were universal, individual and rational. In
the 19th century, the abolition of slavery and increased debate over freedom from
government intervention also furthered these principles.

With the dwindling of colonialism development in the third world received more
focus and adult suffrage, liberty, equality and justice came to be emphasized.

Basic Requirements for Human Rights

Any society that is to protect human rights must have the following characteristics:
i) A de jure or free state in which the right to self-determination and rule of
law exist.
ii) A legal system for the protection of human rights.
iii) Effective organized (existing within the framework of the state) or
unorganized guarantees.

Approaches to Human Rights

The Natural Law Approach

This theory focuses on a natural law that is higher than positive law (law created by
man) and to which the latter must conform. Natural law is based on equality. However
since it employs means such as the revelation of divine will, transcendental cognition
and participation in natural reason, none of its claims an be conclusively confirmed or
rejected.

The Historical Approach

This approach views human rights as a function of culture and environment and
inculcates space and time factors as well. However, it has three distinct drawbacks.
Firstly, it sometimes does not consider the individual as an entity outside of the
community. Secondly, it gives more importance to language, religion etc. than the
actual views of people. Thirdly, by focusing on the differences between societies, it
undermines the universality of human rights.

The Positivist Approach

This approach sees law as enacted by an authoritative sovereign and deriving sanction
from coercion. The main disadvantage here is laws would not stem from the will of
the people but from that of the sovereign. Obedience would be more easily obtained if
sanction came not from force but from laws being based in the values of society.

Positivists also see only nations and not individuals as subject to international law, a
view that would render ineffective a number of instruments available today.

The Marxist Approach

This view comes from the writings of Karl Marx in the context of the 19 th century
industrial revolution. It posits that in capitalist societies, human rights do not exist.
They only come into being in a classless society where there is public ownership of
the means of production.

This approach too suffers from defects one of which is that it views the development
of human rights in a communist society as inevitable and not problematic.

The Social Science Approach

This approach locates human rights in the context of larger social processes, dwelling
on the community’s role in shaping principles. It uses scientific and empirical
methods, models and techniques to estimate the degree of success/failure of human
rights. It fails however, to provide a clear link between social processes and the law.
Specific Human Rights

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

These second generation rights prevent the oppression and further the interests of
economically, socially and culturally disadvantaged groups.

Women’s Rights

Women’s rights include affording them resources and opportunities that they have
previously been denied. One of the most important rights in this area is the right
against sexual harassment which has been given greater importance due to the soaring
rates of crimes against women.
Child Rights

These include the right to education and freedom from child labour among others.
Several of these rights are laid down in the UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child
which aim to provide a child an environment in which he/she can develop properly.

Environmental Rights

Environmental rights have to do with slowing down the depletion of natural resources
that cannot be renewed. Sustainable development is one of the main issues and has
been debated at the World Summits. Nuclear proliferation is also addressed.

Challenges to Human Rights in Today’s World

The impact of several changes in the world today on human rights has been both
negative and positive. In particular, the risks posed by advancements in science and
technology may severely hinder the implementation of human rights if not handled
carefully.
In the field of biotechnology and medicine especially there is strong need for human
rights to be absorbed into ethical codes and for all professionals to ensure that basic
human dignity is protected under all circumstances.

For instance, with the possibility of transplanting organs from both the living and
dead, a number of issues arise such as consent to donation, the definition of death to
prevent premature harvesting, an equal chance at transplantation etc.

Genetic engineering also brings with it the dangers of gene mutation and all the
problems associated with cloning. In order to deal with these issues, the Convention
for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with Regard to
the Application and Medicine puts the welfare of the human being above society or
science.
Human Rights Instruments

UN Charter

The UN charter has been signed by 150 countries today. Though its obligatory status
was in question, it is now the accepted view that Article 56 makes it necessary for all
signatories to respect and promote human rights.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Perhaps the most important document pertaining to human rights, it was adopted on
10th December, 1948 and the day is celebrated as Human Rights Day every Year. The
Declaration specifies a common standard of achievement for all nations of the world
and a number of UN bodies are responsible for implementing its contents.

UN High Commission on Human Rights

This body created by the Economic and Social Council in 1947 makes
recommendations on conventions, declarations and other issues like the status of
women.
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

The High Commissioner’s duties include investigating human rights violations,

helping governments arrange mechanisms to protect human rights and submitting
periodic reviews to the High Commission on Human Rights

A number of international conventions such as the International Covenant on

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination, safeguard human rights.

Conventions like the European Convention on Human Rights, the American

Convention on Human Rights and the African Charter on Human’s and People’s
Rights exist at the regional level.
Social work Intervention has a long tradition and has spearheaded innovative action.
Cooperation with poor people themselves, non governmental organizations and other
partners reinforces advocacy and a concerted thrust to combat this increasing social
courage.

The social work profession, through historical and empirical evidence, is convinced
that the achievement of human rights for all people is a fundamental prerequisite for a
caring world and the survival of the human race.

Foundation for Human Rights Practice in Social Work

• Participatory democracy

• Cultural competence and ethnic-sensitive practice

• Feminist practice

• Challenging violent structures and processes

Social Work Strategies and Tools
• Anti-oppressive practice

• Empowerment

• Strengths perspective

1.5 Social Work and Health

Health care delivery systems are under careful and systematic scrutiny. Particular
concerns are the availability and access of health care to those in the lower and
middle income groups and the escalating costs of health care which until quite
recently have exceeded annual inflationary rates of increase. Efforts in social work
in the health field have reflected these developments. Programmatic trends in
health and social work now emphasize ambulatory care and are reflected in the
concept of primary care medicine. Deinstitutionalization as a preferred program
for patients is under review with particular emphasis on providing adequate
supportive services to maintain patients in a home care environment. Social work
is a major discipline contributing to these programs through appropriate
interventive measures. Moreover, the role of the social worker, because of
involvement with front line community activities, is particularly suited to make a
substantial contribution to this trend

Core Competencies of the social worker in health field

The following are core competencies for generalist practice in the health settings:
0 i) Undertaking risk/strength assessments of individuals, families,
groups, organizations, and communities along a continuum of
care.
1 ii) Planning and delivering culturally competent, gender-specific
individual, family, group, organizational, programmatic, and
community-based capacity-building interventions.

0 iii) Practicing effectively as professional social workers in health

organizations, including interdisciplinary (or inter-professional)
 collaboration (which would involve case advocacy and
coordination; case conferencing and collaboration; assessment,
implementation, and maintenance of cultural competence in
programs and organizations; and knowledge of management and
organizational theories and practice).
1 iv) Working effectively with communities and larger systems and
therefore creating linkages for health promotion and disease
prevention, and engaging in advocacy, community organizing,
social action, and legislative policy and regulatory approaches to
promote health and prevent disease and to overcome poverty,
discrimination, and other barriers to equity, access, and quality of
care.
2 v) Incorporating social work values and ethical principles in
planning, developing, and implementing interventions along the
continuum of care (Siefert & Henk, 2001). Students should also
be provided with a sound theoretical foundation on which to base
practice decisions.

Role of Schools of Social Work: To facilitate the development of these core

competencies, schools of social work need to ensure that the social work
curriculum includes:
0 i) ethics in social work and its application;
1 ii) practice opportunities that are relevant to social work in health
settings and that are supervised by experienced practitioners in
social work;
2 iii) inter-professional practice knowledge;
3 iv) a knowledge base that includes a variety of theoretical
frameworks, clinical skills, interdisciplinary skills, and a clear
understanding of the role of social work in health care.

Social work leadership can be a valuable advocacy tool for the profession in
health settings. Social workers should be supported in assuming leadership
positions in work settings. The core competencies of the profession are integral
to leadership development. Social work leaders are strategically placed to be
 able to synthesize information, context, and client/consumer realities to create
effective change and relevant policy development.

Tasks in health field

 Advocate for clients or patients to resolve crises.
 Collaborate with other professionals to evaluate patients' medical or physical
condition and to assess client needs.
 Refer patient, client, or family to community resources to assist in recovery
from mental or physical illness and to provide access to services such as
financial assistance, legal aid, housing, job placement or education.
 Counsel clients and patients in individual and group sessions to help them
overcome dependencies, recover from illness, and adjust to life.
 Utilize consultation data and social work experience to plan and coordinate
client or patient care and rehabilitation, following through to ensure service
efficacy.
 Plan discharge from care facility to home or other care facility.
 Organize support groups or counsel family members to assist them in
understanding, dealing with, and supporting the client or patient.
 Modify treatment plans to comply with changes in clients' status.
 Monitor, evaluate, and record client progress according to measurable goals
described in treatment and care plan.
 Identify environmental impediments to client or patient progress through
interviews and review of patient records.

Tasks with the individuals, groups and families

 Counsel individuals, groups, families, or communities regarding issues
including mental health, poverty, unemployment, substance abuse, physical
abuse, rehabilitation, social adjustment, child care, or medical care.
 Interview clients individually, in families, or in groups, assessing their
situations, capabilities, and problems, to determine what services are required
to meet their needs.
 Serve as liaisons between students, homes, schools, family services, child
guidance clinics, courts, protective services, doctors, and other contacts, to
help children who face problems such as disabilities, abuse, or poverty.
  Maintain case history records and prepare reports.
 Counsel parents with child rearing problems, interviewing the child and family
to determine whether further action is required.
 Refer clients to community resources for services such as job placement, debt
counseling, legal aid, housing, medical treatment, or financial assistance, and
provide concrete information, such as where to go and how to apply.
 Consult with parents, teachers, and other school personnel to determine causes
of problems such as truancy and misbehavior, and to implement solutions.
 Counsel students whose behavior, school progress, or mental or physical
impairment indicate a need for assistance, diagnosing students' problems and
arranging for needed services.
 Address legal issues, such as child abuse and discipline, assisting with
hearings and providing testimony to inform custody arrangements.
 Develop and review service plans in consultation with clients, and perform
follow-ups assessing the quantity and quality of services provided.

Emerging issues in health care field and Social Work intervention

Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to help improve people's
lives. Social workers assist people by helping them cope with and solve issues in their
everyday lives, such as family and personal problems and dealing with relationships.
Some social workers help clients who face a disability, life-threatening disease, social
problem, such as inadequate housing, unemployment, or substance abuse. Social
workers also assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, sometimes involving
child or spousal abuse. Additionally, they may conduct research, advocate for
improved services, or become involved in planning or policy development. Many
social workers specialize in serving a particular population or working in a specific
setting. In all settings, these workers may also be called licensed clinical social
workers, if they hold the appropriate State mandated license.

Child, family, and school social workers provide social services and assistance to
improve the social and psychological functioning of children and their families.
Workers in this field assess their client’s needs and offer assistance to improve their
situation. This often includes coordinating available services to assist a child or
family. They may assist single parents in finding day care, arrange adoptions, or help
find foster homes for neglected, abandoned, or abused children. These workers may
specialize in working with a particular problem, population or setting, such as child
protective services, adoption, homelessness, domestic violence, or foster care.

In schools, social workers often serve as the link between students' families and the
school, working with parents, guardians, teachers, and other school officials to ensure
that students reach their academic and personal potential. They also assist students in
dealing with stress or emotional problems. Many school social workers work directly
with children with disabilities and their families. In addition, they address problems
such as misbehavior, truancy, teenage pregnancy, and drug and alcohol problems and
advise teachers on how to cope with difficult students. School social workers may
teach workshops to entire classes on topics like conflict resolution.

Child, family, and school social workers may be known as child welfare social
workers, family services social workers, or child protective services social workers.
These workers often work for individual and family services agencies, schools, or
State or local governments.

Medical and public health social workers provide psychosocial support to individuals,
families, or vulnerable populations so they can cope with chronic, acute, or terminal
illnesses, such as Alzheimer's disease, cancer, or AIDS. They also advise family
caregivers, counsel patients, and help plan for patients' needs after discharge from
hospitals. They may arrange for at-home services, such as meals-on-wheels or home
care. Some work on interdisciplinary teams that evaluate certain kinds of patients,
such as geriatric or organ transplant patients.

Some specialize in services for senior citizens and their families. These social workers
may run support groups for the adult children of aging parents. Also, they may assess,
coordinate, and monitor services such as housing, transportation, and long-term care.
These workers may be known as gerontological social workers.

Medical and public health social workers may work for hospitals, nursing and
personal care facilities, individual and family services agencies, or local governments.
Mental health and substance abuse social workers assess and treat individuals with
mental illness or substance abuse problems. Such services include individual and
group therapy, outreach, crisis intervention, social rehabilitation, and teaching skills
needed for everyday living. They also may help plan for supportive services to ease
clients' return to the community when leaving in-patient facilities. They may provide
services to assist family members of those who suffer from addiction or other mental
health issues. These workers may work in outpatient facilities, where clients come in
for treatment and then leave, or in inpatient programs, where patients reside at the
facility. Some mental health and substance social workers may work in employee-
assistance programs. In this setting, they may help people cope with job-related
pressures or with personal problems that affect the quality of their work. Other social
workers work in private practice, where they are employed directly by the client.
These social workers may be known as clinical social workers, occupational social
workers, or substance abuse social workers. (Counselors and psychologists, who may
provide similar services, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Other types of social workers include social work administrators, researchers,

planners and policymakers, who develop and implement programs to address issues
such as child abuse, homelessness, substance abuse, poverty, and violence. These
workers research and analyze policies, programs, and regulations. They identify social
problems and suggest legislative and other solutions. They may help raise funds or
write grants to support these programs.

Work environment. Social workers usually spend most of their time in an office or
residential facility, but they also may travel locally to visit clients, meet with service
providers, or attend meetings. Some may meet with clients in one of several offices
within a local area. Social work, while satisfying, can be challenging. Understaffing
and large caseloads add to the pressure in some agencies. Full-time social workers
usually work a standard 40-hour week, but some occasionally work evenings and
weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergencies.
Some work part time, particularly in voluntary nonprofit agencies.

1.1 Development Planning

In general, the development planning implies as the social indicators of growth are
very important to assess the effects of planning on the economy. Population, literacy
rate and health and family welfare are basic indicators that can help in trekking the
rate of sustainable development

Social development is a process which results in the transformation of social

structures in a manner which improves the capacity of the society to fulfill its
aspirations. Society develops by consciousness and social consciousness develops by
organization. The process that is subconscious in the society emerges as conscious
knowledge in pioneering individuals. Development is a process, not a programme. Its
power issues more from its subtle aspects than from material objects.

Not all social change constitutes development. It consists of four well-marked stages
-- survival, growth, development and evolution, each of which contains the other three
within it. The quantitative expansion of existing activities generates growth or
horizontal expansion. Development implies a qualitative change in the way the
society carries out its activities, such as through more progressive attitudes and
behavior by the population, the adoption of more effective social organizations or
more advanced technology which may have been developed elsewhere. The term
evolution refers to the original formulation and adoption of qualitative and structural
advances in the form of new social attitudes, values, behaviors, or organizations.

While the term is usually applied to changes that are beneficial to society, it may
result in negative side-effects or consequences that undermine or eliminate existing
ways of life that are considered positive.

1.2 Social Welfare programmes in Five Year Plans

First plan (1951-1956)

The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the first five-year plan to
the Parliament of India on December 8, 1951. The first plan sought to get the
country's economy out of the cycle of poverty. The plan addressed, mainly, the
agrarian sector, including investments in dams and irrigation. Agricultural sector was
hit hardest by partition and needed urgent attention. The total plan budget of 206.8
billion INR (23.6 billion USD in the 1950 exchange rate) was allocated to seven
broad areas: irrigation and energy (27.2 percent), agriculture and community
development (17.4 percent), transport and communications (24 percent), industry (8.4
percent), social services (16.64 percent), land rehabilitation (4.1 percent), and other
(2.5 percent).

The target growth rate was 2.1 percent annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth;
the achieved growth rate was 3.6 percent. During the first five-year plan the net
domestic product went up by 15 percent. The monsoon was good and there were
relatively high crop yields, boosting exchange reserves and the per capita income,
which increased by 8 percent. National income increased more than the per capita
income due to rapid population growth. Many irrigation projects were initiated during
this period, including the Bhakra Dam and Hirakud Dam. The World Health
Organization, with the Indian government, addressed children's health and reduced
infant mortality, indirectly contributing to population growth.

At the end of the plan period in 1956, five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were
started as major technical institutions. University Grant Commission was set up to
take care of funding and take measures to strengthen the higher education in the
country.

Contracts were signed to start five steel plants; however these plants did not come into
existence until the middle of the next five-year plan

Second plan (1956-1961)

The second five-year plan focused on industry, especially heavy industry. Domestic
production of industrial products was encouraged, particularly in the development of
the public sector. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic
development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra
Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of
investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long-run economic
growth . It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and
optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the
Indian Statiatical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main
trading activity would be centered on importing capital goods.[4][5]
Hydroelectric power projects and five steel mills at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela
were established. Coal production was increased. More railway lines were added in
the north east.

The Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1957 with Homi J. Bhabha as the
first chairman. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was established as a
research institute. In 1957 a talent search and scholarship program was begun to find
talented young students to train for work in nuclear power.

Third plan (1961-1966)

The third plan stressed on agriculture and improving production of rice, but the brief
Sino-Indian War in 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus
towards defence. In 1965-1966, The war led to inflation and the priority was shifted to
price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement and fertilizer
plants were also built. Punjab begun producing an abundance of wheat.

Many primary schools were started in rural areas. In an effort to bring democracy to
the grassroot level, Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more
development responsibilities.

State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed. States
were made responsible for secondary and higher education. State road transportation
corporations were formed and local road building became a state responsibility.

Fourth plan (1969-1974)

At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government
nationalised 14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced
agriculture.. In addition, the situation in East Pakistan (now independent Bangladesh)
was becoming dire as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War
took place.

Funds earmarked for the industrial development had to be used for the war effort.
India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test in 1974, partially
in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal
to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and widening the war.

Fifth plan (1974-1979)

Stress was laid on employment, poverty alleviation, and justice. The plan also focused
on self-reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected
Morarji Desai government rejected the plan. Electricity Supply Act was enacted in
1975, which enabled the Central Government to enter into power generation and
transmission.{{Fact|date=June 2008

Sixth plan (1980-1985)

When Rajiv Gandhi was elected as the prime minister, the young prime minister
aimed for rapid industrial development, especially in the area of information
technology. Progress was slow, however, partly because of caution on the part of
labour and communist leaders.

The Indian national highway system was introduced for the first time and many roads
were widened to accommodate the increasing traffic. Tourism also expanded.

The sixth plan also marked the beginning of economic liberalization. Price controls
were eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices
and an increased cost of living.

Family planning also was expanded in order to prevent overpopulation. In contrast to

China's harshly-enforced one-child policy, Indian policy did not rely on the threat of
force. More prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less
prosperous areas, which continued to have a high birth rate.

Seventh plan (1985-1989)

The Seventh Plan marked the comeback of the Congress Party to power. The plan lay
stress on improving the productivity level of industries by upgradation of technology.
The main objectives of the 7th five year plans were to establish growth in the areas of
increasing economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating
employment opportunities.

As an outcome of the sixth five year plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture,
control on rate of Inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a
strong base for the seventh five Year plan to build on the need for further economic
growth. The 7th Plan had strived towards socialism and energy production at large.
The thrust areas of the 7th Five year plan have been enlisted below:

 Social Justice
 Removal of oppression of the weak
 Using modern technology
 Agricultural development
 Anti-poverty programs
 Full supply of food, clothing, and shelter
 Increasing productivity of small and large scale farmers
 Making India an Independent Economy

Based on a 15-year period of striving towards steady growth, the 7th Plan was
focused on achieving the pre-requisites of self-sustaining growth by the year 2000.
The Plan expected a growth in labour force of 39 million people and employment was
expected to grow at the rate of 4 percent per year.

Some of the expected outcomes of the Seventh Five Year Plan India are given below:

 Balance of Payments (estimates): Export - Rs. 33 thousand crore, Imports -

Rs.54 thousand crore, Trade Balance - (-)Rs.21 thousand crore
 Merchandise exports (estimates): Rs. 60,653 crore
 Merchandise imports (estimates): Rs. 95,437 crore
 Projections for Balance of Payments: Export - Rs.60.7 thousand crore, Imports
- (-) 95.4 thousand crore, Trade Balance- (-) Rs.34.7 thousand crore
Seventh Five Year Plan India strove to bring about a self-sustained economy in the
country with valuable contributions from voluntary agencies and the general
populace.

Period between 1989-91

1989-91 was a period of political instability in India and hence no five year plan was
implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India
faced a crisis in Foreign Exchange (Forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about
$1 billion (US). Thus, under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the
socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha Rao)was the twelfth Prime Minister of the
Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led one of the most important
administrations in India's modern history overseeing a major economic transformation
and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr. Manmohan Singh
(currently, Prime Minister of India) launched India's free market reforms that brought
the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of privatisation
and liberalisation in India.

Eighth plan (1992-1997)

Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan,
the gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning
deficit and foreign debt. Meanwhile India became a member of the World Trade
Organization on 1 January 1995.This plan can be termed as Rao and Manmohan
model of Economic development. The major objectives included, containing
population growth, poverty reduction, employment generation, strengthening the
infrastructure, Institutional building, Human Resource development, Involvement of
Panchayat raj, Nagarapalikas, N.G.OSand Decentralisation and people's participation.
Energy was given prority with 26.6% of the outlay. An average annual growth rate of
6.7% against the target 5.6% was achieved.
Ninth Plan (1997 - 2002)

Ninth Five Year Plan India runs through the period from 1997 to 2002 with the main
aim of attaining objectives like speedy industrialization, human development, full-
scale employment, poverty reduction, and self-reliance on domestic resources.

Background of Ninth Five Year Plan India: Ninth Five Year Plan was formulated
amidst the backdrop of India's Golden jubilee of Independence.

The main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan India are:

 to prioritize agricultural sector and emphasize on the rural development

 to generate adequate employment opportunities and promote poverty reduction
 to stabilize the prices in order to accelerate the growth rate of the economy
 to ensure food and nutritional security
 to provide for the basic infrastructural facilities like education for all, safe
drinking water, primary health care, transport, energy
 to check the growing population increase
 to encourage social issues like women empowerment, conservation of certain
benefits for the Special Groups of the society
 to create a liberal market for increase in private investments

During the Ninth Plan period, the growth rate was 5.35 per cent, a percentage point
lower than the target GDP growth of 6.5 per cent. [6]

Tenth plan (2002-2007)

The main objectives of the 10th Five-Year Plan were:

 Reduction of poverty ratio by 5 percentage points by 2007;

 Providing gainful and high-quality employment at least to the addition to the

labour force;

 All children in India in school by 2003; all children to complete 5 years of

schooling by 2007;
  Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50% by 2007;

 Reduction in the decadal rate of population growth between 2001 and 2011 to
16.2%;

 Increase in Literacy Rates to 75 per cent within the Tenth Plan period (2002 to
2007);

 Reduction of Infant mortality rate (IMR) to 45 per 1000 live births by 2007
and to 28 by 2012;

 Reduction of Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) to 2 per 1000 live births by

2007 and to 1 by 2012;

 Increase in forest and tree cover to 25 per cent by 2007 and 33 per cent by
2012;

 All villages to have sustained access to potable drinking water within the Plan
period;

 Cleaning of all major polluted rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches by
2012;

 Economic Growth further accelerated during this period and crosses over 8%
by 2006.

Eleventh plan (2007-2012)

The eleventh plan has the following objectives:

1. Income & Poverty

o Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in
the 12th Plan in order to double per capita income by 2016-17
o Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a
broader spread of benefits
o Create 70 million new work opportunities.
o Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.
 o Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.
o Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage
points.
2. Education
o Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2%
in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-12
o Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary
school, and by regular testing monitor effectiveness of education to
ensure quality
o Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or above to 85%
o Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point
o Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from
the present 10% to 15% by the end of the plan
3. Health
o Reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal mortality ratio to 1 per
1000 live births
o Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1
o Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are
no slip-backs
o Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its
present level
o Reduce anaemia among women and girls by 50% by the end of the
plan
4. Women and Children
o Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by
2016-17
o Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of
all government schemes are women and girl children
o Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any
compulsion to work
5. Infrastructure
o Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by
2009 and round-the-clock power.
 o Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation with population
1000 and above (500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure
coverage of all significant habitation by 2015
o Connect every village by telephone by November 2007 and provide
broadband connectivity to all villages by 2012
o Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house
construction for rural poor to cover all the poor by 2016-17
6. Environment
o Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.
o Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.
o Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.
o Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17.

Social Welfare Policies - Some of the social welfare policies and schemes in
India towards social development are:
 National Health Policy 2002
 National Population Policy 2000
 National Policy on Indian Systems of Medicine & Homoeopathy 2002
 National AIDS Prevention and Control Policy
 National Blood policy
 Pharmaceutical Policy 2002
 National Policy for Tribal
 National Youth Policy 2003
 Document on National Rural Health Mission
 Janani Suraksha Yojana
 Housing and Urban Development Policy in India
 National Conservation Strategy Policy Statement and Development
 Disability Policy
 National Water Policy
 Policy on Children
 Policy for Women and Child Development
 Housing Policy

Social Welfare Scheme:

 Assistance to NGOs
 Annapurna Scheme
 CAPART Sponsored
 Freedom Fighters Pension Scheme
 Growth Center Scheme
 Liberation and Rehabilitation Scheme
 Maternity Benefit Scheme
 Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme
  National Family Benefit Scheme
 National Old Age Pension Scheme
 Prohibition and Drug Abuse Prevention Scheme
 Short Stay Homes
 Social Defense Scheme
 Socio-Economic Programme

Development Programs India: The Indian Government has undertaken a wide

variety of programs in agriculture to build up the physical and information
infrastructures necessary for sustained development. There are programs for the
betterment of India's rural population; research, education, and extension programs;
irrigation development schemes; plans to increase the supply of agricultural inputs,
such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides; plans to change the institutional framework
of land ownership; plans to improve agricultural financing; better marketing
techniques; and plans to improve technology. These programs are administered,
financed, and run by the central government and by the state governments, and both
levels encourage private-sector development through direct or indirect programs.

Some of the specialized programs in place in the 1990s were introduced. Among them
were the Small Farmers Development Agency, Minimum Needs Programme, Hill
Area Development Programme, and Drought-Prone Areas Programme. In 1998 two
other programs, the National Rural Employment Programme and the Rural Landless
Employment Guarantee Programme, were merged into a single program called the
Jawahar Employment Plan (Jawahar Rozgar Yojana; Jawahar in memory of
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)

The Integrated Rural Development Programme in India, 13 million new families

participated, bringing total coverage under the program to more than 18 million
families. These development programs have played an important role in increased
agricultural production by educating farmers and providing them with financial and
other inputs to increase yields. They have also alleviated some problems of the rural
poor.

Twenty point programme – 2006: Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and

Programme Implementation. The restructured Twenty Point Programme (TPP) -2006
has been approved by the Cabinet.

List of 20 Points:
 Poverty Eradication
 Power to People
 Support to Farmers
 Labour Welfare
 Food Security
 Housing for All
 Clean Drinking Water
 Health for All
 Education for All
 Welfare of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Minorities and OBCs
 Women Welfare
  Child Welfare
 Youth Development
 Improvement of Slums
 Environment Protection and Afforestation
 Social Security
 Rural Roads
 Energisation of Rural Area
 Development of backward Areas
 IT Enabled e-Governance

1.1.3 Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is defined as a pattern of social and structured economic

transformations (i.e. development) which optimizes the economic and societal
benefits available in the present, without jeopardizing the likely potential for similar
benefits in the future. A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a
reasonable and equitably distributed level of economic well-being that can be
perpetuated continually for many human generations.

Sustainable development implies using renewable natural resources in a manner

which does not eliminate or degrade them, or otherwise diminish their usefulness for
future generations. It further implies using non-renewable (exhaustible) mineral
resources in a manner which does not unnecessarily preclude easy access to them by
future generations. Sustainable development also requires depleting non-renewable
energy resources at a slow enough rate so as to ensure the high probability of an
orderly society transition to renewable energy sources.

"Sustainable development ensures that the maximum rate of resource consumption

and waste discharge for a selected development portfolio would be sustained
indefinitely, in a defined planning region, without progressively impairing its bio-
productivity and ecological integrity. Environmental conservation, therefore, contrary
to general belief, accelerates rather than hinders economic development.

Therefore, the Development plans have to ensure:

 Sustainable and equitable use of resources for meeting the needs of the present
and future generations without causing damage to environment.
 To prevent further damage to our life-support systems;
  To conserve and nurture the biological diversity, gene pool and other resources
for long term food security".

Social Work: Social work is recent branch of knowledge which is deals with the
scientific solution and treatment of the psycho social problems, its main aim to
increase human happiness in general.

Definition: According to Indian conference of Social work, ‘Social work is a welfare

activity based on humanitarian philosophy, scientific knowledge and technical skills
or helping individual or group or community to live a rich and full life”.

Characteristic of social work:

i. Professional Service: social work is a professional service which assists individual,
group and communities. On the one hand, it attempts to help the individual in the
social milieu and on the other hand it removes the barriers which obstruct people from
achieving the best which they are capable.

ii. Based on Scientific Knowledge: Social service based on scientific knowledge and
technical skills, it has its own technology which distinguishes it from other types of
welfare activities.

iii. Humanitarian Philosophy: Social work drives its inspiration from the
humanitarian philosophy. It seeks happiness and property for the individual, groups
and community.

iv. Solution of psycho social problem: Social work aim to solve the psycho social
problem obstacles which prevent the effectives functioning of groups, community and
society.

Social Work Methods: Social Case Work – Individual, Social Group Work – Group,
Community Organization – Community, Social Work Administration and Legislation
– Administration, Social work Research – Problem and Social Action – Mass
Mobilization
i