Introduction

Tensile
The strength or the ability of material to sustain a certain load without failure are actually depends
on its ability or property. This property are within in the material itself and a certain experiment
should be conducted to determine its ability to sustain load without undergoing deformation process.
In tensile experiment, tension or compression test are example of tests that can be used to determine
its ability. Experiments on tensile tests can be used to predict the tensile properties and they are
conducted by application of axial or longitudinal these forces are applied on the specimen until
deformation causes failure. The tensile load and corresponding extensions are then recorded
for calculations and determination of stress- strain relationship of the material specimen. In overall,
this tests are actually to determine the relationship between the average normal stress and average
normal strain.

Bending
If a piece of material is subjected to forces which induce a compression stress over one part of a
section of the piece and tension stress over the remaining part, the piece is called in a bending
condition, example of this material are ‘beams’. Beams are materials that widely used for resisting
bending. Example of beam condition is :

Figure 1.0: A beam which is hold by two pin at the both end and force is subjected.

Torsion
Torsional loads are created by propellers on aircraft, transmissions in cars or by highway signs that
are twisted by wind. Torsion loading results in twisting of one section of a body with respect to a
contiguous section. Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis.
Shearing strains are induced in members under torsion. Shafts are widely used in engineering
applications to transmit power from one point to another. Torsion is a condition where the material
are twist to a certain degree and force until the material fail or undergoes deformation. Usually, the
twist force are applied to material by anchoring one end so that it cannot move and applying a moment
to the other end. The rotating moment may also applied to both ends but the other end must be rotated
to another ends.
Theory

Tensile Experiment
To determine the relationship is by using an equation of tensile force and cross sectional area.

Where:
F: Force (N)
A: Area (ms)
In Hooke’s law, stress and strain are linked to each other by the equation of modulus of elasticity.

For experimental determination of the tensile stress, two strain gauges each are fitted to the front and
back of the specimen; one strain gauge is attached in longitudinal, the other in transverse direction.
The strain gauges on each side form a branch of the bridge. Such a configuration is characterized by
the following: Utilization of linear and transverse strain increases sensitivity.

Bending experiment
In bending experiment, a beam is simply supported at the ends and caries a concentrated load at the
center, the beam will bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beam
and its position after bending different points along the length if the beam, being maximum at the
center. This different are called deflection.

Torsion experiment
Torsion testing involves the twisting of a sample along an axis and is a useful test for acquiring
information like torsional shear stress, maximum torque, shear modulus, and breaking angle of a
material or the interface between two materials. Typically a longitudinal sample is placed in a torsion
tester and one end of the sample is twisted around the long axis until failure, As a result,
complementary shear stresses are developed on the longitudinal planes which cause a distortion
of filaments, during which the force, or in the case of rotation the torque, and the displacement, or in
the case of rotation the angular displacement, are recorded.
Formula

Tensile Experiment

Utilization of linear and transverse strain will increase sensitivity. Superimposed bending stresses
have no influence. The output signal UA of the measuring bridge is referred to the feed voltage UE.
The sensitivity k of the strain gauge enables the strain to be calculated for the full bridge as follows:

Where:
µ : Poisson’s ration
UA : Output signal
UE : Feed signal

Bending Experiment

At the surface of bending beam, the stress can be calculated from moment bending (Mb) and the
section modulus (Wy).

Bending moment calculated for cantilever beam

Where F is the load and L the distance between the point at which load is introduced and the
measurement point. The section modulus for the rectangular cross section of width b and height h is:

For experiment determination of the bending stresses, the bending beam is provided with two strain
gauges each on the compression and tension sides. The strain gauges of each side are arranged
diagonally in the bridge circuit. This leads to summation of all changes in resistance and a high level
of sensitivity. The output signal UA of the measuring bridge is referred to the feed voltage UE . The
sensitivity k of the strain gauge enables the strain ε to be calculated for the full bridge as follows:
According to Hooke’s law the stress being sought is obtained with the modulus of elasticity
E

Torsion Experiment

Summation of all changes in resistance and a high level of sensitivity. The strain ε can be calculated
as follows:
ε = 1 x UA
K UB

With pure stress the relationship between strain and shear is as follows

γ=2ε

According to Hooke’s Law the shear stress being sought is obtained with the shear
modulus, G

τ = γ. G = 2 ε. G

The relations between shear stress τ at the surface of the torsion bar and torsional moment
Mt is as follows:

Mt = τ . Wp

Where Wp is the section modulus of torsion for the circular cross section:

Wp = d3 /16
The torsional moment can thus be calculated as follows:

Mt = (2/k) (G)(Wp x UA/UB)

 What we learnt from experiment

Experiment setup

 Loading Frame.
 Tensile experiment: Set of weight (5-50 N), Tension bars (steel, brass,
copper, aluminum).
 Bending experiment: Set of weight (1-6 N), Bending beam.
 Torsion Experiment: Set of weight (5-50 N), Torsion bar.
 Measuring amplifier.

Procedure

1. Test 1 : Tensile Test

Loading Frame

Measuring amplifier Load

Material

Figure 1.0: Setup for tensile test

a) Place the material that will be test in the loading frame using the holder with hook.
b) Switch on measuring instrument.
c) Connect the cable from the material to the measuring amplifier
d) Use offset adjuster to balance display, set to zero value
e) Load bar with large set of weights. Increase load in stages and note down
reading in Table 2 & Table 3. Readings are only very small because of the
weak tensile stresses. Zero balancing is therefore to be performed with extreme
care.
f) Repeat step (a) until (e) using different material.
2. Test 2 : Bending Test
Loading Frame

Measuring amplifier

Load

Beam

Figure 1.1: Setup for bending test

a) Fit bending beam in frame using holder with two pins.

b) Switch on measuring instrument.
c) Connect the cable from measuring amplifier to the sensor.
d) Set slider distance to balance of 250 mm.
e) Use offset adjuster to balance display and set to zero
value.
f) Load beam with small set of weights and note down
reading in Table 4.
g) Repeat step (a) to (f) with different value of load
 3. Test 3 : Torsion Test

Loading Frame

Measuring amplifier

Beam

Figure 1.2: Setup for torsion test

a) Fit torsion bar in frame as shown in figure 1.2. In doing so, place clamping end on
upper pin of holder with two pins. Make sure bar is horizontally aligned.
b) Switch on measuring instrument.
c) Connect the cable from measuring amplifier to the sensor.
d) Use offset adjuster to balance display and set to zero value
e) .Suspend set of weights from level arm and generate torsional moment and note down
reading in Table 5.
f) Repeat step (a) to (e) by increase load in stages of 5 N and take the reading
Results

Tensile experiment

Tensile experiment, Steel

Load in N 0 5 10 15 20
Reading in mV 0 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.007

Tensile experiment, Copper

Load in N 0 5 10 15 20
Reading in mV 0 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.007

Tensile experiment, Brass

Load in N 0 5 10 15 20
Reading in mV 0 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.013

Tensile experiment, Aluminum

Load in N 0 5 10 15 20
Reading in mV 0 0.005 0.0010 0.016 0.021

Table 1.0: Table 2 Results for Tensile experiment

Stresses and strains for a load of 20N,

Cross-sectional area 20 mm2
Reading UA/UE Calculated strain ε in Calculated stress σ
Material in mV
10-6 in N/mm2

Steel 0.007 -6
5335.57 1120.43
Copper 0.007 5134.79 631.58
Brass 0.013 9536.04 839.17
Aluminum 0.021 15404.36 1062.90
Table 1.1: Stresses and Strains for load 20N
 18000
15404.36
16000

14000

12000
9536.04
10000

8000
5335.57 5134.79
6000

4000

2000
0.007 0.007 0.013 0.021
0
1 2 3 4

Reading UA/UE in mV Calculated strain ε in

Figure 1.3: Graph of strain and stress.

Based on Hooke’s law equation, stress and strain are linked to each other by the equation of
modulus of elasticity.

Increasing of Modulus Elasticity or strain will also increase the stress. Hooke's law is not
applicable to plastic deformation at all, and cannot predict it. Hooke's Law only applies to non-
plastic deformation.

As an example, take a simple coil spring. When you compress it or stretch it less than the amount
that will cause permanent distortion when it is released, Hooke's law states that the force
required to stretch or extend it, is in direct proportion to the spring's change in length.
This linear relationship between force and distance was described by Hooke, but it is only true if
the force is not so high that the material (the spring's steel, in this case) is not stressed beyond its
Yield Point. In simple terms, this means that if you stretch the spring (or anything else) so much
that it no longer returns to its original length or position when the force is removed, the spring
has undergone "plastic deformation" and Hooke's Law no longer applies
Bending experiment

Bending experiment, lever arm 250 mm

0 1 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Load in N (holder
only)

Reading UA/UE
in mV 0 0.036 0.068 0.103 0.171 0.206 0.240

Table 1.2: Results for Bending Experiment

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Reading UA/UE in mV Load in N

Figure 1.4: Graph Load and reading of UA/UE.

A material is said to be elastic if, when it is loaded, it spontaneously springs back to its original
shape after the load is removed. If a material is loaded and takes up a new shape that is retained
after the load is removed, then the material is said to exhibit plastic behavior. Hooke's Law states
that the amount of strain or deformation a material undergoes is proportional to the force applied,
much like a spring is stretched by a given amount if a unit load is applied, it will stretch twice
that amount if twice the load is applied. If this loading occurs in the elastic region of the material,
when the load is removed, the material will resume its original shape. If a material is loaded
beyond the elastic region, the amount of deformation or strain is no longer directly proportional
to the amount of force applied, and when the force is removed, the material will retain what is
called a permanent set, since the material is no longer in the elastic region.
Torsion experiment

Torsion experiment, lever arm 100 mm

Load in N 0 5 10 15 20
0 3.8253 7.7666 11.592 15.5332
Torsional moments in Nm

0 0.033 0.067 0.1 0.134

Reading UA in mV
UE

Table 1.3: Results for Torsion Experiment

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5

Torsional moments in Nm Reading UA/UE in mV

Figure 1.5: Graph Load and reading of UA/UE.

This torsion experiment, the material are purely elastic, since the material are not undergo
deformation. Regarding Hooke’s Law Equation, the length of a spring always changes by the
same amount when it is pushed or pulled. In the case of a linear spring being pushed or pulled in
one direction, the mathematical representation of Hooke’s Law is as follows: F = kx.
Elasticity is the property of an object that causes it to return to its original shape after it has been
manipulated in some way. Hooke’s law is considered to be the earliest explanation of this
concept. Restoring force enables the spring to return to its original shape after undergoing
manipulation. In the context of Hooke’s Law, the restoring force is usually proportional to the
amount of stretch experienced.
Extra procedure & Precautions

For the best quality analysis for each experiment, extra procedure and precautions must be made
while conduction the experiment.

Tensile, Bending, Torsion Experiment

I. The load that applied must be increase by stage from low value to higher.
II. The thickness of the specimen should be according to the ISO standard.
III. Misalignment of the specimen must not be made.
IV. Measuring amplifier equipment must be reset to zero at the initial stage of experiment.
V. The load should be attached to the specimen to avoid of slippage during testing.

Application

The nucleation, development and saturation of the stress-induced martensitic transformation were
investigated, based on the specimen temperature changes, it was found that the initial,
macroscopically homogeneous phase transformation occurs at the same stress level for all strain
rates applied, regardless of the loading manner, while the stress of the localized transformation
increases with the strain rate. At higher strain rate, a more dynamic course of the transformation
process was observed, revealed in the creation of numerous fine transformation bands. An
inflection point was noticed on the stress–strain curve, dividing the transformation range into two
stages: the first heterogeneous, where transformation bands nucleate and evolve throughout the
sample; the second, where the bands overlap, related to significant temperature increase and an
upswing region of the curve. In the final part of the SMA loading a decrease of the average sample
temperature revealed the saturation stage of the transformation. It was also observed that
nucleation of the localized martensitic forward transformation takes place in the weakest area of
the sample in both approaches, whereas the reverse transformation always initiates in its central
part.
Reference

1. Strength and testing of material laboratory.

https://www.studocu.com/en/document/the-american-university-in-cairo/strength-and-
testing-of-materials/practical/bending-test-lab-report/4392136/view
2. https://www.academia.edu/3677677/Torsion
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_spring
4. Torsion test
https://www.testresources.net/applications/test-types/torsion-test/
5. Tensile test report.
https://www.slideshare.net/musadoto/tensile-test-report-89414455