PRACTICAL MANUAL

ON
AGRONOMY OF MAJOR CEREAL AND PULSES
AGRO-5217

2019

COMPILED BY
PRABHJOT KAUR

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

RIMT UNIVERSITY,MANDI GOBINGARH
 CONTENTS

S Particulars Page No Date Signature of

No. Teacher

1
Identification of seeds and crops

2
Sowing methods of different
crops
3
Seed bed preparation for different
crops
4
Seed treatment and preparation of
seed materials for sowing
5 Fertilizer application in crops
including top dressing

6 Irrigation operation in various crops

Judging physiological maturity in

7 standing crops

8 Yield attributes of crops

9
Harvesting of crops

10
Yield estimation of crops

12
 Exercise No. 1

Identification of seeds and crops

A large number of crops or varieties are grown in India. Many of these crops have great
morphological similarity in their seeds, although they belongs to different taxonomic groups. Varieties
also differ among each other in seed characteristics. Followings are the different crops
A. Kharif crops

S. No. Common name Botanical name Family

Cereals and millets

1. Rice Oryza sativa Graminae

2 Maize
Zea mays Graminae
3. Wheat Triticum aestivum

Graminae

5. Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Graminae

6. Pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum Graminae

Pulses

7. Chickpea Cicer arietinum Leguminosae

8. Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan

 Exercise No. 2
Sowing methods of different kharif crops

Sowing is the placing of a specified quantity of seeds in the soil in the optimum position for
germination and growth while planting is the putting of plant propagules (seeds, seedlings, cuttings,
tubers, rhizomes, clones etc) into the ground to grow as crop plants.Seeds are sown either directly in the
field or in the nursery (nursery bed) whereas seedlings are raised and transplanted later.
The various methods of sowing are:
1. Broad casting
Broadcasting is the scattering or spreading of seeds on the soil which may or may not be
incorporated or covered with soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreaders or
aeroplanes. This method is suitable for close sowing crops which do not require specific spacing for the
optimum expression of their growth and development. Crops such as upland and flooded rice, millets,
mustard, jute, fodder crops such as dinanath grass, berseem, lucerne, etc and s pices like cumin and
coriander are generally sown by this method. For mixed cropping, broadcasting is the usual practice of
sowing seeds.
Though it is an easy, quick and cheap method of sowing, there are difficulties in uniform
distribution, placing in optimum and uniform depth of soil and in providing soil cover and compaction.
Germination is uneven and weed control manually or mechanically is difficult. More quantity of seeds is
required in this method. Broadcasting of seeds is done in dry, semi dry and wet fields.
2. Dibbling
This is a method of putting a seed or a few seeds or seed material in a hole or pit made at
predetermined spacing and depth with a dibbler or planter. This method is suitable for wider space
planted crops requiring a specific spacing for their canopy development or cultural practices such as
weeding, earthing etc. Seeds may be dibbled in level fields or on ridges. For this method, the entire field
need not be prepared for seed bed, only the seeding zones. This method is suitable for planting maize,
cotton, castor, groundnut, pigeon pea, onion, ginger etc. Dibbling is more laborious, time consuming and
expensive as compared with broadcasting but requires less seed and gives rapid germination and seedling
vigour. Unnecessary competition between plants is avoided.
3. Drilling/line sowing
Drilling is a practice of dropping seeds in furrows. Furrows of predetermined spacing are made, seeds are
dropped at a definite depth and distance, covered with soil and compacted. Sowing implements such as
‘seed drill’ or ‘seed cum fertilizers drill’ are used. The use of seeding funnel (pora & kera) and sowing
behind the plough are also practiced.
During seeding, other operations such as application of manures and fertilizers, pesticides and soil
amendments are also done. Drilling requires more time, energy and cost but it maintains uniform plant
population per unit area. Row spacing is also set.
Crops such as wheat barley, upland rice, jowar, pulses, safflower, sesame, taramira etc
sown by drilling.
4. Planting
When individual seeds or seed material is placed in the soil by manual
labour, it is called planting. Generally crops with bigger sized seeds and those
requiring wider spacing are sown by this method. Planting is done for crops like
cotton, maize, potato, sugarcane etc.
5. Transplanting
When more than one crop is to be sown in a year on the same piece of land,
the time occupied by each crop has to be reduced. The seedling growth in the early
stages is very slow. Seedlings need extra care for establishing in the field because
of their tenderness. Small seeded crops like tobacco, chillies, tomato are to be
sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper germination. Taking care of
germinating seed/seedlings which are spread over large area is a problem with
regard to application of water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are
sown in a small area called nursery. When they grow to certain stage, they are
pulled out from the nurseries and transplanted in the main field.
The advantages of transplanting are saving in irrigation water, good stand
establishment and increase in cropping intensity. The thumb rule for the optimum
age of seedlings is one week for every month of total duration of the crop. Puddled
rice is mainly grown by transplanting method.
 Dated_________
__
Exercise No. 3

Seed bed preparation for kharif crops

The land is prepared well with disc plough or MB plough. Then sowing is done by
adopting suitable method. After sowing, seed bed is prepared to facilitate easy irrigation in crops if
required. Seed bed preparation for few crops is given as under:
1.25m
(i). Raised nursery bed for rice
Materials required
Spade, hand hoe, rake, measuring tape, seed, water etc.
Measurements: 8.0 m x 1.25 m 8.0m
Procedure
1. Earmark the area around four sides at right angle.
2. Prepare a bund of 30 cm thickness in the
middle of the row taking soil from both sides.
3. Prepare raised beds of 1.25 m x 8 m size, 20 cm above ground surface
4. Prepare a channel 30 cm wide on both sides to drain excess water.
5. Pulverize the soil inside bed with the help of spade or khurpi to a desirable depth.
6. Sow rice seeds in rows 10 cm apart and irrigate with 1-2 days interval during rainless period.
Seedlings are ready to transplant within 25-30 days.
7. 50 such beds of 8 m x 1.25 m = 10 m2 size are sufficient to transplant the seedlings in 1
ha field i.e. area of nursery required for 1 ha is 1/20 ha.
Precautions
1. Seed bed should be free from weeds, pebbles and clods.
2. Bed should be raised by 20 cm from soil surface to provide good drainage.
(ii) Seed bed preparation for maize
Materials required : Measuring tape, khurpi, spade, kassi, rake etc.
Measurement : 3.5 m length, 2.4 m width . Width of bed may be decided on the basis of row spacing.
Procedure:
1. Demarcate the area from all four sides keeping corners at 90 0 angle.
2. Bund the area with 30 cm thickness on the earmarked line taking soil from both the sides.
3. Soil inside bed should be mellow and friable.
4. Demarcate the rows at 60 cm keeping first and last row at 30 cm in width of the bed and make
shallow furrows with the help of hand hoe.
 5. Sow seeds in furrows at a depth of 4 -5 cm keeping plant to plant distance of 25 cm.
Observations
(i) There will be 4 rows each at 60 cm in a entire width of bed (2.4 m)
(ii) As per P x P spacing of 25 cm, there will be 14 plants in 3.5 m length of row.
(iii) Total number of plants in a bed of 3.5 m x 2.4 m size will be 56.
(iv) Keeping the above crop geometry (60 x 25 cm). One hectare planting requires 66,666 plants.
(v) Keep seed rate of maize 20-25 kg/ha.
Precautions:
(i.) Seed bed should be free from weeds, pebbles and clodes.
(ii.) Seed bed should be thoroughly leveled.
( i. ) Spacing oriff st andastl rowandfir st andlast plant whniit r ow should behalf oft henorm al.

( iii). Seed bed preparation for pearl millet

Materials required : Spade, measuring tape , khurpi, , kassi, rake etc.
Measurement : 3.6 m length, 2.7 m width
Method:

 Demarcate the measured area on all four sides at right angle to each other.
 Bund the area taking half soil from both the sides of row.
 Prepare shallow furrows at a row spacing of 45 cm along the width of bed.
 Sow seeds 3-4 cm deep in furrows.
 Maintain plant to plant spacing of 15 cm thinning extra plants two weeks after sowing.
Observations:
 Keeping R x R spacing of 45 cm, there will be 6 rows in above bed.
 Keeping 15 cm spacing between plants, there will be 24 plants in a single row.
 Total no of plants/bed will be 24 x 6 = 144.
 Using above crop geometry i.e. 45 cm x 15 cm, 1,48,000 plants/ha are required.
 Seed rate of pearl millet is 4 kg/ha
Precautions:
1. Seed bed should be mellow and friable.
2. It should be free from debris.
3. Seed bed should be well leveled.
 Exercise No. 4
Seed treatment and preparation of seed material for sowing
Seed treatment is a process of application of chemicals or protectants with fungicidal, insecticidal,
bactericidal or insecticidal properties to seeds that prevents the carriage of insects or disease causing
pathogens in/on the seeds which protect the seed from any kind of damage.. Seed treatment also enables
the seed to overcome seedling infection by soil borne pathogens.
Conditions requiring seed treatments
(i) Injured seeds : Mechanical injury to seed coat attracts attack of insect pests and diseases and
under such circumstances, it becomes essential to treat the seed.
(ii) Diseased seed : The seed may get infected during production, harvesting, threshing etc. which
makes it necessary to treat the seed
(iii) Undesirable soil conditions : Undesirable soil conditions prevailing during seed production
promote growth and disease pathogens which infect seed, hence it needs treatment.
Seed treating chemicals (Fungicides)
(i) Mercurials
(a) Organo mercurials: These are used for treating small seeds, grains, flax, cotton, safflower
etc. but the treated seeds cannot be stored for long time.
(b) Inorganic mercurials: The chemicals used belonging to this group are mercuric chloride,
mercurous chloride and mercuric oxide but these chemicals are injurious to seeds.
(ii) Non-mercurials:
(b) Organic: Thiram and Captan are most widely used as they are safe for seeds and users. The
treated seeds may be stored for long time.
(b) Inorganic: Copper sulphate, copper carbonate, cuprous oxide are the chemicals belonging to
this group. These are injurious to lettuce and crucifers.
Caution : The treatment should be given in order of Fungicide, Insecticide and
Rhizobium (FIR) Methods and equipments used depend upon type of chemicals used.
1. Dust treatment
Bulk of seed is treated by dust formulation which do not require very complicated equipments.
Factory made closed barrel type rotating drums are used for seed treatment which reduce the inhalation
hazards also. These drums treat the seed quickly and uniformly.
2. Wet treatment
Water soluble chemicals are dissolved in water in containers of convenient size and seeds are
dipped for certain period of time and then dried properly before packing and storage. This method
is time consuming and cumbersome . It seed is not properly dried, it is likely to be damaged during
storage. Metallic containers are not suitable for mercurial compounds as seed treatment.
3. Slurry treatment
 The slurry method of seed treatment eliminates the difficulties of both dry and wet treatments.
This method is most suitable for wettable powder formulations. The chemicals are mixed with small
quantity of water and then mixture is applied to seeds in automatic or semi automatic machines suitable
for large scale treatment .
4. Pelleting
It is mostly used as a protectant against soil organisms and as a repellent against birds and rodents.
The method has very limited application, hence, it is not extensively used.
Seed coating
Seed coating may be defined as the addition of materials for seed which may aid in growth and
survival of seedling plants. The method is mostly adopted in case of leguminous plants for use of
inoculum followed by coating with limiing materials. Additional materials may also be used provided
they do not interfere with effectiveness or survival of the inoculants applied to the seed.
Seed treatment to break dormancy
Dormancy is referred to as rest period of seed in which embryo does not germinate but the seed
remains viable for a period of few days. It is found in case of tree seeds, grass seeds, potato tubers, ginger,
colocasia etc. Thus freshly harvested seeds can not be used for immediate sowing utill they complete their
rest period. Dormancy becomes a serious problem in case of potato because the se ed crop of potato is
grown on hills during May to July and the same tubers when harvested are used for planting in Oct/Nov.
in the plains. These tubers remain dormant and they can be used only if dormancy is broken. Dormancy
can be broken by special treatments which may be grouped into two broad categories.
(i) Physical treatments
(a) Heat treatment at 40 to 45 0C for different durations.
(b) Low temp treatment at 2 to 8 0C for 12-24 hours to pre- soaked seeds.
(c) Alternate heating and cooling for several times.
(e) Alternate drying and wetting for several times.
(f) Dehusking or removal of seed coats.
(ii) Chemical treatments
(a) Inorganic chemicals
1. By acid treatment –Dil sol of HNO3, HCl, H2SO4 (0.1 – 0.5%) for
different duration in minutes
 2. By KNO3 (1-3%) NH4NO3 (1-3%), H2O2 H3Bo4 etc.
(b) Organic chemicals
Non hormonal –Thioura, KSCN, Ascrobic acid (10 -100 ppm) Hormonal- GA (1-
100 ppm), Kinetin (1-100 ppm), Ethylene 100-300 ppm.
(iii). Planter or Hopper box treatment –Required quantity of dust is mixed with the seed in the hopper

box of a seed drill just prior to its sowing. It is advantageous as there is not wastage of chemical.
 Exercise No. 5
Fertilizer application in crops including top dressing

Method of application varies according to the spacing of crop, type of fertilizer material,
time of
application, etc. A brief account of these points could be explained as under:
1. Methods of application of solid fertilizer materials.
(a) Broadcasting: Evenly spreading of dry solid fertilizers over the entire field before or after sowing of
the
crop is termed as broadcasting. This method proves effective when the crops have a dense stand, when
the plant roots absorb nutrient from whole volume of soil, when soil is rich in fertility, when large amount
of material is to be used. Though this method is easy, less time consuming, cheap and more convenient to
the farmers, yet, it is not advantageous because it encourages weed growth all over the field, most of the
material remains on the soil surface and does not reach to the root zone for uptake by plants, there is great
loss of fertilizer nutrients due to washing, run-off, volatilization, etc. Hence the recovery (extent of
fertilizer used by plants) ranges between 25 to 45 per cent or even less. Broadcasting may be done in
following ways:
(i) Basal application: Spreading of fertilizers before sowing or planting of the crops and mixing them by
cultivating the soil during seed-bed preparation is termed as basal application through broadcasting.
(ii) Top-dressing: Spreading of fertilizer in standing crops is termed as top dressing without
considering the crop rows but when the crop rows are taken into account and the material is dropped on
the ground surface near the crop rows, then it is called as side dressing.
(b)Placement of solid fertilizers: This refers to applying fertilizers into the soil where the crop roots can
take them

easily and maximum portion of the material can be used by plants and losses through uptake by weeds,
washing, run-off, volatilization etc. could be eliminated to the greatest extent. Placement can be done in
following ways:
(i) Plough sole placement: When the fertilizers are applied in furrows at plough sole level then it is
termed as plough sole placement. This could be done by kera, pora, chonga, etc.
(ii) Deep placement: The method is adopted in dry land condition where the fertilizers are placed deeper
than
plough sole level then it is called as deep placement. This helps in maximum root elongation and also

eliminates various losses of nutrients from the soil.

(iii) Sub-soil placement: When fertilizers are placed still deeper than the seeding or planting depth and

also deeper than the previous two methods, the method is termed as sub-soil placement.
(c) Localized placement: There is distinction between placement and loc alized placement. The former

refers to applying fertilizer into the soil without special reference to the location of seed or plant while the

latter implies the application of fertilizer into the soil close to the seed or plant. The method could be

adopted in following ways

Contact Placement: When fertilizer is placed along with seed then it is called as contact placement. This
is done by using seed-cum-fertilizer drill.
(i) Band placement: This is a localized placement of fertilizers by the side of plants in the hill for widely
spaced
plants like maiz e (termed at discontinuous bands ) or along the rows of the crop for clos ely spaced crops
like cereals, minor millets (termed as continuous band placement). This method has a definite
relationship of fertilizers with seedlings or seed, hence, this method gives very promising results when
soil surface is dry.
(iii) Spot placement: When fertilizers are placed at a fixed spot by the help of a bamboo peg having a
hole at the bottom in case of very widely spaced crops then the method is termed as spot placement
method.
(iv) Pellet placement: This method is adopted specially in case of deep water rice cultivation where it is
difficult to apply fertilizers in normal methods as the fertilizer granules get dissolved in water before
reaching to the ground level. In this method fertilizers (specially nitrogenous ones) are mixed with clay
soil in the ratio of one part of fertilizer into 10-15 parts of soil. The fertilizer is well mixed with soil after
slight moistening then filled in gunny bags and stored for 2-3 days. Now small mud balls are prepared
and these ball or pellets are dropped near the crop rows in rice or jute under deep water conditions.
Localized placement of fertilizers have many advantages over broadcasting such as relatively

lesser quantity is required for production of an ideal crop, weed growth is suppressed, fertilizer losses are

reduced, fertilizers are placed in moist zone, fertilizers come in easy reach of crop roots, fertilizer

recovery and response of crops to

applied fertilizer is increased. But the method is very technical and needs special precaution. It is very
expensive also.
2. Methods of application of liquid fertilizers
Use of liquid fertilizers is not very common practice in India but in advanced countries this is
most common method. It is most suitable method under dry land agriculture and in the areas which are
prone to erosion problems. Liquid fertilizers may be applied in following ways
(i) Use of starter solution: Starter solutions usually contain N, P, K in 1 : 2 : 1 or 1 : 1 : 2 ratio. This
method is used for transplanted crops where in place of irrigation water this solution is applied just to wet
the field so that the seedlings may establish quickly. Thus it serves as irrigation water as well as nutrient
solution for the crops. This is also used for treating the seedling root.
(ii) Fertilizer application through irrigation water: The required quantity of fertilizer material is
dissolved in irrigation water and can be used in sprinkler or drip irrigation systems. It is also known as
fertigation.

(iii) Nutrient injection method: In USA and some other countries anhydrous ammonia is injected into
the soil at a depth of about 20-25 cm and at a pressure of about 200 pound per square inch. The
anhydrous ammonia is the cheapest source of nitrogen because of its lower unit value. For this method
the soil should

have fine tilth, enough moisture etc. so that loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia does not take place.
(iv) Foliar spraying of nutrient solutions: In this method of fertilizer application, urea, micro-nutrients
and other required materials are dissolved in water, filtered and sprayed over the crop foliage by the help
of a suitable sprayer. This method is preferred to other methods because it needs very little quantity of
materials, the crop plants respond within 24 hours of application, soil reaction, topography and soil
textures have no adverse effect on the nutrient availability and fertility status of the soil, however, uneven
spraying and improper concentration of the solution may lead to hazardous effect over the crop.
 Exercise No. 10
Irrigation operation in various crops.

Irrigation water may be applied to crops by flooding it on the field surface, by applying it beneath
the soil surface, by spraying it under pressure or by applying it in drops. The water supply, type of soil,
slope of the land and the crop to be irrigated determine the method of irrigation to be used.
The various methods of irrigation are :
1) Surface irrigation
2) Sub-surface irrigation
3) Over-head or sprinkler irrigation
4) Drip or trickle irrigation
A. Surface irrigation method (Gravity irrigation)
In surface irrigation, water is conveyed at the point of infiltration, directly on the surface by
gravity flow from the channels. These methods can be used nearly on irrigable soils and for most crops
with a wide range of steam size and soil types. These methods are:
1. Free flooding : Water is brought perpendicular to the slope in a channel and applied directly to the
field without any control on the flow. The advancing sheet of water is controlled primarily by the
topography of the field with some guidance from the cultivators spade.
Advantages :
1) Suitable for all irrigable soils and close growing crops.
2) Can be followed in highly sloppy lands (up to 10% slope).
3) Initial cost is low.
Limitations :
1) Distribution of water is not uniform and water application efficiency is low
2) There will be erosion hazard.
2. Controlled flooding:
(i) Border strips : Here the field is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders that are
separated by low ridges. The width of border usually varies from 3 to 15 metres and the length varies
from 60 to 120 metres in sandy and sandy loam soils and 150 to 300 metres in clayey soils. An essential
feature of border strip irrigation is to provide an even surface cover which the water can flow down the
slope with nearly uniform depth in the entire width of the border. Normally, the direction of the border
strip is in the direction of the slope, but when the land slope exceeds non-erosive limits, border strips may
be laid across the slope.
Advantages
1) Suited well for close growing crops such as wheat, barley and fodder crops especially in black
soils which need light irrigations.
 2) Water application efficiency is better and initial cost in low.
Limitations
1) Extensive land grading is necessary
2) Relatively large stream flows are required.
(ii) Flat bed or check basin method : A check basin is an area completely levelled and surrounded by
a bund. Here, water is conveyed by a stream of supply channel and lateral field channels. The supply
channel is assigned on the upper side of the area and there is usually one channel for every two rows of
check basins. Water from the laterals is turned into the beds and cut off when sufficient water has been
applied to the basin. Water is retained in the basin until it soaks into the soil.
Advantages :
1) Ideally suited for orchard crops and close growing crops like transplanted paddy, wheat, barley
etc.
2) There is good control of irrigation water and fairly high water application efficiency.
3) Useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
Limitations
(i) Ridges or bunds occupy considerable land and interfere with the movement of farm machinery for
interculture.
(ii) Labour requirement in land preparation and irrigation is much higher.
(iii) Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions like maize, potato etc.
(ii) Ridge and furrow method : This method is used to irrigate row crops with furrows developed
between the rows where water is applied by running into small streams. It is the most suitable method of
irrigation for crops sensitive to the pounded surface water or susceptible to fungal root rot, root injury et
c. Irrigation furrows may be classified as graded furrows, level furrows, contour furrows, corrugations
and alternate furrows. Straight ridges and furrows are formed on a levelled topography while contour
ridges and furrows are formed on steep slopes. This method is suitable for irrigating maize, sorghum,
sugarcane, cotton, potato and other vegetables.
Advantages :
1) Suited to all row crops and especially for crops that are sensitive to excess moisture like maize
and vegetables.
2) There is good control of water and water application efficiency is high.
Limitations :
1) Labour charge is higher.
2) There is erosion hazard.
(iii) Ring and basin method: This method of irrigation is essentially a check basin method
applied to orchards where basins are circular and are made around each tree. The entire land is not wetted
in the ring method of basin irrigation of orchards. From the supply ditch water is conveyed to the basin
either by flowing through one basin into another, or preferably by small lateral channels. The round
furrow is termed ring and the raised portion is known as basin.
Advantages :
1) Best suited to broadly spaced crops like orchards.

2) There is high water application efficiency with uniform distribution.

Limitations :
1) Intercultivation by bullock drawn implements is difficult
2) Initial cost is high.
B. Sub-surface irrigation
In sub-surface irrigation, water is applied below the ground surface by maintaining an artificial
water table at some depth depending upon the soil texture and the depth of the plant roots. Water reaches
the plant roots through capillary action. Water may be introduced through open ditches or under ground
pipelines such as tile drains or mole drains. The depth of open ditches vary from 30 to 150 cm and they
are spaced about 15 to 30 metres apart. The water application system consists of field supply channels,
ditches or trenches suitably spaced to cover the field adequately and drainage ditches for the disposal of
excess water.
The method can be adopted in soils having a low water holding capacity and a high infiltration
rate where surface methods can not be used and sprinkler irrigation is expensive.
C. Sprinkler irrigation system
Sprinkler or overhead irrigation system is a means of applying water to the surface of any soil or
crop just like rain-water is sprayed into the air through a sprinkler nozzle under pressure. With careful
selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressures and sprinkler spacing, the amount of irrigation water
required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniformly at a rate to suit the infiltration rate of
soil, thereby obtaining efficient irrigation.
Two major types of sprinkler system are rotating head system and perforated pipe system. In the
rotating head system, small size nozzles are placed in riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the
length of the lateral pipe. The most common device to rotate the sprinkle r head is with a small hammer
activated by the thrust of the water striking against a vane connected to it. Most of the sprinklers used in
agricultural field are of slowly rotating with either one or two nozzles. The pressure requirement in
rotating head s ystem is 2-10 kg/cm2 . In perforated pipe system, small holes are provided in a pipe in
specially designed manner so that water comes out through these holes and irrigate a crop. Here, pressure
requirement is much less i.e. 0.5 to 2 kg /cm2.
Advantages :
1. It is best suited for sandy soils where infiltration rate is high and for shallow soils where the
topography prevents proper levelling for surface irrigation methods.
2. It is suitable for steep slopes and easily erodable soils.
3. Water application efficiency is high because surface run off and percolation is very much reduced.
4. Wastage of land is avoided by eliminating ditches, furrows and borders which generally occupy 5%
of total area.
5. Soluble fertilizers can be applied through sprinklers.
6. Sprinkler irrigation can be used to protect the crop from frost damage and scorching temperatures.
Limitations
1. Initial investment is high compared to surface irrigation methods.

2. During windy days distribution of water is not uniform.

D. Drip irrigation system
Drip irrigation also referred to as trickle irrigation is one of the most efficient methods of
irrigation. It was first designed in Israel by Simca Blass, a water engineer in 1959. It involves slow
application of water to the plant root zone. The losses of water by deep percolation and evaporation are
minimized. Precise amount of water is applied to replenish the depleted soil moisture at frequent
intervals for optimum plant growth.
It consists of an extensive network of pipes usually of small diameter that deliver filtered water
directly to the soil near the plant. Main components of drip irrigation system are storage tank with filters,
mains and sub-mains, laterals and drip nozzles or emitters. The water outlet device in the pipe namely
emitter discharges only a few litres per hour. From the emitter, water spreads laterally and vertically by
soil capillary forces. The area wetted by an emitter depends upon the flow rate, soil type, soil moisture
etc. Trickle irrigation is suitable for fruit crops and orchards which are widely spaced such as tomatoes,
citrus and grapes. It is not practical or economical for closely planted crops such as cereals.
Advantages :
1. Water application efficiency is very high and water saving of 30 to 50 per cent over other irrigation
methods is obtained in the system.
2. Greater crop yields and better quality are obtained as root zone is moistened constantly.
3. Insect, disease and weed problem are reduced by minimizing the wetting of soil surface.
Limitations :
1. Initial investment is high and cannot be followed in cereals and closely spaced crops.
2. Clogging of emitters is a serious problem.
3. Salt deposition occurs near the edge of wetted zone at the soil surface, severe damage
may be caused to crop, if it is flushed to root zone by rains.

Exercise No. 11
 Judging physiological maturity in standing crops

Plants have various phases of growth and development. Maturity is the stage at which the plant
almost ceases its physiological proc esses and the formation of the grain or fibre or synthesis of produce
of economic value is complete. In certain crops this stage can be judged by seeing the colour of the
leaves, stem and grains and through the physical appearance of the plant, while in others by certain
specific tests (as in sugarc ane). In pulses, one should know that they do not ripen uniformly. Hence,
repeated plucking is advisable.
In a large number of crops, the plants turn yellow and dry at maturity, while in other crops, the
plants remain green but the seeds are fully matured as in the case of most of the dwarf varieties of ric e,
jowar, maize, etc. Therefore, mere judging of maturity on the basis of the vis ual symptoms of the crops
may not hold true and, hence, the inspection of the seed is also necessary to judge the harvesting stage,
while the crop is green.
Precautions:
Do not apply the same standards for judging maturity in all the crops for
harvesting. Spraying of any insecticide or fungicide at the time of harvesting
should be avoided. Do not allow over-ripening.
Do not delay harvesting of pulses or bolls in cotton till complete maturity of the
terminal pod/ boll. Harvesting in fodder crops beyond 75% flowering stage should be
followed.
Procedure
Visit the field and look at the crop conditions.
Make visual observations with regard to color of leaf/stem/ pod/ earhead /grain.
Feel the consistency of grain/ leaf in tobacco.
Observe the colour of the grain/ pod/boll (cotton), etc.
Determine the moisture content of the grain.
Cereals
Rice
Observe the crop for maturity after 30 days of flowering.
Leaf colour - it should be pale green.
Colour of the husk on the panicle—it should be pale yellow to brownish yellow.
Take out the grain, cut it with your nail—it should break with difficulty.
Cut the grain between the teeth—it should give a dull metallic sound on breaking.
Sorghum and minor millets
Observe the colour of the leaf/ stem—it should be pale yellow to yellow.
Condition of the leaves—they should be brittle.
Grain consistency —it should be hard and milk should not ooze out when crushed.
Seed colour —it should be whitish, and in minor millets, typical of the crop variety, as
marketed. Beat the earhead against a hard surface —note shattering out of grains.
Moisture content of the grain—it should be less than 25%.
Colour of the leaf, stemt and cobs of maize—it should be pale green to
yellow Observe the condition of the leaves—they should be brittle.
Consistency of the grain—it should be hard, and milk should not ooze out when pressed between
the teeth. Cut the grain with the teeth—it should give a dull metallic sound.
Pulse crops and legumes
Observe the, colour of the leaf/ stem/pod—it should be yellow to
brown. Note the dried appearance of the plant and pod. Note the
falling of leaves.
Observe the pods—75% are completely filled; the outer surface or hull is nearly
dried. Colour of the seed—it should be typical of the crop variety, as marketed.
Condition of the cotyledon—on splitting, they should separate easily.
Grain moisture content— it should be less than 35%. In soybean, it should not be more than 20%.
Note the pod filling in vegetable peas/ cowpea/ soybean—75% pods are completely filled and fresh green
in colour.

Exercise No. 12
 Yield attributes and calculation on theoretical yield and harvest index.

Yield potentials of crops/varieties can be assessed on the basis of yield attributes. Different
crops have different yield attributing characters. After collecting information on these attributes,
theoretical yield. These observations help farmers to choose a suitable crop or variety for cultivation.
Some of the examples are:
Calculate the expected yield of maize grain in t/ha from the following details :
(1) Spacing-75 cm x 30 cm
(2) Average no. of cobs/plant-2
(3) Average no. of grain rows/cob-10
(4) Average no. of seeds/grain row-25
(5) Test weight of seeds-
250 g. Solution
Yield of maize grains in t/ha
= 1000xcobs/plantxgrain rows/cob x grains/rowxtest.wt.inSpacing in sq.m.x
1000x1000x100x10 = 10000x2x10x25x2500.75x0.30x1000x1000x100x10 = 5.56 t/ha
Yield of Maize grain would be 5.56 t/ha.
What would be the yield of rice grains, if
(a) The average earhead density/m2 - 260
(b) Average no of filled grains/panicle - 136
(c) Test weight - 20 g
Solution
Yield of rice t/ha =
= 10000 x earhead/m2 x no. of filled grains/earhead
x test wt. 1000 x 1000 x 100 x 10
= 10000x260x136x201000x1000x100x10 =
7.08 t/ha Yield of rice would be 70.8q/ha
From the following details, work out the grain yield, percentage of unfilled grains, fertility
ratio and hulling percentage of rice.
Spacing-- 20 cm x 20 cm
Average no. of effective tillers/hill-- 9
Average no. of grains/panicle- 160
Average no. of unfilled grains/panicle-
20 Test weight-22 g.
Yield of unhusked rice-4.5
t/ha Solution
No. of filled grains/panicle = No. of total grains/panicle- No. of unfilled grains/panicle
= 160-20 = 140
= 10000 x effective tillers/hill x no.of filled grains/ panicle x test wt.
Spacing x 1000 x 1000 x 100 x 10
= 10000x9x140x220.2x0.2x1000x1000x100x10 = 6.93 t/ha Hulling
percentage = Yield of unhusked rice in t/ha x 100 Yield of husked rice in
t/ha = 4.5 x 100 6.93 = 65.0%
Fertility ratio = No. of filled grains/panicle No. of unfilled
grains/pancile = 140 20 = 7
Percentage of unfilled grains = No. of unfilled grains/panicle No. of total
grains/panicle x 100 = 20 x 100 160 = 12.5%
Grain yield - 6.93
t/ha Hulling % -
65.0 Fertility ratio-7
Percentage of unfilled grains-12.5%.

Exercise No. 14
Harvesting of major kharif crops

Materials Required
 Materials and tools required will vary according to the operation in different crops.
The tools required have been indicated in the procedure of harvesting the important crops. Some of these
are:
(i) Harvester, (ii) Combine, (iii) Mower, (iv) Potato digger(v) Cutting knife, (vi) Sickle, (vii) Pickaxe,
(viii)Spade, (ix) Baskets, (x) Bags, (xi) Ropes, (xii) Carting facility, (xiii) Threshing floor.
Procedure:
Cereals and small millets
Cut the crop with the help of a sickle.
Cut the plants as close to the ground as possible. Keep the few handfuls of the crop harvested in one
place. Collect this harvest at various places. Simultaneously, make small, easily lifted bundles, by tying
up with ropes or any other material. Collect these bundles in one place.
Transport these bundles to the clean threshing floor. Keep it for sun
drying. Make thatch of suitable size when the harvest is large.
Pulse crops
Pluck the dry and mature.Repeat 2-3 times after every 5-7 days. Spread every picking on pucca threshing
floor for sun drying. Harvest the entire crop with a sickle when 80 -90 % of the plants are completely
dried.
Oil seed crops
Harvest soybean, sesame and other oilseed crops as indicated in the above mentioned crops.
Groundnut
Pull up the individual plant by hand, by holding the haulms of the bunch type groundnut in an upright
position. Undertake digging with the help of small pickaxes (kudali), in the spreading types. A deshi
plough can also be used. Collect the pods which are left here and there in the plot. Collect the pulled
plants at one place. Keep the plants in such a way that the pod bearing ends are in one direction. Pluck the
pods by hand. Remove the soil lumps from the pods, if any. Transport the pods to the proper place.
Keep the pods for sun drying, till moisture is reduced to 10 to 12%.
Maize
Pluck the dried and drooping cobs by hand and collect in baskets.
Leave the stalks in the field for 4-5 days. Collect the cobs at one
place. Spread them for drying. Strip off the husks from the cobs.
Spread these cobs on the floor for sun drying. Remove the grain from the cobs after three -four days by
beating with sticks or by corn shellers.
Cut the stalks with a sickle/ mower close to the ground. Make small bundles of the stalks.

Keep the bundles in a stalk at one place in an upright position, so that they remain aerated and are not
spoiled due to mould, etc.
Sorghum
 In the case of dwarf sorghums cut the earheads with sickles first and leave the stalk in the field for
10 to 15 days. In desi varieties, first cut the plant close to the ground with sickles and then cut off the
earheads from this. Make bundles of the plants of the tall sorghum varieties and collect them at one place.
Cut the earheads and collect them in baskets. Transport the harvested earheads to the threshing floor.

Exercise No. 15
Yield estimation of kharif crops
Yield is the ultimate objective of cultivating agricultural plants. Different plant parts constitute
the economic yield in different crops, like grain in cereals, pulses and oil seeds, vegetative parts or fruits
in vegetable crops; bark or out growth in fibre crops (jute, cotton); and the entire plant in fodder crops.
The yield per unit area (per m2 or ha) is the product of yield per plant multiplied by the number of plants
per unit area. It is, therefore, essential to know the yield components per plant as well as per unit area.
Precautions
Use only a representative crop to estimate yields.
Do not select plants of any particular type. Do not damage any plant part.
Record yield at the correct maturation stage. Do not allow excessive wilting or drying of the material.
Estimate yield in a sufficiently large sample.
Materials Required
(i) Polythene bags
(ii) Harvesting equipment like sickle, knife, etc.
(iii)Balance
(iv) Gunny bags or baskets, pans, etc.
Procedure Single
plant yield
Harvest 50 to 100 random single plants separately.
Count the number of branches or tillers, if any, for each plant.
Thresh the seed or economic produce separately from each branch or tiller or from the entire plant, as the
case may be. Weigh the seed from each branch or tiller in grain crops and economic produce in
vegetables, fodder and fibre crops and record it.
Determine average number of branches/tillers per plant, yield per branch/tiller.
Yield per unit area
Mark out 10 plots of 1 m2 randomly in the field.
Count the total number of plants per plot. Harvest each plot separately.
Thresh the material at the appropriate stage. Record yield from each plot separately.
Observations
Single plant yield
Number of productive branches or tillers per plant. Average number of branches or tillers per plant
.Weight of seeds per branch or tiller. Average weight of seeds for each branch or tiller in g. Average
weight of seeds per plant in g
Weight of 1000 seeds in small grains and 100 seeds in big grains in g.
Yield per unit area
Average number of plants per plot
Yield per plot of 1.0 sq. m( g)
Average yield per plot of 1 sq. m( g)
Calculations
Calculate the yield per hectare through the single plant yield method and yield per unit
area method. Yield per ha = Wt. of seeds per plant x No. of plants per ha. or Yield per plot
of 1.0 sq. m x 10,000

Problem 1: Calculate yield/ha of allotted crop adopting the above procedures.