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Future Petroleum Play Types of Indonesia: Regional Overview

Conference Paper · May 2017

DOI: 10.29118/IPA.50.17.554.G

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PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION
Forty-First Annual Convention & Exhibition, May 2017
FUTURE PETROLEUM PLAY TYPES OF INDONESIA: REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Awang Harun Satyana*
ABSTRACT
With its first systematic oil seep mapping completed in
1865, the first exploration well drilled in 1871, and the
first commercial oil field discovered in 1885,
Indonesia is one of the countries with the earliest
history of petroleum industry. Since the onset of the
modern petroleum industryin 1968, 50 years ago or so
already, Indonesia leads the exploration and
production activities in the region, although showing
some decline in the last fifteen years.
The long history of petroleum industry in Indonesia
results also from the complicated geologic setting of
the region, providing many opportunities and
challenges for petroleum exploration. Numerous
petroleum play types have been proven over the years
but Indonesia is still believed to have huge resources to
be found..
In addition to classical play types, a number of future
play types have already been identified, some proven,
some others potential, in western- and eastern
Indonesia, both in mature and frontier areas. They
regionally can be grouped into: (1) Paleogene synrift
and pre-Tertiary Basement of Sumatra-Java-Natuna-
Barito, (2) Neogene delta and deepwater of eastern
Kalimantan-Makassar Straits, (3) Paleogene synrift &
postrift of West Sulawesi offshore-Bone-Gorontalo,
(4) Gondwanan Mesozoic sections of Sumatra-Java-
Makassar Straits, (5) Paleogene-Neogene sub- and
intra-volcanic of Java-West Sulawesi, (6) collided
Mesozoic Australian passive margin sediments in
Gorontalo-Buton-Banggai-Sula-Outer Banda Arc-
Lengguru-Central Ranges of Papua, (7) Paleozoic
sections of Arafura Sea-South Papua, (8) Neogene
Pacific province of North Papua.
Successes or failures of these future play types lie on
how to manage the related opportunities and
challenges. Success will begin with the man willing to
take a chance. The role of the Government is important
* SKK Migas
IPA17-554-G
in making supportive regulations for petroleum
companies to invest in exploration in Indonesia
INTRODUCTION
The existing historical records show that petroleum
exploration and exploitation in Indonesia has taken
place for around 150 years, starting near
contemporaneously with the recognized cradles of the
oil industry. From the early days to themodern era,
Indonesia has awlays led the activities of exploration
and exploitation/production in the South Asian region.
Oil and gas industry has played an important role in the
development of the country. When the development of
Indonesia was very intensive during 1970’s to early
1990’s, oil and gas became the main financial
contributor by accounting for more than two thirds of
the government revenues in 1970’s to around half of
the revenue in early 1990’s. Indonesia today still
depends strongly on the petroleum industry to fuel the
nation’s development and as a primary energy source.
More discussions on the history of petroleum industry
in Indonesia can be found in Satyana et al. (2012).
However, the Indonesian oil production started to
decline significantly since mid-1990 and accordingly,
the government revenue from oil and gas has played
significantly less role for the country development.
Peak oil production of Indonesia was reached in 1977
with an annual production reaching as much as 615
million barrels of oil (1.68 million barrels oil per day).
In 2016, the oil production of Indonesia halved to just
303 million barrels (0.83 million barrels oil per day).
The history also shows that continuous or revitzlized
exploration activities have been vital for sustaining
high level of production in the country. Past records
show simply that the more exploration occurs in
Indonesia, the more fields are discovered and other
wisely, with less exploration, less new fields are
discovered. No exploration, no field discovery, no
production.
Although Indonesia has been explored for around 150
years, with a relative intensification of activites in
since the end of 1960’s, as well as has produced much
petroleum, Indonesia still has broad spaces and
petroleum potential for exploration (Howes, 2001 –
Figure 1). Due to its long and complicated geological
history, , Indonesia provides many play types in at
various stratigraphic levels, some which have never or
immaturely been explored, including in producing
areas/basins. In addition, some of the Indonesian
sedimentary basins remain simply under- or
immaturely explored..
Based on many studies and results of past exploration,
including successful or failed exploration, the paper
identifies and summarizes the worthiest play types that
should be considered for future exploration in
Indonesia. Some of those play types are producing play
types and have been recognized for some of years
already in Indonesia. Other play types are geologically
proven with oil or gas discovery/seepages but not
associated with producing fields. The rest of the play
types are conceptual and based on seismic data. All
these hese play typesare distributed across the entire
country, and belong to y several stratigraphic intervals.
Areas not covered by any play type discussed here
mean either: no seismic data available for identifying
possible play type (could be potential if there are
seismic data and supportive), or very high risk area for
petroleum possibility (based on current knowledge and
data).
DATA & METHODS
The paper proposes an areal classification of the
worthiest, successful and potential, play types to
should be consideredfor the future exploration of
Indonesia. The review is based on published literatures
and unpublished data/ studies.
The discussions will address firstly the aspects relating
to ideas of exploration in both mature and frontier areas
because the proposed play types develop in both areas,
government roles, petroleum prospectivity of
Indonesia in brief, and detailed discussions for each
proposed future play types.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Ideas of Exploration
Two famous exploration thoughts are important to
discuss.
“Where oil is first found, in the final analysis, is in the
minds of men. The undiscovered oil field exists only
as an idea in the mind of some oil finders. When no
man any longer believes more oil is left to be found, no
more oil field will be discovered, but so long as a single
oil-finder remains with a mental vision of a new oil
field to cherish, along with freedom and incentive to
explore, just so long new oil fields may continue to be
discovered.” (Wallace E. Pratt, 1952).
“We usually find oil in new places with old ideas.
Sometimes, also, we find oil in an old place with new
idea, but we seldom find much oil in an old place with
an old idea.” (Parke A. Dickey, 1958).
These exploration thoughts show the significance of
thinking or creating the ideas or concepts of
exploration to continue finding oil/gas fields. Proven
exploration concepts/play concepts, referred
generically as play types in this paper, in one place, can
be applied to another place as long as the places shared
similar geologic setting and history. There should be
new play types for exploring mature/old areas. If the
old areas are explored using old ideas, the results are
volumetrically small or marginal because the big ones
had been discovered early.
Creating idea of exploration depends strongly on
geologic, geophysical, and geochemical data. Creating
new exploration idea in maturely explored area/old
area for example, need additional and better resolution
seismic data, and improved geologic analysis, to cover
deeper stratigraphic horizons. The application of new
exploration and production technology, along with
appropriate oil field practice, is the driving force
behind finding new oil in old places (Sneider and
Sneider, 2001). In frontier areas, the presence of data
will determine the development of of new exploration
ideas. The existence of exploration well/s or oil-gas
seeps will impact the ideas. Frontier exploration is seen
as the only response to the challenge to find significant
additional reserves. Exploration in frontier area is high
risk but high reward.
Government Roles
The role of the government in the country where
exploration takes place is important in making
supportive regulations to encourage petroleum
companies to invest. The following case was
conducted by the Government of Indonesia when the
Government wanted to enhance frontier exploration in
eastern Indonesia at the end of 1980’s and the
beginning of 1990’s. This effort was taken very
seriously as indicated by the issuance of incentive
packages. It was for this reason that, since 1988, the
Government has issued incentive packages to ensure
financial return to the investors under poor economic
conditions. The incentives were aimed at handling
frontier risks and issues such as geological complexity,
remoteness and deep water. The issuance of incentives
four times within only 5 years (in 1988, 1989, 1992 and
1994) indicated that the Government was willing to
change its policies as required by the external
environment (Sujanto and Hartoyo, 1994). The
responses from petroleum companies were good, with
many companies investing in frontier areas in eastern
Indonesia. This resulted, not without some early
geological and operational struggles, into significant
large to giant fields, mainly gas, to be discovered from
the late 1980s to 2000 (Tangguh gas fields, Senoro,
Donggi, Abadi gas fields).
Today, to keep exploration on-going, in a worsening
environment due to significantly global lower oil price,
the Government has shown difficulty to show agility
and and revise or modify existing regulations that
would help bringing contractual attractiveness again
for investors.. Generally, future exploration will be
more difficult and risky compared to that of previous
periods. Therefore, governmental regulations relating
to petroleum exploration and exploitation activities
should be even more supportive than before.
Prospectivity of Indonesia
Geologically, Indonesia occupies one of the most
complicated areas on Earth. The archipelago is made
up of three major crustal plates and numerous terranes
of both continental and oceanic origins. This tectonic
setting provides Indonesia with numerous sedimentary
basins and inter-basin areas where petroleum
accumulations are either proven or possible (Figure 2).
Petroleum resources of Indonesia has been explored
and produced for around 150 years. Yet, remaining
Indonesia’s oil and gas potential and production is still
considered by many of consequent amount and impact.
National and multinational companies are still
venturing these resources. Indonesia may also be the
most diverse country in the world with at least 50
proven and probably more than 100 speculative
petroleum systems. Controlled largely by the different
geological regimes of western and eastern Indonesia,
the pattern of petroleum accumulations differ across
the archipelago. Decrypting the geological evolution of
the country and how the various sedimentary basins
have developed and deformed, are the keys to
undertand the petroleum systems of thosebasins and
unlock their petroleum potential
Exploration conditions in the western and eastern
portions of Indonesia are quite different from an oil
industry standpoint. Exploration and production
activity have been very intensive in the western part of
the country. Western Indonesia probably has fewer
very large undiscovered fields. The remaining
potential of this area is most likely made of numerous
small to medium size hydrocarbon accumulations as
long as the primary objectives are Tertiary in ages.
Recent studies indicated that pre-Tertiary objectives in
western Indonesia are interesting to explore. A
different situation exists in eastern Indonesia. This
region is generally under-explored with half of the
basins being undrilled and the other half having highly
variable amounts of drilling activity. A number of
sedimentary basins in eastern Indonesia are high-risk
frontier areas.
Primary hydrocarbon objectives include both Tertiary
and Pre-Tertiary sediments that have been proven to be
productive resulting in a number of oil and gas fields.
One can speculate that the possibility of truly large
accumulations is probably much higher though the
associated risks are high as well. A number of large
fields have been discovered in the Salawati, Bintuni
and Arafura Sea areas. Other fields are in Bula and
Banggai Basins, discovery wells are distributed in
various areas both onshore and offshore.
Future Petroleum Play Types of Indonesia
A number of future play types in Indonesia have been
identified, Some are proven and others are potential;
some are located in western Indonesia- and others in
eastern Indonesia (Figures 3 and 4). Those play types
can be grouped regionally into 8 groups: (1)
Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary Basement of
Sumatra-Java-Natuna-Barito, (2) Neogene delta and
deepwater of eastern Kalimantan-Makassar Straits, (3)
Paleogene synrift & postrift of West Sulawesi
offshore-Bone-Gorontalo, (4) Gondwanan Mesozoic
sections of Sumatra-Java-Makassar Straits, (5)
Paleogene-Neogene sub- and intra-volcanic of Java-
West Sulawesi, (6) collided Mesozoic Australian
passive margin sediments in Gorontalo-Buton-
Banggai-Sula-Outer Banda Arc-Lengguru-Central
Ranges of Papua, (7) Paleozoic sections of Arafura
Sea-South Papua, (8) Neogene Pacific province of
North Papua.
(1) Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary Basement of
Sumatra-Java-Natuna-Barito
This is a producing play type with oil and gas fields in
the region.
Recent paper by Satyana (2016b), reviewing
exploration results from 2000 to 2015, included the
play type of Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary
Basement of Sumatra-Java-Natuna as one of the most
significant discovery play concept of that period. The
discussion will review firstly the Paleogene synrift and
then the pre-Tertiary Basement.
Doust and Sumner (2007) classified these targets of
deeper Paleogene sections of synrift sequences as
Early synrift lacustrine petroleum system type (PST)
(Figure 5). This PST is strongly oil prone due to the
widespread development of organic-rich lacustrine
source rocks, and regionally is common in basins in
Thailand, Vietnam and western Indonesia. The related
oils are characteristically light (40° API), waxy and
low in sulfur. Most of the oils are derived from
lacustrine and fluvio-lacustrine source rocks rich in
algal organic material, while minor amounts of gas are
contributed by Type III coals and coaly shale source
rocks that occur in small marginal lake swamp facies.
Reservoirs comprise fluvio-lacustrine clastics
(including lacustrine turbidites), lacustrine carbonates
and volcaniclastics of limited quality and areal extent.
These reservoirs are interbedded with laterally
discontinuous non-marine shale seals that allow charge
to leak into the overlying late synrift transgressive
delta sequence.
The Paleogene sections, deposited as late synrift and
mainly postrift sequences, have been subsequently
brought at shallow depth by the late Neogene
compressional phase. They are found within inverted
faulted anticlinal traps in Sumatra, Natuna, Java, and
Barito basins (such as: Minas, Duri, Talang Akar,
Belida, Tanjung fields), which have been explored
since early days of exploration of western Indonesia
(with the exception of offshore West Natuna area).
Deeper Paleogene sections of synrift sequences
however, remained unexplored until the late of 1990’s.
Courteney (1996) predicted that the key to the future
exploration potential of western Indonesia lay within
these deep sedimentary sections that exist within rifts
in every basin of western Indonesia (Figure 6). The
sediments are interpreted as Middle Eocene or older, to
Early Oligocene, and contain the effective source rocks
together with reservoirs and seals. Potential traps will
tend to be inversion structures (such as Jatibarang
Field, Northwest Java), or stratigraphic/structural traps
on the hanging walls of the rifts. Courteney (1996)
estimated that the potential resources in place in the
deeper Paleogene sections of western Indonesia are
greater than 6.6 billion barrels of oil equivalent
(unrisked).
During the period 2000-2015, numerous discoveries
this type has occurred in deep Paleogene sections of
Sumatra, West Java, and West Natuna. They are,
among others: Matang, Benggala (North Sumatra),
Tilan Deep, Jorang Deep, Parit Minyak, Kokoh
(Central Sumatra), Akatara, Selong, Panen, Panen
Utara, Berkah, Karang Makmur (South Sumatra),
Melandong, Pondok Tengah, Pondok Mulia, Karang
Baru, Karang Enggal (West Java), Adik Anoa (West
Natuna).
Basement rocks are important hydrocarbon reservoirs
that have been recognized wordwideHistorically, in
Indonesia, several fields have produced oils from
basement reservoirs (Kluang and Teras fields in South
Sumatra, Tanjung field in Barito Basin). However,
intensive exploration into the basement occurred only
from the late 1990’s when Gulf Resources explored
South Sumatra’s basement prospective resources. The
Suban field (5 TCF; Koning, 2015) was discovered in
1998 with the drilling of Suban-2 which encountered
high deliverability gas in fractured pre-Cenozoic
andesite and overlying sandstone of the lower Talang
Akar Formation. Charging of fractured basement
occurs where pods of active petroleum sources occur
in adjacent graben onlap onto, or are juxtaposed
against basement horsts. Currently, since the discovery
of giant Suban gas field in Jambi, South Sumatra
Basin, this play-type has been targeted in basins of
Sumatra and Java. Several exploration efforts during
the 2000-2015 period resulted in several significant
discoveries being made, namely Suban Barat, Karang
Makmur, Kenanga (South Sumatra), Pondok Makmur
(West Java), KE 29-1 (East Java).
Fractures in the basement are believed to have formed
by: (1) contraction joints within pre-Cenozoic igneous
rocks during cooling of the rocks, (2) fractures and
faults formed during multiple stages of tectonic
readjustment, and (3) fractures formed during uplift
(uploading) and surface weathering. The degree of
fracturing varies with the age and kind of rocks. Older
and brittle rocks contain more faults and fractures than
those of younger and ductile rocks. As for the charging,
basement horst block should be flanked or encircled by
grabens containing mature source rocks.
To date, petroleum production from basement rocks
remains limited in Indonesia due to the complexity of
the reservoir.
Based on discovery trend and remaining potential, the
play type of Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary
Basement of Sumatra-Java-Natuna-Barito is
considered still worthy for future exploration in the
region. Basement horsts with overlying oil/gas fields
and flanked by intervening kitchen graben are
interesting targets to explore in North-, Central-, South
Sumatra Basins, West- and East Java Basins (Figure
6), West Natuna Basin, and Barito Basin. Their
Paleogene synrift sediment sequences also become the
targets.
(2) Neogene delta and deepwater of eastern
Kalimantan-Makassar Straits
This is a producing play type with oil and gas fields in
the region.
Neogene deltas of eastern Kalimantan (Kutai and
Tarakan Basins) are one of the most prolific play for
oil and gas fields in Indonesia (Figure 7).
Accumulations have been discovered since the Dutch
time, late 1800’s (fields in Kutai Basin) and early
1900’s (fields in Tarakan Basin). When modern
exploration began in Indonesia in the late 1960’s,
going into offshore areas, and continued from 1970’s
to early 1990’s, there were many large to supergiant
fields (oil and gas) discovered in the offshore
Mahakam Delta - Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan.
Tarakan Basin was contemporaneously not intensively
explored, but some discoveries in onshore Tarakan or
in Tarakan and Bunyu Islands occurred.
Deltaic growth faulting characterizes the structural
style of the Tarakan Basin. The origin of growth
faulting relates to delta progradation from an uplifted
provenance in the western part of the basin to subsided
deposition eastwards. Growth faulting develops to
accommodate gravity tectonics of sediment
progradation. Roll over structures develop on
downthrown fault blocks commonly becoming
hydrocarbon traps associated with growth faulting.
This process also occurs for oil and gas fields in the
Tarakan Basin, where roll over structures are the result
of growth faulting. The Tarakan examples are:
Sembakung, Bangkudulis in the onshore area, and all
fields on the Tarakan and Bunyu Islands. Discoveries
in the Tarakan Basin during the 2000-2015cperiod
occurred in this play type in both onshore and offshore
areas. Significant discoveries include: Pidawan, Bajul
Besar in onshore Sembakung area, Mujaer in Bunyu
Island, and Bedug-South Kecapi, Badik-West Badik in
the offshore area. Recent discovery in Parang structure
(Pertamina Nunukan, March, 2017) occurs also within
this play type.
These prolific deltaic sediments also provided play
type for their deepwater areas (Figure 7). The play was
aided by concepts of seismic stratigraphy and sequence
stratigraphy. During low stands of sea level, the deltaic
deposits are eroded, transported into deeper areas and
re-deposited in slope and basin floor settings. Packages
of re-deposited deltaic reservoirs and source rock
materials can generate and trap petroleum. The
concepts were successful in the discovery of petroleum
in many deep water areas, like in the Gulf of Mexico,
the Niger in West Africa, Campos Basin of Brazilian,
and the North Sea. The concept was applied in
Indonesia in the early 1990’s and by the late-1990’s
discoveries of oil and gas fields in deep water areas of
the North Makassar Basin took place (West Seno,
Merah Besar, Gendalo, Gada, Gula fields). The trend
of discoveries continued during the period of 2000-
2015 with discoveries of Ranggas, Gehem, Jangkrik,
Northeast Jangkrik, Merakes, and SIS-A South Sesulu.
A similar discovery of Mio-Pliocene deep-water
turbidites also occurred in the Tarakan Basin (Aster
discovery).
Based on discovery trend and remaining potential, the
play type of Neogene delta and deepwater of eastern
Kalimantan-Makassar Straits is considered still worthy
for future exploration in the region. Some areas in
deepwater Kutai Basin (North Makassar Straits) and
deepwater Tarakan Basin (western part of Sulawesi
Sea) are still prospective. Stratigraphic traps in deltaic
sediments at onshore and shelf areas of Kutai and
Tarakan Basins may also still prospective but need
high resolution 3D-seismic data to better evaluate
prospects. Successful discoveries from this play type
during the period 2000-2015 may become the impetus.
(3) Paleogene synrift & postrift of West Sulawesi
offshore-Bone-Gorontalo
This is a potential play type with known oil occurrence
(oil discovery well –West Sulawesi Offshore,
ALF/airborne laser fluor hydrocarbon and gas shows –
Bone and Gorontalo).
Deepwater areas of West Sulawesi Offshore (eastern
part of North Makassar Straits), Bone, and Gorontalo
(Tomini Bay) are new areas of exploration in Indonesia
which started to be surveyed by more detailed 2D
seismic data from around 2005. Good seismic data
coverage revealed the general petroleum prospectivity
of the areas for further exploration. West Sulawesi
Offshore was the first area to be explored intensively
during 2008-2012. The companies acquired detailed
2D-3D seismic data and other geophysical-geological-
geochemical data. Thirteen exploration wells were
drilled, mostly in the deep-water area. The Bone Bay
and Gorontalo areas remain unexplored up to now.
Satyana et al. (2012) and Satyana (2015a) discussed
the results of exploration in West Sulawesi Offshore
and updated geological knowledge of the area based on
the recent exploration.
Thirteen wells have been drilled in the six blocks of the
deep-water area of West Sulawesi offshore, in the
North Makassar and South Makassar Basins. The first
well in the region, Rangkong-1, was drilled by Exxon
Surumana in 2009. The well failed to find
hydrocarbons and Exxon moved to their other block in
this area, the Mandar Block, and drilled three wells:
Sultan-1(2009), Kris-1 (2010), Kris-1 ST (2010).
Sultan-1 discovered uneconomic gas possibly biogenic
in nature. Kris-1 and Kris-1 ST were dry holes due to
tight reservoir and absence of reservoir, respectively.
Marathon drilled their first well in the Pasangkayu
Block; Bravo-1 (2010) and continued with Romeo-1
(2010, mechanical trouble), Romeo-B1 (2010,
mechanical trouble), and Romeo-C1. Bravo-1 and
Romeo-C1 failed to find hydrocarbons despite
encounterin carbonates intervals with good reservoir
properties. ConocoPhillips then drilled the Kaluku-1
well in 2011) in the Kuma Block. The well discovered
oils from Eocene sandstones. This was followed by
Talisman drilling Lempuk-1 in late 2011 in Sageri
Block, South Makassar Basin. The well was dry. The
last three wells in the area, Gatotkaca-1 (2012),
Anoman-1 (2012), and Antasena-1 (2012). have been
drilled by Statoil in the Karama Block, all targeting
Neogene objectives in thin-skinned structures and all
failing to discover hydrocarbons.dry.
From thirteen wells drilled, only one, namely the
Kaluku-1 well, found indications of petroleum (oil).
The well targeted originally Oligo-Miocene carbonate
build up, which w absent during the drilling
(penetrating clay/shale while seismic was showing a
build up structure on seismic data due to seismic pull
up artifact by velocity anomaly). The well was
deepened at the depth of 15,752 ft. (4801 m) and
encountered oil as evidenced by cuttings on surface, .
After logging, two Eocene sandstone intervals were
sampled and resulted in live and waxy oils at the
intervals of 15,752 ft. (4801 m) and 16,702 ft. (5091
m) (Figure 7). No flow test (DST) was conducted on
the intervals.
The oils recovered were highly waxy and solid at room
temperature. The laboratory analysis shows API of
25.5 and 29.6 at 60º F and pour point of 110-113º F,
their sulfur and wax contents are 0.060-0.102 and
17.23-21.09 % wt., respectively. The waxy nature of
the oils, GC, as well as biomarker data, suggest the oils
were sourced by lacustrine shales. The petrophysical
evaluation of Kaluku-1 suggests that a total of 190 ft.
of net sand through the Eocene sediments, with
porosity averaging 24.4%, was penetrated. The highest
porosity in the well is interpreted to be 35% at a depth
of 16216 ft., in excess of 11,000 ft. below the mudline.
Further discussion on Kaluku oils can be found in
Satyana (2015a).
Oil discovery by Kaluku-1 well in Kuma Block is very
significant for the prospectivity of Paleogene
objectives in the Makassar Straits (play type of
Paleogene synrift and postrift of West Sulawesi
offshore) (Figure 7). It is the first discovery of
petroleum in Eocene objective at rifted structures of
the Makassar Straits. No wells drilled in West Sulawesi
Offshore targeted the Eocene objectives. Good to
excellent sandstone porosity of the postrift sequence on
horst penetrated in the well and shallow lacustrine oils
charging the sandstones that sourced by Eocene shales
deposited in the intervening graben show that the play
type of Paleogene synrift and postrift of West Sulawesi
offshore works here. This obviously increase the
regional prospectivity of the Eocene objective in this
area. The Kaluku-1 well results warrant further
exploration in the area, focusing on deep Eocene
objective (synrift play) or its post-rift sandstones
overlying horsts.
Bone Bay separates the South and SE Arms of
Sulawesi. It is one of several enigmatic basins around
Sulawesi and has been interpreted as rift-, collision- or
arc-related and underlain by either oceanic or
continental crust. Lack of data has hindered further
interpretation. But new insights into Bone Basin can be
made as new regional 2D seismic and seabed
bathymetric data were acquired in 2007. Sudarmono
(2000), Yulihanto (2004) and Camplin and Hall (2013)
discussed the tectono-stratigraphy of the Bone Basin.
The basin is clearly rimmed by major N-S oriented
marginal faults, sub parallel to its axis. The Bone Basin
is divided into several sub-basins and highs. Three
main depocenters can be identified here. The sub-
basins are not simply the products of extension and
proposed (Camplin and Hall, 2013) to have a more
complex transtensional origin. Yulihanto (2004)
defined each sub-basins. Firstly, the easterly dipping
depocenter, known as North Bone Sub-basin, is located
in the northern tip of the basin. The other two
depocenters are located in the southern part of the
Basin. One is a westerly dipping half graben system of
South Bone Sub-basin, which is bounded in its western
margin by the easterly dipping of West Bone Bay Fault
System. The other depocenter is SW Bone Sub-basin.
Tertiary sedimentation filling of the Bone Basin, was
initiated by deposition of the Middle-Late Eocene (or
older?) synrift deltaic-shallow marine sediment
equivalent to the Toraja / Malawa Formation and
followed by deposition of the Oligo- Miocene marine
carbonate-clastic sediment equivalent to the
Tonasa/Makale Formation. The Middle Miocene to
Pliocene sediments comprise clastic/volcanoclastic
deposits equivalent to the Camba Formation with
carbonate deposition in some parts of the basin. The
Late Miocene depositional process in this basin was
typified by shallow marine carbonate deposition
equivalent to the Tacipi Formation, which laterally
changes to deep marine sediment and is subsequently
followed by development of Late Miocene-Pliocene
progradation type sediment equivalent to the Walanae
Formation.
One well, BBA-1X, was drilled at the northern tip of
the basin, bt cannot be considered as representative due
to its shallow position and location. Yulihanto (2004)
discussed the prospectivity of the basin. The Middle-
Late Eocene deltaic-shallow marine synrift sediment,
deposited within the N-S trending graben system, can
act as a potential source rock for hydrocarbons in this
basin that reached maturity in Middle-Late Miocene
time. New seismic data show the presence of Eocene
to Oligocene synrift, bearing a potential source rock
package, ofup to > 2.5 sec thickness, and buried by 2
to 3.5 secs of postrift sediments. The hydrocarbon
plays for the Bone Basin comprise: the Middle-Late
Eocene tilted fault block play that is formed along the
western margin of the basin, including the area of SW
Bone Sub-basin, and the faulted anticlinal play that
involves deltaic- shallow to deep marine of Middle-
Late Eocene reservoirs. These include into Paleogene
synrift and postrift play type. The other hydrocarbon
plays that are developed in this basin include Middle
and Late Miocene reefal carbonates that developed
along the western and northeastern margins of the
basin (equivalent to gas producing-Tacipi reefs in East
Sengkang Basin, South Sulawesi), and a combination
of lateral pinch-out and tilted fault block play for
clastic turbidites that occur along the slope of the basin.
On sea surface, there are ALF (airborne laser fluors)
which led to postulate that an active hydrocarbon
kitchen is present in a deep and mature half grabens.
Gorontalo Basin in Tomini Bay, located between
North Arm and East Arm of Sulawesi, is included here
for its prospectivity which based on seismic data and
which reveals the presence of rifted structures (Figure
8). Prior to 2005 no seismic data coverage or offshore
wells existed for the Gorontalo Basin, and
consequently, the hydrocarbon potential was poorly
understood. In 2006, following encouraging
interpretation of the 2005 ‘NewLook’ deep recording
of 2D reconnaissance of non-exclusive seismic survey,
some 5800 line kilometers of 2D non-exclusive
seismic data was acquired. Jablonski et al. (2007).
Contrary to widespread belief, the seismic showed that
the Gorontalo Basin appears to have a similar
geological history to the neighboring Makassar Basin.
Extensive continental crust has been identified to
underlie the Gorontalo Basin. This is in contrast to the
general view that a relatively young sedimentary basin
is underlain by oceanic crust. Potential synrift Eocene
sequences, which are elsewhere proven to be a prolific
liquid prone source rock, are observed. The present-
day central Sulawesi ‘Neck’ appears to be a relatively
recent feature caused by the Pliocene to Recent
compression.
The Gorontalo Basin is interpreted to have Eocene rift
grabens similar in geometry to the fluvio-lacustrine
source rock-rich megasequences that underlie many
oil-prone petroleum systems in Indonesia (Figure 8).
An active petroleum system is suggested by east-west
oriented depocenters with thicknesses locally
exceeding 10 kilometers, the mostly southward
focused hydrocarbon migration routes, and the
presence of numerous onshore oil seeps along the
southern edge of the Gorontalo Basin. Numerous
Amplitude with Offset (AVO) anomalies observed on
newly acquired seismic sections also suggest the
presence of hydrocarbons at a variety of stratigraphic
levels. The new seismic data indicate the following
pre- Paleogene to Recent plays, some of which may
contain stacked reservoir–seal pairs sourced by several
Tertiary source rocks:
• Older rift fault blocks associated with the
Australian plate rifting, and subsequent collision
with Borneo in the Cretaceous (play type no. 6)
• Eocene rift fault-blocks
• Oligocene to Middle Miocene platform carbonates
• Late Miocene to Pliocene biohermal build-ups
• Late Miocene to Recent lowstand deltas and
turbidites
• Late Miocene to Recent compressional folds
associated with the progressive collision of
Sundaland with the northern margin of the
Australian plate
Rifted structures with their related synrift and postrift
sequences are proven to be prolific in western
Indonesia. The presence of similar structures in West
Sulawesi Offshore, Bone and Gorontalo basins could
also turns those area into newpetroleum provinces,
Evidences of active petroleum system include the
Kaluku oil in West Sulawesi Offshore. Accordingly,
this play type is worthy to consider as one of future
plays types in Indonesia.
(4) Gondwanan Mesozoic sections of Sumatra-
Java-Makassar Straits
This is potential play type with oil possibly generated
from the system (oil discovery well).
Tertiary sections are the main stratigraphy of the
sedimentary basins in western Indonesia (Sumatra,
Java, Kalimantan, Natuna, and Makassar Straits). All
petroleum exploration and production since the
beginning in history has focused on the Tertiary
sections. Pre-Tertiary sections here usually are
considered as economic basement of the basins. When
the basement became the target of exploration in these
basins, as discussed above, these pre-Tertiary sections
are evaluated but as fractured reservoirs only. People
usually think that the pre-Tertiary sections in western
Indonesia basins were metamorphosed and have no
more source capability to generate hydrocarbons. Oil
or gas within fractured pre-Tertiary reservoirs were
charged by Paleogene sources. This has caused people
to exclude pre-Tertiary sections in their petroleum
system analysis, except for fractured basement
reservoir.
However, deep seismic sections acquired in some areas
of western Indonesia, such as acquired by ION-GXT
(Dinkelman et al., 2008; Emmet et al., 2009; Granath
et al., 2009, 2010), could change the mind (Figure 9).
In early 2000, ION-GXT started acquiring a number of
regional 2-D seismic reconnaissance surveys (“SPAN”
surveys) to image the deep crustal structure of basins
and continental margins interesting to the petroleum
industry. Acquisition of “JavaSPANTM” was
completed in early 2008 in the Java Sea back-arc
region from central Java to Tukang Besi in the south,
and extending northward between Kalimantan and
Sulawesi in the Makassar Straits. The survey was
comprised of 9800 line/km of 2D data. Acquisition
parameters included a 25 m shot interval, 12.5 m group
interval and maximum offset of 9,000 m. The record
length is 18 seconds and the data were processed to
pre-stack time images of 16 seconds and pre-stack
depth images of 40 km record length. These data
provided pre-stack depth images to 40 km, and allowed
them to make new interpretations of the basement
structure and its influence on the overlying
sedimentary cover. In the East Java Sea, the new
seismic data revealed thicker intervals of pre-Tertiary
sedimentary rocks than had previously been thought to
exist below the normally accepted acoustic basement.
The survey imaged stratigraphic thicknesses of 5 to 10
km of pre-Middle Eocene strata locally preserved.
Based on seismic characteristics, these pre-Tertiary
sections are interpreted to be not metamorphosed yet,
therefore, all elements and processes of petroleum
system may develop in these sections.
Another area with pre-Tertiary sections exist to the
south of eastern Java Island in fore-arc position. In
2009 TGS conducted a reconnaissance of 2D seismic
survey (SJR-09) into the deeper South Java Basin with
the aim of providing deep imaging of this poorly
known area (Deighton et al., 2011). The SJR-09 survey
revealed a thick (3.5 seconds TWT) stratigraphic
section of parallel, bedded sediments beneath the
central Java fore-arc basin buried under 2+ seconds
TWT of mid-late Cenozoic fore-arc fill that Deighton
et al. (2011) suggest bear similarities to Mesozoic or
Paleozoic NW Shelf of Australia sections in present
orientation (relatively un-faulted in N-S sections and
block faulted in E-W sections).
The existence of pre-Tertiary section in this area
confirmed the tectonic model proposing that in SE
Sundaland area, there were a number of
Gondwanan/Australian microcontinents colliding and
docking to the Sundaland during the pre-Tertiary
(Cretaceous). These microcontinents are overlained by
pre-Tertiary sedimentary sequences (Figure 9)
andhave been proposed, named, and interpreted in
some various ways (detailed discussion of this can be
found in Satyana, 2014a and references therein, such
as: Paternoster - Situmorang, 1989; Hutchison, 1989;
Metcalfe, 1994, 1996, 2013; Paternoster-Kangean,
including West and South Sulawesi - Manur and
Barraclough, 1994; Parkinson et al., 1998; Wakita,
2000; Satyana, 2003, 2004, 2010; Bawean - Smyth et
al., 2007; Metcalfe, 2013; East Java - Bransden and
Matthews, 1992; Sribudiyani et al., 2003; Smyth et al.,
2005; 2007; Seubert and Sulistyaningsih, 2008;
Deighton et al., 2010; Metcalfe, 2013; East Java-
Makassar Straits - Parkinson et al., 1998; Emmet et al.,
2009; Granath et al., 2009, 2010; Argoland - Hall et al.,
2009. These microcontinents separated from NW
Australia in the Late Triassic–Late Jurassic by opening
of the Ceno-Tethys and accreted to SE Sundaland by
subduction of the Meso-Tethys in the Cretaceous
(Metcalfe, 2013).
The existence of pre-Tertiary sections like overlying
the microcontinents of eastern and SE Sundaland may
also exist in Sumatra, especially in the areas isolated
from tectonic overprints during the late Mesozoic and
Tertiary. Such areas may exist in the eastern part of
onshore Sumatra and shelf areas of Riau islands,
Natuna, Bangka and Belitung. Sumatra and its eastern
shelf area were also composed of pre-Tertiary
Gondwanan microcontinents (Mergui, Malacca – two
of them are called also Sibumasu, East Malaya
terranes) colliding in Mesozoic time closing the Tethys
Sea. Pre-Tertiary sections (Mesozoic and Paleozoic
sequences) may exist overlying the terranes. When
they are unmetamorphosed, there are opportunities for
elements of petroleum system develop within the
sections.
Oil is inferred to origin from this play type Recent
papers by Sutanto et al. (2015, 2016), Musu and
Sutanto (2015), Satyana (2016a), and Satyana (2017,
this volume) suggest that a source made of marine
shales of Lower Cretaceous age is at the origin of the
Eocene reservoired Sepanjang oil accumulationin the
East Java Basin. This scenario is supported by various
geochemical analysis conducted on Sepanjang oils,
including bulk properties, saturate and aromatic
biomarkers (triterpane, oleanane, sterane, triaromatic
dinosteroid), carbon and deuterium isotopes.The
Sepanjang oil field is located right on the Kemirian
Terrace which is considered to be the southern margin
of the Paternoster-Kangean microcontinent . The
margin is also the site of the major Sepanjang strike-
slip fault, which may have provided a conduit to allow
hydrocarbons derived from the inferred Lower
Cretaceous source beds to migrate vertically to Eocene
Ngimbang fractured carbonate reservoirs of the
Sepanjang field.
The play type of Gondwanan Mesozoic sections of
Sumatra-Java-Makassar Straits is considered to be
worthy for future exploration in this region. Additional
seismic data with better resolution and deeper coverage
into the pre-Tertiary objectives are required to better
constrain this play type.
(5) Paleogene-Neogene sub- and intra-volcanic of
Java-West Sulawesi
This is a potential play type with known generated
petroleum (numerous oil seeps).
Numerous oil and gas seeps occur on Java Island where
Neogene to Recent volcaniclastic sediments are at the
surface. Before good geologic science was applied,
people believed that these oil seeps were derived from
magmatism and volcanism (inorganic theory). Now we
understand that the oils and gases are organically
derived from maturation of organic matters within
source rocks in sedimentary basins.
The volcaniclastic sediments buried the source rocks
into the depths where oil and gas were generated, and
migrated to surface as seeps.
The seeps occur in three areas of Java Island: Banten
Block, Majalengka-Banyumas, and North Serayu
(Satyana, 2014c, 2015, Satyana, 2017-this volume).
Some of the oil seeps were geochemically
characterized and oil to “expected source” correlation
was conducted. Primary sources are inferred to be the
Eocene-Oligocene Bayah shales and coals. The
Paleogene local deeps/half grabens are the kitchens
within the block. Field data on vitrinite reflectance
shows that the Bayah Formation has entered into the
oil window with Ro of 0.6-1.5 %. Migration has taken
place both laterally through carrier beds and vertically
through faults.
In Majalengka-Banyumas area, the presence of oil
seeps is very prolific. The first exploration well of
Indonesia (Maja-1 well, drilled in 1871, oil discovery)
was located in this area. The Maja oil was
geochemically analyzed and correlate to a source from
Early Miocene shale equivalent to Talang Akar
Formation. In the North Serayu area, northern Central
Java, oil seeps occur among volcanic covers. The
seepages occur in the areas of Karangkobar, Bawang
and Subah, Klantung and Sodjomerto, Kaliwaru, West
of Mt. Ungaran (many seepages), and East of Mt.
Ungaran. Exploratory drillings has been carried out by
Dutch oil companies since the early 1900’s near the
seepages. Drilling in Klantung and Sodjomerto later
was successful, and the Cipluk Field was discovered.
The Cipluk Field (now abandoned) is formed by a
faulted anticline of Late Miocene Banyak
volcaniclastic sandstones. Oil seeps in this area have
been geochemically analyzed and sourced by
sediments equivalent in age and facies with Talang
Akar Formation in West Java Basin. Oil seep located
more to the south at Karangkobar area, and condensate
tested by Jati-1 well in Banyumas area correlate to
middle Eocene Karangsambung shales.
Geochemical characteristics of oil seeps and their
correlation to “expected sources” show that the sources
of the seeps were Paleogene fluvio-deltaic sources
(Figure 10). Neogene volcanic covers provide burial
sediments for source maturation and also reservoir. Oil
and gas seeps in volcanic areas of Java show the
presence of active petroleum systems underneath the
volcanic covers. This indicates hydrocarbon
prospectivity of Java Island under volcanic covers
(sub-volcanic) or the reservoirs may also occur within
the volcanic covers (intra-volcanic) like in the Cipluk
oil field. However, volcaniclastic covers are notorious
for causing poor seismic data quality, making
subsurface imaging difficult. This play type will
require the techniques of imaging subsurface in
volcanic area, either seismic or non-seismic.. Once the
techniques are resolved, the subvolcanic petroleum
play of Java can be further explored and extended to
area with similar geologic setting like in West
Sulawesi where oil and gas seepages also occur among
the volcanic covers.
(6) Collided Mesozoic Australian passive margin
sediments in Gorontalo-Buton-Banggai-Sula-
Bird’s Head-Outer Banda Arc-Lengguru-Central
Ranges of Papua
This play type covers broad areas in eastern Indonesia
from central and eastern Sulawesi to Papua and to the
south into Timor and Arafura Seas (Figure 11). In
some areas the play type is producing (gas and oil
fields in Bintuni Basin, oil fields in Seram, asphalt field
in Buton), under development for production (Abadi
gas field, Timor Sea), or potential with oil and gas
seeps and some discovery wells (gas seeps in Sula,
ALF hydrocarbon and gas shows in Gorontalo, gas
discovery well in Warim area-Central Ranges of
Papua). Mesozoic sediments deposited at passive
margin of northern Gondawana/ northern Australia
continent, some detached in geologic history, drifted,
and collided to other terranes in Neogene time, have
built this platy type.
Tectonically, eastern Indonesia occupies a position in
the extreme northwest corner of the Australian craton.
The geology of the northern margins of the Australian
continent is dominated by the scars of extensional
tectonics. Two extensive tensional episodes during the
Early Paleozoic and Triassic-Middle Jurassic periods
are identified (Peck and Soulhol, 1986) (Figure 11).
The younger rift basins were superimposed upon and
perpendicular to the system of rift basins produced by
the earlier episode. These extensional basins created
rift-graben systems which are the sites for elements
and processes of petroleum system, probably
containing organic rich source rocks, good reservoirs,
and numerous stratigraphic and structural traps.
Stratigraphic and structural evidence indicates that
these rift systems which are evident off northwest
Australia are continuous through eastern Indonesia to
the northern limits of the Australian craton. Possible
presence of these systems to the north in eastern
Indonesia has been obscured by extreme Late
Cenozoic tectonic activity.
These rifted structures at the northwestern and northern
margin of Australian continent, especially which were
formed in the Triassic-Middle Jurassic periods, are
called the Mesozoic passive margin of Australian
continent. Some of these rifted Australian continental
margins detached from the rest of Australia in Late
Jurassic and drifted during the Cretaceous and
Paleogene time and collided other terranes in their
present locations. These fragments of detached rifted
Australian continental margin now located in eastern
Indonesia are known as microcontinents or terranes,
such as: Buton, Banggai-Sula, Gorontalo, Seram,
Buru, and the Bird’s Head. The parts of rifted northern
Australian continental margin which did not detach (to
the south of Outer Banda Arc –areas of NW Shelf of
Australia, Timor Sea, to the east of Tanimbar and Kei
islands, and Semai area to the SW of the Bird’s Head;
and to the south of Papua’s Central Range) also
collided in the Neogene. The northwestern rifted
margin of Australian continent from NW Shelf of
Australia to Semai areas collided with the Outer Banda
Arc (Timor, Tanimbar, Kei, and Seram). The northern
rifted margin of Australian continent to the south of
Central Ranges of Papua collided with an island arc to
the south of Pacific Ocean and formed the Central
Ranges of Papua. To the west of the Central Ranges
of Papua there is another fold and thrust belt trending
north-south called the Lengguru Belt resulted from
collision of the Bird’s Head with the rest of Papua. This
evolution of rifting-drifting-suturing (collision) of the
region makes the name of this play type: collided
Mesozoic passive margin of Gorontalo-Buton-
Banggai-Sula-Bird’s Head of Papua-Outer Banda Arc-
Lengguru-Central Ranges of Papua.
Rifted structures of Mesozoic passive margin
sedimentary rocks of Australian continent in NW Shelf
of Australia, Timor Sea, and Bintuni Basin have been
prolific for petroleum provinces (Figure 12). Large to
giant gas fields and some oil fields have been
discovered and mostly are producing. Flamingo,
Sunrise-Troubadour, Evans Shoal, Bayu, Laminaria in
NW Shelf of Australia, Abadi in Timor Sea, Vorwata,
Wiriagar Deep, Asap, Merah in Bintuni Basin are
examples of fields discovered of the play type with the
main reservoirs and sources are Jurassic sandstones
and carbonaceous shales. In Seram Island, where the
passive margin sediments of Jurassic Manusela
limestones and Triassic Saman-Saman carbonate
sources were involved in the collision during the
Neogene, the Oseil oil field was discovered and also
the recent Lofin structure.
This play type is also proven in the collision zone of
the Central Ranges of Papua where the Mesozoic
sequences involved in the deformation (Figure 13).
This area lies in presently active and complicated
system of Papua, located along the tectonically
deformed northern margin of the Australian
continental platform, as the northerly moving
Australian plate collided with the southerly drifting
Pacific oceanic plate and island arc. The collision
resulted in the Lengguru-Papua fold and thrust belt
presently forming the backbone of Papua. Deformation
involved the Late Paleozoic to Tertiary sediments and
occurred during Neogene time. Exploration targets
include Jurassic and Cretaceous clastics on leading
edge of the fold and thrust belt and structural play with
Miocene carbonates. In Papua New Guinea (PNG), the
Iagifu, Hedinia, Juha, Hides, Kutubu reservoired by
Jurassic-Cretaceous sandstones discoveries are of this
type, Kau and Cross Catalina discoveries are the
counterpart in Indonesian Papua area, or Elk/Antelope
Miocene carbonate discoveries in PNG.
Asphalt fields of Buton Island, SE Sulawesi also show
the productive nature of this play type. Asphalt fields
of Buton are biodegraded oils due to the absence of
cap-rocks on structures due to intensive deformation
related to collision. The oils were sourced by Late
Triassic Winto marine shales, equivalent to Saman-
Saman source in Seram Island, deposited at rifted
structures of passive margin of Australia. The traps
were formed during the collision of Buton
microcontinent in the Neogene, and reservoired by
mosty Cretaceous to Tertiary syn-drifting carbonates
(Tobelo limestones). Better seismic resolution on this
intensively deformed area is key solution exploring
Buton area (Satyana et al., 2013).
Garrard et al. (1988) reported several active wet gas
seepages in northern Mangole, eastern part of the Sula
microcontinent. Detailed geochemical analysis was
undertaken on the gas to determine composition,
maturity and possible origin. The gas consists mostly
of methane (> 94.0% of normalized hydrocarbons)
with lower concentrations of C2-C7 hydrocarbons and
CO2. Carbon isotope analysis of the methane (- 27.98
to - 29.32 ppt) and ethane (- 26.55 to - 23.98 ppt)
indicates the gas is of thermogenic origin and was
probably derived from humic organic matter (Type III
kerogen) and probably not generated in association
with oil. Based on their field investigation in Sula area
on the eastern Banggai-Sula microcontinent, Garrard
et al. (1988) suggested that black anoxic shales of the
Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous Buya Formation
should represent a potentially attractive source rock
interval in the Sula microcontinent. Targeting the Pre-
Tertiary will be worthy in trailing part of the
microcontinent in offshore areas of the North Taliabu-
Mangole Shelf and Taliabu Shelf areas (Figure 14).
Pre-Tertiary passive margin of Australian sediments
were deposited as synrift sequence in grabens of this
area. Intensive field studies and geochemical analysis
(Garrard et al., 1988), seismic sections, and exploration
well of Loku-1 (Britoil, 1990, sub-commercial gas
discovery, tested gas, reserve 4 MMBOE – Satyana
and Zaitun, 2016) indicate some potential in the Pre-
Tertiary of this area.
The play type is prospective along the trend of proven
productive areas as discussed above, and is potential in
the areas of Gorontalo, Banggai, Salawati, Semai, and
foredeep area of Central Ranges of Papua.
Seismic data indicate a thick depositional basin
potentially with sediment thicknesses exceeding 6
seconds (TWT) or 10 kilometers exists in the
Gorontalo area forming multiple stacked rifts.
Jablonski et al. (2007) interpreted some of sediments
in lower sequences as thick prebreak-up sections of
Australian/Gondwanan passive margin sediments.
They display a complex configuration of bedding—
interpreted as remnants of older extensional rifts
(Figure 8). Thick, complicated bedding is common
along the northern edge of the Gorontalo Basin.
Jablonski et al (2007) interpreted that Mangkalihat in
eastern Kalimantan and West Sulawesi, including
Gorontalo were derived from Gondwana in the Late
Triassic to Late Jurassic. Separation of these blocks
commenced 205 Ma, and subsequently, collided with
Sunda sometime in the Late Cretaceous. The new
seismic data of Gorontalo area indicate the pre-
Paleogene play (older rift-fault blocks associated with
the rifting of the Australian plate and subsequent
collision with Borneo in the Cretaceous), some of
which contain stacked reservoir–seal pairs sourced by
multi-source rock intervals. The pre-Eocene collision
elucidates the break-up history of Gondwana, drifting
of terranes, and their collisions. Despite the complexity
of the onshore geology, which displays mostly
compressional features, the offshore region of the
Gorontalo Basin predominantly displays extensional
tectonics. Large structures at multiple stratigraphic
levels are identified. While still classified as a frontier
region, the Gorontalo Basin offers an offshore
opportunity that challenges the perception of the
region.
Pre-breakup Mesozoic Australian passive margin
sediments may also exist at rifted western margin of
Banggai microcontinent. Geologic map of eastern Arm
of Sulawesi shows the presence of Jurassic shale
outcrops in Nambo River, eastern Arm of Sulawesi.
Mesozoic sections could also be identified on seismic
sections. However, all existing oils and gases in the
Banggai Basin are sourced by Miocene source rocks.
Satyana and Zaitun (2016) interpreted this as caused by
overmaturity of the Mesozoic sources when they
rapidly subsided due to collision and buried by very
thick tectonic loading by of structural imbrication
when the microcontinent collided with eastern
Sulawesi Ophiolite Belt (Figure 14). The Mesozoic
sequences of the Banggai microcontinent are also
seismically difficult to image due to a very thick cover
of multiple thrust sheets and complicated structural
deformation relating to collision, existence of very
thick Cenozoic limestones of Salodik Group which
may absorb seismic energy significantly, and static
problem related to rugged topography. The lack of
evidence that Mesozoic source rocks have sourced
petroleum in Banggai Basin, and the difficulty to
image the sections, make these objectives are
unattractive in the frontal Banggai microcontinent.
As developed and prolific in the Bintuni Basin, pre-
breakup Mesozoic Australian passive margin
sediments may also prospective in the Salawati
Basin and Semai areas. Based on seismic lines, the
Mesozoic sediments exist. Some existing wells in
Salawati Basin completed in Miocene Kais
carbonates geochemically show the contribution of
hydrocarbons considered to be generated and
migrated from pre-Tertiary sources (Lao-Lao and
Maniwar gas and condensate wells, to the west of
Walio oil field). Several wells were drilled in the
Salawati Basin to explore for a Mesozoic target.
However, none of the wells discovered
hydrocarbons within the target section. The
Mesozoic rifted graben continues to the Semai area
to the southwest of the Bird’s Head and southeast of
Seram Island. Five exploration wells have been
drilled in Semai areas, which so far failure. Based on
the wells drilled, the geologic challenges in Semai
areas relate to deeply buried Jurassic reservoir rocks,
resulting in poor quality reservoirs, and late-formed
structures, post-dating main hydrocarbon charging
periods. To address the challenges, some solutions
for exploring Semai area are: (1) look for Early
Jurassic sandstones which did not undergo
subsidence and thick burial covering, (2) look for
early-formed structures (in Late Miocene or Mio-
Pliocene time), pre-dating the main hydrocarbon
charging period, and the ways to do are
reconstructions of many stratigraphic and structural
sections and doing seismic attribute analysis to predict
reservoir quality after reconstructions.
Foredeep-foreland basins formed to the south of the
Central Ranges of Papua, Akimeugah and Iwur Basins
are prospective due to the basins are formed at the
trending areas of pre-breakup Mesozoic Australian
passive margin. As occurred in the trending areas, the
Mesozoic sediments were deposited in the rifted
structures developed at this northern margin of
Australian continent (Figure 15). In the Neogene, this
area isostatically subsided resulting in foredeep-
foreland basin due to collision of the northern margin
of Australia with Pacific island arc forming the Central
Ranges of Papua. Petroleum system elements provided
by Mesozoic sediments deposited in the basins during
the pre-breakup stages, and maturation of sources and
trap formation during the collision will make the area
to be prospective for further exploration.
This broad play type of collided Mesozoic passive
margin of Gorontalo-Buton-Banggai-Sula-Bird’s
Head-Outer Banda Arc-Lengguru-Central Ranges of
Papua is the most important play type in eastern
Indonesia. It is producing in some areas and potential
in other areas may enhance the exploration efforts.
Some previous failures exploring the play type may
provide lessons for future ventures.
(7) Paleozoic sections of Arafura Sea-South Papua
This is potential play type, need additional geological,
geophysical, geochemical data to define and confirm,
but it generates petroleum in analogue area (Australia).
In Australia, there is development of Paleozoic
petroleum systems with source rock intervals in the
Cambrian, Ordovician, Late Devonian, Early
Carboniferous, and Permian (Petrel and Tern).
Successful Paleozoic petroleum systems in Australia
also have their parallels in eastern Indonesia
(Bradshaw et al., 1997). Paleogeographic and
paleoclimatic conditions were at their optimum for
source rock deposition in Australia in the Early
Paleozoic when the continent straddled the equator and
was cris-crossed by shallow epeiric seas (the
Larapintine Seaway). Some of the most organic-rich
rocks in the Australian record are Cambrian and
Ordovician in age; and to date there have been
discoveries in the Amadeus (Mereenie, Palm Valley)
and Canning (Pictor) Basins. One of the most
prospective areas to further explore this Larapintine
Supersystem is in the Arafura Basin, on both sides of
the Australia-Indonesia border. Gondwanan
Supersystem (Bradshaw et al., 1997) also shows
Paleozoic proven system, Petrel gas and condensate
field in the Bonaparte Basin is an example. It is
contained in Late Permian sandstones, sourced from
underlying Permian deltaic sediments, and the regional
seal for the play is provided by the earliest Triassic
marine shales. Mogoi Deep gas field in the Bintuni
Basin, reservoired and sourced by Late Permian
sandstones and shales, respectively is included into
this.
The Arafura Basin has a proven petroleum system, but
that system is inactive in the graben. Generation ceased
with uplift and erosion in the Late Triassic, prior to
formation of the major structural traps. Earlier formed
accumulations were disrupted as indicated by the
biodegraded oil in Arafura-1. However, outside the
graben to the north, fault terraces are mapped at the
base Arafura Basin sequence. Drape over these
Proterozoic features provides early formed traps
located to accumulate hydrocarbons migrating from
the graben. Geohistory modelling indicates that in the
northern Arafura Basin oil generation from a Cambrian
source interval would become significant in the
Cretaceous, followed by expulsion and migration in
the Cenozoic. Thus, in this currently active petroleum
system, late formed traps are viable targets and Late
Cretaceous shales provide a regional seal. Reservoirs
would have also suffered less diagenesis than those
intersected in the graben, where deep burial was
followed by uplift. The extension of the Arafura Basin
into Indonesia provides the opportunity for Larapintine
Supersystem hydrocarbon discoveries generated from
Cambrian (Larapintine l), possibly Ordovician
(Larapintine 2), and Late Devonian source rocks
(Larapintine 3) (Bradshaw et al., 1997).
Broad area of South Papua (Arafura Platform) looks
like a stable platform of basement high. Geologic work
is very limited in this swampy area and there is no
seismic data to confirm this. A sedimentary basin with
Tertiary and pre-Tertiary sediments –based on gravity
data is outlined (Sahul Basin). Three old wells,
possibly stratigraphic wells, were drilled during the
Dutch time in Papua, they are: Merauke-1 (1957),
Aripoe (1958), and Jaosakor-1 (1959). No data from
the wells, but Jaosakor-1 is mentioned with minor oil
and gas shows. The similar area geographically to the
south of PNG is called Fly Platform, also with no
intensive exploration therefore a geological analogy
cannot be made. Conceptually, Paleozoic rift grabens
could develop in the area, and Paleozoic petroleum
system is expected here (Figure 15). Geological
Survey of Indonesia recently conducted some
geophysical surveys in the western Arafura Platform
and may indicate the presence of possibly Paleozoic
sediments thick enough for petroleum system to work.
For the first time in Indonesia, from 2006 to 2012, the
Lower Paleozoic objectives (Devonian to Cambrian)
became the target of exploration when ConocoPhillips
operated two blocks in the Arafura Sea called Amborip
VI and Arafura Sea. In the Australian territory
immediately to the south of the Amborip area across
the Arafura platform, a number of wells were drilled in
what is called the Goulburn Graben in the southern part
of the Arafura basin. One well, Arafura-1 (Petrofina,
1983) encountered in excess of 400 m of live oil shows
in the Devonian sandstones and Ordovician dolomites
as well as possible source rocks in the Devonian and
Cambrian.
ConocoPhillips drilled Aru-1 well (2011) in Amborip
VI and Mutiara Putih-1 (2011) in the Arafura Sea
Block. Miharwatiman et al. (2013) reported the
prognosis and results of these wells. The primary
reservoir objective of Aru-1 was Devonian clastics,
while the Mutiara Putih-1 primary target was Permo-
Carboniferous clastics. The two wells were drilled on
large four-way dip anticlines on each block. The Aru-
1 post-drill results showed that the Tertiary and
Cretaceous sections were encountered as anticipated,
however the prognosed Silurian-Devonian objectives
were missing. Below the base Cretaceous
unconformity, the Late to Mid- Ordovician sediments
were encountered, consisting of massive dolomite,
dolomitic sandstones and shales with no reservoir
potential and no hydrocarbon indications. The Mutiara
Putih-1 well confirmed that the Paleozoic Permian was
present, however the Carboniferous through Devonian
section was absent in the Arafura Sea Block. The well
penetrated a thin Tertiary section unconformably
overlying the Permian objective, and directly into
Ordovician intervals below. The Permian section
includes intervals of clean sandstones with some
fluorescence in cuttings and some dead oil occurs as
pore-filling and pore-lining materials. The well results
showed that maximum burial and the amount of uplift
was greater than originally anticipated. Both wells, the
Aru-1 and Mutiara Putih-1 reached TD in the Mid (?)
- Late Ordovician section. The entire Silurian,
Devonian and Carboniferous were absent. It is
estimated that the Aru structure had experienced
approximately 15,000ft uplift and erosion, and the
lower Paleozoic petroleum system was not preserved.
Understanding the burial history of Paleozoic basins is
critical to the source and more importantly the
preservation of reservoir and the hydrocarbons.
Although Bradshaw et al. (1997) interpreted that the
Paleozoic objectives in the Arafura Sea will be
prospective, two recent wells exploring the Paleozoic
objectives discussed above show that tectonic history
(subsidence and uplift) relating to reservoir and source
preservation is important aspects to evaluate
deliberately. In onshore Arafura Platform, much
additional geological, geophysical, and geochemical
data are required to evaluate the area.
(8) Neogene Pacific province of North Papua
This potential play type with some petroleum
generated from the system (Niengo biogenic gas
discovery well, gas and oil discovery R-1 well, Teer
River oil seep).
The Pacific Province is defined, in this case, as the area
to the north of the Sorong Fault to the west, including
Halmahera, and the area to the north of the Central
Ranges of Papua. The area includes: Halmahera,
Kofiau, Cenderawasih Bay, and the northern part of
Papua. Geologically, the area has no affinity with
Australian geology. Most of the Pacific Province
contain Neogene sediments that shed from a
surrounding uplifted provenance which was rapidly
buried (Figure 16). Some carbonate build ups may also
develop.
North Papua Basin is a forearc basin located in the
northern part of Papua, Indonesia. The basin has been
categorized as frontier basin due to limited exploration
activities. There have been 11 wells drilled since 1950:
5 wells of which are dry, 1 gas discovery well and 1
well tested oil and gas, 4 wells were plugged and
abandoned due to mechanical trouble. In addition to
this, there is famous oil seep of the Teer River (Figure
16). The presence of gas discovery well and oil seep
shows active petroleum system in this area.
The basin contains over 25,000 feet of Tertiary-aged
clastic and carbonate sediments in several localized
depocenters or sub-basins, most notably the Waropen,
Teer River and Waipoga “deeps” and an intermontane
sub-basin known as the Meervlakte (McAdoo and
Haebig, 1999). Rapid subsidence has created
asymmetric basin fills dominated by turbidites.
Potential reservoir distribution across the depocenters
appears to be problematical with good quality turbidite
reservoirs being concentrated near depocenter
margins. Large reef complexes are evident. There is
evidence of ample terrigenous-derived kerogens to
serve as a potential petroleum source. An apparent low
thermal gradient of 1.67°F per 100 ft. in the basin
extends source maturity to considerable depth.
The first documented report of a hydrocarbon
occurrence on the northern Papua coast dates from
1916 when an exploration survey discovered a large
live oil seep along the Teer River. The Teer River Seep
occurs in alluvium as a shallow pool 10 feet wide and
consisting of a perpetually fed flow of light, orange-
brown oil of 38°API gravity. Gas is observed to bubble
through the oil pool. Gas analysis indicates it contains
mostly methane with some heavier hydrocarbons.
Recent papers by Musu et al. (2015) and Satyana
(2017) showed new results of the geochemical
analyses of the oil seep. The oil seep has been sampled
and analyzed for their biomarkers using gas
chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/ mass
spectrometry (GC/ MS) of saturate triterpanes m/z 191,
steranes m/z 217, and aromatic methyl phenanthrene
(m/z 178 and m/z 192). The oil seep is minor
biodegraded based on the distribution of n-alkanes.
The isoprenoid pristane/ phytane ratio indicates that
the oil was generated from shaly to coally source rocks
deposited in oxidizing environment. High peak of
oleanane from triterpanes and the appearance of
bicadinanes from steranes conclude that the source
rocks are Miocene in age at the oldest, from kerogen
type III. Based on methyl phenanthrene distribution,
the oil was generated from a maturity equivalent with
Ro of 0.9%.
Based on geochemical analyses and geologic setting of
the North Papua Basin, the strongest candidates for the
active source rocks are those within the Middle- Late
Miocene Makats and/or Early Pliocene Memberamo
“B” Formations (Figure 16). The sediments of both
formations were deposited in terrestrial to
transition/estuarine environments which fit with the oil
characteristics.
After decades with no exploration drilling in this
region, a new exploration well was drilled in the
Cenderawasih block, called Elang-1 (Niko Resources,
2013). The well targeted Oligo-Miocene carbonate
build up of the Darante Formation. Locally, throughout
history of the North Papua Basin, carbonate deposition
was widespread although likely confined to highs and
shelf breaks during periods of low clastic influx.
Unfortunately, the well encountered tight reservoir.
The presence of source rocks generating oils as shown
by the oil seep of the Teer River is the most important
element and process of the petroleum system in this
area. Other elements and processes of petroleum
systems including reservoirs, seal rocks and trap
formation exist in the basin based on the geologic
setting but need further data and studies to resolve. In
addition to this, is a biogenic gas field of Niengo
(estimated at around 2 TCF gas in place). These
provide opportunities for petroleum exploration in
North Papua Basin which so far has been under-
explored.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The long history of petroleum industry in
Indonesia is in part related with the complicated
geologic setting of the region, providing many
opportunities and challenges for petroleum
exploration. Various play types are proven and
have produced oils and gases for almost 150 years.
Yet, Indonesia still offer large petroleum potential
to explore.
2. In addition to classical play types, a number of
future play types have been identified. Some are
proven, others are potential, in western- and
eastern Indonesia, and both seats in mature and
frontier areas. They regionally can be grouped
into: (1) Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary
Basement of Sumatra-Java-Natuna-Barito, (2)
Neogene delta and deepwater of eastern
Kalimantan-Makassar Straits, (3) Paleogene
synrift & postrift of West Sulawesi offshore-Bone-
Gorontalo, (4) Gondwanan Mesozoic sections of
Sumatra-Java-Makassar Straits, (5) Paleogene-
Neogene sub- and intra-volcanic of Java-West
Sulawesi, (6) collided Mesozoic Australian
passive margin sediments in Gorontalo-Buton-
Banggai-Sula-Outer Banda Arc-Lengguru-Central
Ranges of Papua, (7) Paleozoic sections of Arafura
Sea-South Papua, and (8) Neogene Pacific
province of North Papua. Successes and
failuresrelated to these play types, provide lessons
for future exploration.
3. Various efforts, depending on status of the play
types, are required for future exploration of
Indonesia. Generally, all of the play types need
additional data and better resolution of seismic
and/or non-seismic data, and deeper and/or
unusual exploration drilling environment. The role
of the Government is important in making
supportive regulations for petroleum companies to
invest in exploration in Indonesia.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I acknowledge the Management of SKK Migas to
support the author to do this study and publish it. The
Technical Program Committee of IPA is thanked for
accepting the abstract to publish and giving additional
time to complete the manuscript.
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Figure 1 - Future conceptual volumes of hydrocarbons to be found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Howes, 2001), based on many studies from
proven classical petroleum systems and new potential systems, showing that the regions are still prospective for petroleum exploration.
Figure 2 - Tectonic classification of Indonesian sedimentary basins (Pertamina and Beicip, 1992).
Figure 3 - Regional play types of western Indonesia, base map is based on Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995) – shaded area is prospective, when darker is
proven. Play type 1: Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary Basement of Sumatra-Java-Natuna-Barito. Play type 2: Neogene delta and deepwater
of eastern Kalimantan-Makassar Straits. Play type 3: Paleogene synrift & postrift of West Sulawesi offshore. Play type 4: Gondwanan
Mesozoic sections of Sumatra-Java-Makassar Straits. Play type 5: Paleogene-Neogene sub- and intra-volcanic of Java.
Figure 4 - Regional play types of eastern Indonesia, base map is based on Howes and Tisnawijaya (1995) – shaded area is prospective, when darker is
proven. Play type 3: Paleogene synrift & postrift of Bone-Gorontalo. Play type 5: Paleogene-Neogene sub- and intra-volcanic of West
Sulawesi. Play type 6: collided Mesozoic Australian passive margin sediments in Gorontalo-Buton-Banggai-Sula-Outer Banda Arc-
Lengguru-Central Ranges of Papua. Play type 7: Paleozoic sections of Arafura Sea-South Papua. Play type 8: Neogene Pacific province of
North Papua.
Figure 5 - Play types developing in western Indonesia relating to synrift and postrift tectonostratigraphy in SE Asia, mostly are classical and proven to
be productive (Doust and Sumner, 2007).
Figure 6 - Proven play types of East Java Basin. In red boxes are play types relating to Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary Basement of East Java Basin.
Proven source rocks are carbonaceous shales and coals of Eocene Ngimbang Formation, generating hydrocarbons in deep areas. Play type
of Paleogene synrift and pre-Tertiary Basement is in good position for hydrocarbon charging.
Figure 7 - East Kalimantan, North Makassar, West Sulawesi chronostratigraphic section, showing play types of Neogene delta and deepwater of eastern
Kalimantan-Makassar Straits (in blue box), and Paleogene synrift and postrift of West Sulawesi offshore (in red box). Petroleum in Mahakam
Delta and its deep-water facies in North Makassar Straits are very prolific, all in Miocene and Pliocene sections. Play type of Eocene section
is proven only in West Sulawesi Offshore in rifted basement where the Kaluku discovery occurred on horst block, with active source in
graben (modified after Bacheller III et al., 2011).
Figure 8 - Seismic section of Gorontalo area (Jablonski et al., 2007), showing thick sedimentary sequences interpreted as multiple stacks of rifts from
Jurassic to Miocene. Oxfordian rifts of Lower to Middle Jurassic are typical of Australian passive margin sediments, interpreted to be
transported here and collided with Sundaland in Cretaceous. These rifts in Gorontalo show the play type of collided Mesozoic Australian
passive margin. The Eocene rifts are typical of Paleogene rifts in Sundaland, and to be interpreted as extension of the Makassar Straits,
forming the play type of Paleogene synrift & postrift of Gorontalo. Pliocene to Recent sediments burry all of the rifts, coming from northern-
or eastern arms of Sulawesi.
Figure 9 - Some deep seismic sections of JavaSPAN at Kangean area, East Java Sea. The bold black horizon is the base Middle Eocene, commonly
interpreted as top of Basement in former time on shallow seismic data. Bold red horizon is considered as top of the crystalline Basement.
Based on these new deep seismic data, there are around five km of pre-Tertiary sedimentary sections considered Mesozoic and Paleozoic in
ages remain unexplored. This shows the play type of Gondwanan Mesozoic sections of Java-Makassar Straits (modified after Emmet et al.,
2009).
Figure 10 - Stratigraphy of Central Java (after Lundin Banyumas) showing petroleum system elements of source and reservoirs in Paleogene which are
covered by Neogene volcanics. The Neogene volcanics provide overburden rocks subsiding the Paleogene sources to the depth of oil
window, and volcanic reservoirs. This forms the play type of Paleogene-Neogene sub- and intra-volcanic of Java.
Figure 11 - Map and schematic cross sections of exploration play types of eastern Indonesia (modified after Nayoan et al., 1991).
Figure 12 - Play type of collided Mesozoic Australian passive margin sediments in Outer Banda Arc where rifted margin of Australian continent
containing mostly Triassic and Jurassic sediments collided with Outer Banda Arc. Abadi gas field was formed as draping fold over a
basement high, close to the Calder Graben (Barber et al. 2003).
Figure 13 - Play type of collided Mesozoic Australian passive margin sediments in the Central Ranges of Papua. The play type is productive in Papua
New Guinea with many gas and oil fields were discovered and are producing, reservoired by Jurassic-Cretaceous sandstones and Miocene
limestones, sourced by Jurassic shales (PNG structural section from Eisenberg, 1993). Its counterpart in Indonesian Central Ranges of
Papua shows similar tectonic domain and structures, but lack of exploration very much and therefore, open future opportunities.
Figure 14 - Play type of collided Mesozoic Australian passive margin sediments in Banggai-Sula microntinent (Satyana and Zaitun, 2016). Future
exploration should target: (1) Miocene objectives in the Banggai Basin, since Mesozoic sources in the Banggai Basin could be overmature,
and (2) Pre-Tertiary (Jurassic) objectives in the offshore areas of North Taliabu-Mangole Shelf and Taliabu Shelf in Sula microcontinent.
Gas seepages here have been typified to be sourced by Jurassic sources.
Figure 15 - Schematic cross section from South Papua (Arafura Platform) to the Central Ranges of Papua, showing regional play types of Paleozoic
sections of South Papua to Oil and collided Mesozoic Australian passive margin sediments in the Central Ranges of Papua. Seismic section
at below (Pertamina and Beicip, 1992) shows part of the section. Paleozoic play type relates to Paleozoic rift grabens which are productive
like in Tern and Petrel in Australian area.
 Figure 16 - Play type relating to Neogene Pacific province of North Papua. Above is geologic setting of northern
Papua with hydrocarbon occurrences to the north of Sorong Fault (Teer River oil seep, Niengo
biogenic gas field) and well locations close to the Pacific Ocean. Below is schematic geologic section
of northern Papua with sediments mostly shedding off from high areas to the south, location of Teer
River oil seep (projected) is indicated.

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