CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION - cells that have the same basic parts and

have certain functions that are common

PART 1: CELLS
to all cells
 CELLS
3 MAIN REGIONS/PARTS OF ALL CELLS
- structural units of all living things
- human body consists of 50-100 trillion  NUCLEUS
cells - usually located near the center of the cell
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
- encloses the cytoplasm and form the
OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE outer cell boundary
 CYTOPLASM
 1600s
- a semifluid that surrounds the nucleus
- Robert Hooke was looking through a
crude microscope at a plant tissue called
cork.
NUCLEUS
- He saw some cube-like structures that
reminded him of long rows of monk’s  NUCLEUS
rooms (cells), so he named these - the control center of the cell
structures “cells” - from the word nucle = kernel
- The living cells were dead, only the plant - most often oval or spherical, its shape
walls remained. usually conforms to the shape of the cell
 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
 CELL THEORY (cell research since the 1800s) - blueprint containing all the instructions
1) A cell is the basic structural and functional needed for building the body
unit of living organisms. - has genes that carry instructions for
- When defining cell properties, we are building proteins
defining properties of life. - necessary for cell reproduction
- The cell contains all the parts necessary - a cell that lost its nucleus is destined to
for survival. self-destruct
- Loss of cell homeostasis underlies
virtually every disease.
2) The activity of an organism depends on the
collective activities of its cells.
3) Principle of Complementarity
- The activities of cells are dictated by their
structure (anatomy), which determines
function (physiology).
4) Continuity of life has a cellular basis.

- Cells are primarily made up of 4 elements: 3 RECOGNIZABLE REGIONS/STRUCTURES OF A

C, O, H, N – and other much smaller NUCLEUS
elements.  NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- Cells are made up of 60% water. - aka nuclear boundary
- the double membrane barrier of the
nucleus
ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED CELL - between the 2 membranes is a fuid filled
”moat” or space
 GENERALIZED CELL
 - at some points, the 2 layers fuse
generating openings called nuclear pores
- like other cellular membranes, it allows
some substances to pass through freely
because of its relatively large pores
- encloses a jelly-like fluid called
nucleoplasm where other nuclear
elements are suspended
 NUCLEOLUS
- nucleoli for plural
- small, dark-staining, round bodies
- where ribosomes are assembled
 CHROMATIN
- carefully wound DNA around proteins
histones forming a loose network of
“beads on a string”
- scattered throughout the nucleus
- when cell division happens, the chromatin
threads coil and condense to form dens,
rodlike bodies called chromosomes*
- * chromo (colored) + soma (body)
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
- fragile, transparent barrier that contains
cell contents and separates them from
the surrounding environment
*Cell membrane and cytoplasmic membrane are
sometimes used instead but because nearly all
cellular organelles are composed of membranes,
plasma membrane will be used to refer to the cell’s
surface or outer limiting membrane (sooooo sa
marieb rani na rule hahahha ang uban guro na books
mugamit ug cell membrane)
 THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
- the structure of the plasma membrane
consists of 2 phospholipid (fat) layers
arranged “tail to tail”, with cholesterol
and floating proteins scattered among
them
- some phospholipids have sugar groups
attached to them, forming glycolipids
- the proteins, some of which are free to
move, and bob in the lipid layer, form a
constantly changing pattern or mosaic
*Phospholipids are polar molecules. The charged end
interacts with water, the fatty acid chains do not. This
polarity makes phospholipids a good foundation for
cell membranes.
- The phospholipid bilayer forms the basic ”fabric” of
the membrane.
- The polar “heads” of the lollipop shaped
phospholipid moleculels are hydrophilic (“water
loving”) and are attracted to water, which are the
main component of intracellular and extracellular
fluids, and so lie on both the inner and outer surfaces
of the membrane.
- The nonpolar fatty acid “tails” are hydrophobic
(“water fearing”) avoid water and line up in the
center (interior) of the membrane. This makes the
plasma membrane impermeable to most water-
soluble molecules.
- The self-orienting property of the phospholipids
allows biological membranes to reseal themselves
quickly when torn. The cholesterol helps both
stabilize the membrane and keep it flexible.
- The proteins scattered in the lipid bilayer
are responsible for most of the
specialized functions of the membrane.
Some of which are enzymes.
- Many of the proteins protruding from the
cell exterior are receptors for hormones
or other chemical messengers or are
 binding sites for anchoring the cell to
fibers or to other structures inside or
outside the cell.
- Most proteins that span the membrane
are involved in transport.
ex. Some cluster together to form protein channels
(tiny pores) through which water and small water-
soluble molecules or ions can move. Others act as as
carriers that bind to a substance and move through it
through the membrane.
- Branching sugar groups are attached to
most of the proteins abutting the
extracellular space. Such “sugar proteins”
are called glycoproteins.
- Because of these, the cell surface is a
fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area called the
glycoalyx.
- These glycoproteins determine our blood
type, act as receptors that certain
bacteria, viruses, or toxins can bind to,
and play a role in cell-to-cell recognition
and interactions.
- Definite changes in these glycoproteins
occur in cells that are being transformed
into cancer cells.
*The cells can be thought of as “sugar coated”.
CELL MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
3 WAYS CELLS ARE BOUND TOGETHER
 Glycoproteins in the glycoalyx act as an
adhesive or cellular glue.
 Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent
cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove
fashion.
 Special cell membrane junctions are formed.
These junctions vary structurally depending
on their roles.
MAIN TYPES OF JUNCTIONS
 TIGHT JUNCTIONS
- impermeable junctions that encircle the
cells and bind them together into
leakproof sheets
- adjacent plasma membranes fuse
together tightly like a zipper and prevent
substances from passing through the
extracellular space between cells
- in the small intestine, these junctions
prevent digestive enzymes from seeping
into the bloodstream
 DESMOSOMES
- anchoring junctions scattered like rivets
along the sides of adjacent cells
- prevent cells subjected to mechanical
stress (heart and muscle cells) from being
pulled apart
- these junctions are button-like
thickenings of adjacent plasma
membranes 9plaques) that are connected
by fine protein filaments
- thicker protein filaments extend from the
plaques inside thee cells to the plaques
on the cells’opposite sides, forming an
internal system of strong “guy wires”
 GAP JUNCTIONS
- aka communicating junctions
- main function is to allow communication
 - commonly found in the heart and
between embryonic cells
- neighboring cells are connected by hollow
cylinders composed of proteins
(connexons) that span the entire width of
the abutting membranes (which are
therefore called transmembrane
proteins)
- chemical molecules (nutrients or ions) can
pass directly through the water-filled
connexon channels from one cell to
another
THE CYTOPLASM
 CYTOPLASM
- cellular material found outside the
nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
- site of most cellular activities
- “factory floor” of the cell
3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE CYTOPLASM
CYTOSOL AND INCLUSIONS
 CYTOSOL
- semitransparent fluid that suspends other
elements
- water is mainly dissolved in the cytosol,
along with other nutrients, and other
solutes
 INCLUSIONS
- chemical substances that may or may not
be present depending on the specific cell
type
- most are stored nutrients or cell products
floating in the cytosol
- include the water droplets common in fat
cells, glycogen granules abundant in liver
and muscle cells, pigments such as
melanin in skin and hair cells, mucus and
other secretory products, and various
kinds of crystals
- can be thought of as the cellular “pantry”
where items are kept in hand until
needed
ORGANELLES
 ORGANELLES
- “little organs”
- specialized cell compartments that are
the metabolic machinery of the cell
- each organelle is specialized to carry out a
specific function for the cell as a whole
- many are bounded by a membrane
similar to the plasma membrane*
- *these membrane boundaries allow
organelles to maintain an internal
environment quite different from the
surrounding cytosol
- *this compartmentalization is crucial to
their ability to perform their specialized
functions
MITOCHONDRIA
- depicted as tiny, lozenge-like or sausage
shaped organelles
- they lengthen and change shape almost
continuously in living cells
- mitochondrial wall consists of a double
membrane, equal to 2 plasma
membranes placed side by side
- the outer membrane is smooth and
featureless, while the inner membrane
has shelflike protrusions called cristae
- enzymes dissolved in the fluid within th
mitochondria, as well as membranes
enzymes that form part of the cristae
membranes, carry out the reactions in
which oxygen is used to break down
foods
- as the foods are broken down, energy is
released-------much of this energy escapes
as heat, but some is captured and used to
form ATP molecules
 -because the mitochondria supply most f - can be thought of as the cell’s membrane
of this ATP, they are the “powerhouses of factory
the cell” - the proteins made on its ribosomes
- metabolically “busy” cells, such as liver migrate into the rough ER tunnels, where
and muscle cells, use huge amounts of they fold into their functional three-
ATP and have hundreds of mitochondria dimensional shapes
which replicate themselves by pinching in - these proteins are dispatched to other
half areas of the cell in small “sacs” of
- cells that are inactive, like the unfertilized membrane called transport vesicles that
egg, have fewer carry substances around the cell
 ATP - abundant in cells that synthesize and
- provides the energy for all cellular work secrete proteins
- every living cell requires a constant supply
ex. Pancreatic cells produce digestive enzymes to be
of ATP for its many activities
delivered to the small intestine. That enzymes that
catalyse the synthesis of membrane lipids reside on
RIBOSOMES
the external (cytoplasmic) face of the rough ER, where
- tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of
the needed block are readily available.
proteins and one variety of RNA called
ribosomal RNA
- are the actual sites of protein synthesis in
the cell
- ribosomes that float freely in the
cytoplasm manufacture proteins that
function inside the cell, while others
attach to membranes such as the rough
ER, which produces proteins that function
outside the cell

 SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- aka ER
- system of fluid-filled tunnels (or canals)
that coil and twist through the cytoplasm
- continuous with the nuclear envelop and
accounts for about half of a cell’s
membranes
- serves as mini circulatory system for the
cell because it provides a network of
channels for carrying substances
(primarily proteins) from one part of the
cell to another
- a particular cell may have both rough and
smooth ER, depending on its specific
functions
 ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- studded with ribosomes
- essentially all of the building materials of
cellular membranes are formed either in
it or on it
- communicates with the rough ER, but
plays no role in protein synthesis because
it lacks ribosomes
- functions in lipid metabolism (cholesterol
and fat synthesis and breakdown) and
detoxification of drugs and pesticides
- liver cells are full of smooth ER
- body cells that produce steroid-based
hormones (male testes - testosterone)
GOLGI APPARATUS
- stack of flattened membranous sacs that
are associated with swarms of tiny
vesicles
- generally found close to the ER
- principal “traffic director” for cellular
proteins
- major function is to modify, package, and
ship proteins (sent by the rough ER via
 transport vesicles) in specific ways,
depending on their final destination
- all protein leaving the Golgi apparatus
accumulate in sacs called Golgi vesicles
- as proteins “tagged” for export
accumulate in the Golgi apparatus, the
sacs swell
- their swollen ends, filled with protein,
pinch off and form secretory vesicles
which travel to the plasma membrane
- when the vesicles reach the plasma
membrane they fuse with it, the
membrane ruptures, and the contents of
the sac are ejected outside of the cell
- mucus and digestive enzymes by
pancreatic cells are packaged this way
- the Golgi apparatus also pinches off sacs
containing proteins and phospholipids
destined for a “home” in the plasma
membrane or other cellular membranes
- also packages hydrolytic enzymes into
membrane-bound organelles called
lysosomes that remain in the cell
LYSOSOMES
- appear in different sizes
- membranous “bags” containing powerful
digestive enzymes
- these enzymes are capable of digesting
worn-out or non-usable cell structures
and most foreign substances that enter
the cell
- function as cellular “stomachs”
- abundant in WBC called phagocytes, cells
that dispose of bacteria and cell debris
- enzymes that they contain are formed by
ribosomes on rough ER, packaged by
Golgi apparatus
*HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 3.1
- The lysosomal membrane is ordinarily quite stable,
but becomes fragile when the cell is injured or
deprived of oxygen and when excessive amounts of
Vitamin A are present. When lysosomes rupture, the
cell self-digests.
PEROXISOMES
- membranous sacs containing powerful
oxidase enzymes that use molecular
oxygen (O2) to detoxify harmful or
poisonous substances, like alcohol and
formaldehyde
- “disarm” dangerous free radicals
- convert free radicals to hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), indicated in their
naming (peroxisomes = peroxide bodies)
- catalase converts excess hydrogen
peroxide to water
- numerous in liver and kidney cells, which
are active in detoxification
- look like lysosomes but do not arise by
budding from Golgi apparatus
- replicate by pinching themselves like
mitochondria, but most bud directly from
- ER
 FREE RADICALS
- are highly reactive chemicals with
unpaired electrons that damage the
structure of proteins and nucleic acids
- normal by products of cellular
metabolism, but could have devastating
effects if allowed to accumulate
CYTOSKELETON
- elaborate network of proteins structures
extending through the cytoplasm
- act as the cell’s “bones and muscles” by
furnishing an internal framework that
determines the cell’s shape
- supports other organelles
- provides machinery for intracellular
transport and various types of cellular
movements
 -made of microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, microtubules
 MICROFILAMENTS
- actin and myosin
- involved in cell motility and producing
changes in cell shape
(You could say that cells move when they get their
act(in) together. Gikan ni sa book HAHAHAHAHA)
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
- strong, stable, ropelike
- made up of fibrous subunits
- help form desmosomes, and provide
internal guy wires to resist pulling forces
on the cell
 MICROTUBULES
- tubelike
- made up of repeating subunits of the
protein tubulin
- determine the overall shape of a cell and
distribution of organelles
- important during cell division
CENTRIOLES
- collectively called centrosome
- lie close to the nucleus
- rod-shaped bodies that lie at right angles
to each other
- internally made up of a pinwheel array of
nine triplets of fine microtubules
- major function is to generate
microtubules and directing the formation
of the mitotic spindle during cell division
CELL EXTENSIONS
 CILIA
- “eyelashes”
- whiplike cellular extensions thatmove
substances along the cell surface
ex. Mucus is carried up and away from the lungs by
“crowd surfing” on the ciliated cells lining the
respiratory system
- when cilia appear, many of them project
from the exposed cell surface
- when a cell is about to make up cilia, its
centrioles multiply, then line up beneath
the plasma membrane at the free cell
surface
- microtubules then begin to “sprout” from
the centrioles and put pressure on the
membrane, forming the projections
 FLAGELLA
- projections formed by the centrioles are
substantially longer
ex. Sperm, which has a single propulsive flagellum
called its tail.
- Cilia propel substances across a cell’s
surface, while flagellum propels the cell
itself
 MICROVILLI
- “little shaggy hairs”
- tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane that project from a cell’s
surface
- increase the cell’s surface area
tremendously and so are usually found on
the surface of cells active in absorption
(intestinal and kidney tubule cells)
- have core of actin filament that extend
into the internal cytoskeleton of the cell
and stiffen the microvilli
- “alcoves” projecting off one cell surface
and do not involve microtubules
 CELL DIVERSITY

CELLS THAT CONNECT BODY PARTS

 FIBROBLAST
- elongated
- has cable-like fibers that it secretes
- abundant rough ER and large Golgi
apparatus to make and secrete protein
building blocks of these fibers
 ERYTHROCYTE
- red blood cell
- carries oxygen in the blood
- biconcave disc provides extra surface are
for the uptake of oxygen and streamlines
the cell so it flows easily through the
bloodstream
- so much oxygen-carrying pigement is
present that all other organs have been
shed to make room

CELLS THAT COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS

 EPITHELIAL CELL
- hexagonal shape is exactly like a “cell” in
a honeycomb
- allows epithelial cells to pack together in
sheets
- has abundant intermediate filaments and
desmosomes that resist tearing when the
epithelium is rubbed or pulled

CELLS THAT MOVE ORGANS AND BODY PARTS

 SKELETAL, CARDIAC, AND SMOOTH MUSCLE

CELLS
- elongated and filled with contractile
filaments, so they can shorten forcefully
and move the bones, pump blood, or
change the size of internal organs to
move substances around the body
CELLS THAT STORE NUTRIENTS

 FAT CELL
- huge spherical shape
- produced by a large lipid droplet in its
cytoplasm

CELL THAT FIGHTS DISEASE

 WHITE BLOOD CELLS SUCH AS MACROPHAGE

(PHAGOCYTIC CELL)
- extends long pseudopods (“false feet”) to
crawl through tissue and reach infection
sites
- lysosomes within the cell digest the
infectious micoorgansims that it “eats”

CELL THAT GATHERS INFORMATION AND CONTROLS

BODY FUNCTIONS

 NERVE CELL
- neuron
- has long processes (extensions) for
receiving messages and transmitting
them to other structures in the body
- processes are covered with an extensive
plasma membrane, and plentiful rough ER
that synthesizes membrane componens
and signalling molecules called
neurotransmitters

CELLS OF REPRODUCTION

 OOCYTE
- female
- largest cell in the body
- contains several copies of organelles for
distribution to the daughter cells that
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
arise when the fertilized egg becomes an
embryo - Each of the cell’s internal parts is
 SPERM designed to perform a specific function
- long and streamlined for the cell
- built for swimming to the egg for
fertilization
- flagellum acts as a motile whip to propel
the sperm
 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
 SOLUTION
- an example of which is the fluid
environment on both sides of the plasma
membrane
- a homogenous mixture of two or more
components
- the substance present in the largest
amount is called the solvent (dissolving
medium)
- water is the chief solvent of the body
- components or substances present in
smaller are called solutes
- solutes are so tiny that the molecules
cannot be seen
 INTRACELLULAR FLUID
- nucleoplasm and cytosol
- solution containing small amounts of
gases (O2 and CO2), nutrients, and salts
dissolved in water
 EXTRACELLULAR FLUID OR INTERSTITIAL
FLUID
- fluid that continuously bathes the exterior
of our cells
- can be thought of as a rich, nutritious,
and rather unusual “soup”
- contains nutrients (amino acids, sugars,
fatty acids, vitamins), regulatory
substances such as hormones and
neurotransmitters, salts, and waste
products
 SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
- means that a barrier allows some
substances to pass through it while
excluding others
- allows nutrients to enter the cell but
keeps many unnecessary substances out
- allows valuable cell proteins and other
substances kept within the cell, and
wastes are allowed to pass out of it
*HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE 3.2
- Selective permeability is typical only of health,
unharmed cells. When a cell dies or is badly damaged,
its plasma membrane can no longer be selective and
becomes permeable to nearly everything. When
someone is burned, precious fluids, proteins, and ions
“weep” (leak out) from the dead and damaged cells at
the burn site.
PASSIVE PROCESSES: DIFFUSION AND FILTRATION
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- substances are transported across the
membrane without any energy input from
the cell
DIFFUSION
- process by which elements and ions move
away from areas where they are more
concentrated
- all molecules possess kinetic energy, and
as the molecules move about randomly at
high speeds, they collide and change
direction with each collision
- molecules move down their
concentration gradient (spread out)
- because the driving force (source of
energy) is the kinetic energy of molecules,
the speed of diffusion is affected by the
size of molecules and temperature (the
smaller and warmer, the faster)
- the hydrophobic core of the plasma
membrane is a physical barrier to
diffusion
- molecules will diffuse through the plasma
membrane if any of the following are
true:
 Molecules are small enough to
pass through the membrane’s
pores (channels by membrane
proteins).
 The molecules are lipid-soluble.
 The molecules are assisted by a
membrane carrier.
- unassisted diffusion of solutes though the
plasma membrane is called simple
diffusion
- solubles transported this way are lipid-
soluble (fats, fat-soluble vitamins, oxygen,
carbon dioxide)
OSMOSIS
- diffusion of water through a selectively
permeable membrane
- because water is highly polar, it is
repelled by the (non-polar) lipid core of
the plasma membrane
- water can easily pass through special
pores called aquaporins (“water pores)
made by proteins in the membrane
- osmosis happens all the time as water
moves down its concentration gradient
- occurs quickly
- anyone admininstering an IV solution
must use the correct solution to protect
the patient’s cells from life-threatening
dehydration or rupture
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- provides passage for certain needed
substances (glucose) that are both lipid-
insoluble and too large to pass through
the membrane pores, or charged (as in
the case of chloride ions passing through
a membrane protein channel)
- follows the law of diffusion – substances
move down their concentration gradient
- a protein membrane protein channel is
used, or a membrane protein that acts as
a carrier is needed to move glucose and
certain other solutes passively across the
membrane into the cell
- substances that pass into and out of the
cells by diffusion save the cell a great deal
of energy
FILTRATION
- process by which water and solutes are
forced through a membrane (or capillary
wall) by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
- hydrostatic pressure is usually exerted by
blood
- the gradient is a pressure gradient that
pushes solute-containing fluid (filtrate)
from the higher-pressure area through
the filter to the lower pressure area
- filtration is not very selective
- only blood cells and protein molecules
too large to pass through the membrane
pores are held back
ex. Kidneys, water and small solutes filter out of the
capillaries into the kidney tubules because the blood
pressure in the capillaries is greater than the fluid
presseure in the tubules. Part of the filtrate formed in
this way eventually forms urine.
 ACTIVE PROCESSES
- the cell provides the metabolic energy
(ATP) that drives the transport process
- process that uses ATP to move substances
across the membrane
- substances moved actively are usually
unable to pass in the desired direction by
diffusion
- they may be too large to pass through the
membrane channels, the membrane may
lack special protein carriers for transport,
they may not be able to dissolve in the fat
core, or they may have to move “uphill”
against their concentration gradients
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- active transport sometimes called solute
pumping
- similar to facilitated diffusion where both
processes require protein carriers that
interact specifically and reversibly with
 the substances to be transported across
the membrane
- uses ATP to energize protein carriers
called solute pumps
- amino acids, some sugars, and most ions
are transported by solute pumps, and in
most cases these substances these
substances move against concentration
(or electrical) gradients
 SODIUM-POTASSIUM (Na+ -K+) PUMP
- alternately carries sodium ions (NA+) out
of and potassium ions (K+) into the cell
- necessary for normal transmission of
nerve impulses
- there more sodium ions outside the cells
than inside, so those inside tend to
remain in the cell unless the cell uses ATP
to “pump” them out
- ATP is split into ATP and Pi (inorganic
phosphate), the phosphate is attached to
the sodium-potassium pump through
phosphorylation
- there are more potassium ions inside cells
than in the extracellular fluid, and
potassium ions that leak out of cells must
be actively pumped back inside
- because each of the pumps in the plasma
membrane transports only specific
substances, active transport provides a
way for the cell to be very selective in
cases where substances cannot pass by
diffusion
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
- involves help from ATP to fuse or
separate membrane vesicles and the cell
membrane
- moves substances into or out of cells “in
bulk” without their crossing the plasma
membrane directly
 EXOCYTOSIS
- “out of the cell”
- mechanism that cells use to actively
secrete hormones, mucus, and other cell
products or to eject certain cellular
wastes
- the product to be released is first
“packaged” (typically by the Golgi
apparatus) into a secretory vesicle
- this vesicle migrate to the plasma
membrane, fuses with it, and then
ruptures, spilling its continents out of the
cell
- involves a “docking” process in which
docking proteins on the vesicles recognize
plasma membrane and bind with them
- binding causes the membranes to “cork-
screw” together and fuse

 PHAGOCYTOSIS
 PINOCYTOSIS
 RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
 ENDOCYTOSIS
- “into the cell”
- includes those ATP-requiring processes
that take up, or engulf, extracellular
substances by enclosing them in a vesicle
- once the vesicle is formed, it detaches
from the plasma membrane and moves to
the cytoplasm, where it typically fuses
with lysosome and its content are
digested (by lysosomal enzymes)
- sometimes, the vesicle travels to the
opposite side of the cell and releases its
contents by exocytosis there
- “cell eating”
- happens when engulfed substances are
relatively large particles (bacteria or dead
body cells), and the cell separates them
from the external environment by
pseudopods
- certain WBC such as the macrophage, act
as scavenger cells that protect the body
by ingesting bacteria and foreign debris
- protective mechanism
- “cell drinking”
- the cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular
fluid
- the plasma membrane indents to form a
tiny pit, or “cup”, and then its edges fuse
around the droplet of extracellular fluid
containing dissolved proteins or fats
- routine activity of most cells unlike
phagocytosis
- important for cells that function in
absorption
- main cellular mechanism for taking up
specific target molecules
- receptor proteins on the plasma
membrane bind exclusively with certain
substances
- both receptors and high concentration of
the attached target molecules are
internalized in a vesicle are dealt with
various ways (shown in the picture)
- specific substances taken in through this
process include enzymes, some
hormones, cholesterol, and iron
- flu viruses exploit this route to enter and
attack our cells
 - Nucleotides join in a complementary
way: Adenine (A) and Thymine (T),
Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C)
- The order of the nucleotides on the
template determines the order on the
new strand.

ex. TACTGC = ATGACG

- The end result is 2 DNA molecules that

are identical to the original DNA helix,
each consisting of one old and one newly
assembled nucleotide strand.

CELL DIVISION

 CELL LIFE CYCLE

- series of changes a cell goes through from
the time it is formed until it divides

2 MAJOR PERIODS OF THE CELL LIFE CYCLE

 INTERPHASE
- aka metabolic phase
- the cell grows and carries on its usual
metabolic activities
- longer phase of the cell cycle
 CELL DIVISION
- where the cell reproduces itself

PREPARATIONS: DNA REPLICATION

- The function of cell division is to produce

more cells for growth and repair
processes
 DNA REPLICATION
- important event that always precedes cell
division
- the DNA molecule is exactly duplicated
- occurs toward the end of interphase
- The process begins as the DNA helix
“unzips”, separating into 2 nucleotide
chains.
- Each nucleotide serves as a template, or a
set of instructions, for building a new CONCEPT LINK
nucleotide strand.
- DNA is composed of: nucleotides, each
consisting of a deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogen-
 containing base. It is a double helix, a
ladder-like molecule coiled into a spiral
staircase. The upright parts of the DNA
“ladder” or backbone are alternating
phosphate and sugar units, while the
rungs of the ladde are pairs of nitrogen-
containing bases.
(wa koy sure if apil jud ni pero ako nalang giapil para
sure)
EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION
 MITOSIS
- process of dividing a nucleus into 2 daughter
nuclei with exactly the same genes as the
”mother”nucleus
- occurs after DNA replication
- same in all animal cells
- typically lasts about 2 hours
- Centriole replication is deferred until late
interphase of the next cell cycle
STAGES:
 PROPHASE
- chromatin threads coil and shorten
- chromosome is made up of 2 identical
strands called sister chromatids held together
by a centromere
- centrioles separate from each other and
begin to move toward opposite sides of cell,
directing the assembly of mitotic spindle
between them as they move
- by the end, nuclear envelope and nucleoli
have broken down and temporarily
disappeared and the chromosomes have
attached randomly to the spindle fibers by
their centromeres
 METAPHASE
- chromosomes line up at the metaphase
plate (center of the spindle midway between
the centrioles)
 ANAPHASE
- centromeres that have held the chromatids
together split
- chromatids (now called chro-
mosomes again) begin to move slowly apart,
drawn toward opposite ends of the cell
- The chromosomes seem to be pulled by their
half-centromeres, with their “arms” dangling
behind them
- ensures that each daughter cell gets one
copy of every chromosome
- over when the chromosomes stop moving
 TELOPHASE
- prophase in reverse
- chromosomes at opposite ends of the cell
uncoil to become threadlike chromatin again
- spindle breaks down and disappears
- nuclear envelope forms around each
chromatin mass
- nucleoli appear in each of the daughter
nuclei
 CYTOKINESIS
- division of cytoplasm
- usually begins during late anaphase and
completes during telophase
- contractile ring made of microfilaments
forms a cleavage furrow over the midline of
the spindle and squeezes/pinches the original
cytoplasmic mass into 2 parts
- at the end of cell division, 2 daughter cells
exist, each smaller with less cytoplasm than
the mother cell had but is still genetically
identical to the mother cell
- daughter cells grow and carry out normal cell
activities (interphase) until it is their turn to
divide
 Binucleate (2 nuclei) or multinucleate cells -
formed when cytoplasm is not divided during
mitosis and cytokinesis
- fairly common in liver and in formation of
skeletal muscle
 3 Varieties of RNA:
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- helps form the ribosomes
 Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- long, single nucleotide strands that resemble
half of a DNA molecule
- carry the “message” containing instructions
for protein synthesis from the DNA (gene) in
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
 Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- small, cloverleaf-shaped molecules that
escort amino acids to the ribosome

The Process of Protein Synthesis

2 Major Phases:

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 Fibrous (structural) proteins - major building
materials for cells
 Globular(functional) proteins - perform
functional roles
- ex.: enzymes (catalysts that speed up
chemical reaction)
Gene: The Blueprint for Protein Structure
 GENE
- DNA segment that carries the information
for building one protein
- DNA’s information is encoded in the
sequence
of bases. Each sequence of three bases (a
triplet)
calls for a particular amino acid (building
blocks of proteins)
- ex.: a DNA base sequence of AAA specifies
phenylalanine, and CCT calls for glycine
- a single gene contains an estimated 300 to
3,000 base pairs in sequence
The Role of RNA
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
- decodes DNA and carries instructions for
building proteins to the ribosomes
- differs from DNA in being single-stranded,
in having ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose,
and in having a uracil (U) base instead of
thymine (T)
 TRANSCRIPTION
- involves the transfer of information from the
sequence of bases in a DNA gene into the
complementary sequence of mRNA by an
enzyme
- DNA is the template for transcription, and
mRNA is the product
- Triplet (three-base sequence specifying a
particular amino acid); Codons (corresponding
three-base sequences on mRNA)
 TRANSLATION
- the language of nucleic acids (base sequence)
is“translated” into the language of proteins
(amino acid sequence)
- occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three
major varieties of RNA
Steps of Protein Synthesis:
1. Transcription
2. Once the mRNA attaches to the ribosome,
tRNA transfers/delivers amino acids to the
ribosome, where they are linked together by
peptide bonds (formed by dehydration synthesis)
in the exact sequence specified by the gene (and
its mRNA).
3. tRNAs have to recognize the mRNA codons to
“double check” that the amino acid they are
toting will be added in the correct order. They can
do this because they have a special three-base
sequence called an anticodon on their “head”
 that can temporarily bind to the complementary
codons.
4. The ribosome moves the mRNA strand along,
bringing the next codon into position to be read
by another tRNA. As amino acids are brought to
their proper positions along the length of mRNA,
they are joined together with peptide bonds
catalyzed by the large ribosomal subunit.
5. As each amino acid is added to the chain, its
tRNA is released and moves away from the ribo
some to pick up another amino acid. When the
last codon (the termination, or “stop,” codon) is
read, the protein is released.
Remember: The joining of amino acids by the
ribosome into peptide bonds is the result of
dehydration synthesis reactions. To make room for
the new peptide bond, water (H2O) must be
removed. A hydrogen atom is removed from one
amino acid, and a hydroxyl group (OH) is removed
from the other.
BODY TISSUES
 TISSUES
- groups of cells that are similar in structure
and function
- 4 primary tissue types: Epithelial (covering),
Connective (support), Nervous (control), &
Muscle (movement)
- organized into organs
- its arrangement determines each organ’s
structure function
4 Primary Tissue Types:
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE/ EPITHELIUM
- “epithe” = laid on, covering
- lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the
body
- covering and lining epithelium covers all free
body surfaces, both inside and out, and
contains versatile cells
- nearly all substances that the body gives off
or receives must pass through it
- functions: protection, absorption, filtration,
and secretion
- the epithelium of the skin protects against
bacterial and chemical damage
- epithelium lining the respiratory tract has
cilia, which sweep dust and other debris away
from the lungs
- Epithelium specialized to absorb substances
lines some digestive system organs such as the
stomach and small intestine, which absorb
food nutrients into the body
- In the kidneys, it both absorbs and filters
- Glandular epithelium forms various glands in
the body. Secretion is a specialty of the glands,
which produce such substances as sweat, oil,
digestive enzymes, and mucus
Hallmarks of Epithelium
 Except for glandular epithelium, epithelial
cells fit closely together to form continuous
sheets. Neighboring cells are bound
together at many points by specialized cell
junctions, including desmosomes and tight
junctions
  The classifications byNumber of Layers
the shape of its cells are
the squamous cells (flattened like fish scales
One layer; More than one
(“squam” = scale)), cuboidal cells (cube-
Cell shape layer; stratified
simple cells (like columns)
shaped) and columnar epithelial
epithelial
tissues tissues

Squamous Diffusion and Protection

filtration
Secretion in
serrous
membranes
Cuboidal Secretion & Protection;
absorption; these tissue
Columnar ciliated types types are rare in
propel humans
mucus/reprodu
ctive cells
Transitional No simple Protection;
transitional stretching to
epithelium accommodate
exists distension of
urinary
structures

 The membranes always have one free

(unattached) surface or edge. This apical
surface is exposed to the body’s exterior or
to the cavity of an internal organ. The
exposed surfaces of some epithelia are slick
and smooth, but others exhibit cell surface
modifications, such as microvilli or cilia.
 The anchored (basal) surface of epithelium
rests on a basement membrane, a
structure-less material secreted by both the
epithelial cells and the connective tissue
cells deep to the epithelium. It’s the “glue”
holding the epithelium in place.
 Epithelial tissues are avascular (have no
blood supply of their own) and depend on
diffusion from the capillaries in the under-
lying connective tissue for food and oxygen.
 If well nourished, epithelial cells regenerate
themselves easily.
Classification of Epithelia
 The classifications by cell arrangement
(layers) are simple epithelium (one layer of
cells) and stratified epithelium (more than
one cell layer)
 SIMPLE EPITHELIA
- absorption, secretion, filtration
- very thin; not for protection
 Simple Squamous Epithelium
- single layer of thin squamous cells
resting on a basement membrane
- cells fit closely together
- usually forms membranes where filtration or
exchange of substances by rapid diffusion
occurs
- found in the air sacs of the lungs (called
alveoli), where oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged
- forms the walls of capillaries, where
nutrients and gases pass between the blood in
the capillaries and the interstitial fluid
 - forms serous membranes, or serosae, the
slick membranes that line the ventral body
cavity and cover the organs in that cavity

 Simple Columnar Epithelium

- single layer of tall cells that fit closely
together
- seen in goblet cells which produce a
lubricating mucus
- lines the entire length of the digestive tract
from
the stomach to the anus
- Epithelial membranes that line body cavities
open to the body exterior are called mucosae
or mucous membranes

 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

- one layer of cuboidal cells resting on a
basement membrane
- common in glands and their associated small
tubes called ducts (ex.: salivary glands and
pancreas)
- forms the walls of the kidney tubules and
covers the surface of the ovaries

 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

- all cells rest on a basement membrane
 - some of its cells are shorter than others, and
their nuclei appear at different heights above
the basement membrane
- gives the false (pseudo) impression that it is
stratified
- mainly functions in absorption & secretion
- a ciliated variety (called pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium) lines most of the
respiratory tract
- the mucus produced by goblet cells acts as a
“sticky trap” to catch dust & other debris, and
the cilia propel the mucus upward and away
from lungs
 Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar
 Transitional Epithelium
 STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
- consists of 2 or more cell layers
- function primarily in protection
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
- most common stratified epithelium
- usually consists of many cell layers
- cells at the free edge are squamous cells,
whereas those close to the basement
membrane are cuboidal or columnar
- found in sites that receive a good deal of
abuse or friction, such as the surface of the
skin, the mouth, and the esophagus
Epithelia
- Stratified cuboidal epithelium typi-
cally has just two cell layers with (at least) the
surface cells being cuboidal in shape
- The surface cells of stratified columnar
epithelium are columnar cells, but its basal
cells vary in size and shape
- both are fairly rare in the body
- found mainly in the ducts of large glands
- highly modified, stratified squamous
epithelium that forms the lining of the urinary
bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra
(all of these organs are subject to considerable
stretching)
- cells of the basal layer are
cuboidal/columnar; those at the free surface
vary in appearance
- when the organ is not stretched, the
membrane is many-layered, and the
superficial cells are rounded and domelike
 - when the organ is distended with urine, the
epithelium thins like a rubber band being
stretched, and the surface cells flatten and
become squamouslike
- has the ability to slide past one another and
change their shape which allows the ureter
wall to stretch as a greater volume of urine
flows through it
- allows more urine to be stored in the bladder
- secretions (all hormones) diffuse directly
into the blood vessels that weave through
the glands
- Ex.: thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
 Exocrine glands
- retain their ducts
- secretions exit through the ducts to the
epithelial surface
- include the sweat and oil glands, liver, and
pancreas
- both internal and external

2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- connects body parts
- found everywhere in the body
- most abundant and widely distributed of the
tissue types
- primarily involved in protecting, supporting, and
binding together other body tissues
- The major differences of its types reflect
specific cell types, fiber types, and the number of
fibers in the matrix.

Hallmarks of Connective Tissue:

 Variations in blood supply

 GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
- gland consists of one or more cells that make
and secrete a particular product (secretion)
which typically contains protein molecules in an
aqueous fluid
- secretion also indicates an active process in
which the glandular cells obtain needed
materials from the blood & use them to make
their products, which they then discharge
through exocytosis
2 Major Types of Glands:
 Endocrine glands
- lose their ducts; thus they are
often called ductless glands
- Most connective tissues are well
vascularized (have a good blood supply)
except for tendons & ligaments, and
cartilages are avascular
- heal very slowly when injured
 Extracellular matrix
- nonliving substance found outside the cells
- distinguishes connective tissue from other
types
- The matrix (produced by the connective
tissue cells and then secreted to their
exterior) has two main elements, a
structureless ground substance
and fibers
- Ground substance → composed largely of
water plus some cell adhesion proteins
(allows connective tissue cells to attach
themselves to the matrix fibers) and large,
charged polysaccharide molecules (trap
water as they intertwine and if abundant,
 can cause the matrix to vary from fluid to
gel-like, firming its consistency)
- Fibers → include collagen (white) fibers
distinguished by their high tensile strength;
elastic (yellow) fibers, which have the
ability to stretch and recoil; and reticular
fibers, which are fine collagen fibers that
form the internal “skeleton” of soft organs
such as the spleen
- Monomers → building of fibers that are
made by the connective tissue cells and
secreted into the ground substance in the
extracellular space, where they join
together to form the various fiber types
Types of Connective Tissue
 BONE
- sometimes called osseous tissue
- composed of osteocytes (bone cells) sitting
in cavities called lacunae (pits), surrounded by
layers of a very hard matrix that contains
calcium salts in addition to large numbers of
collagen fibers
- protect and support other body organs
 CARTILAGE
- less hard and more flexible than bone
- major cell type is chondrocytes (cartilage
cells)
- found in only a few places in the body
- Types of cartilage:
 Hyaline cartilage
- most widespread & has abundant
collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery
matrix with a glassy (hyalin = glass),
blue-white appearance
- forms the trachea, or windpipe,
attaches the ribs to the breastbone,
and covers bone ends at joints
- makes up most of the skeleton of a
fetus but is replaced by bone after
baby is born except for the epiphyseal,
or growth plates in long bones, which
allow the bones to grow in length
 Fibrocartilage
- highly compressible; forms the
cushionlike disks between the
verterbrae of the spinal column
 Elastic cartilage
- found in structures with elasticity,
like the external ear
 DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- also called dense fibrous tissue
- collagen fibers are the main matrix element
- fibroblasts (fiber-forming cells) found
between collagen fibers
- forms strong, ropelike structures like
tendons (attach skeletal muscles to bones)
and ligaments (connect bones together at
joints & are more stretchy and contain more
elastic fiber than tendons)
 LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- softer and have more cells and fewer fibers
than other types except blood
- 3 main types:
 Areolar Connective Tissue
- most widely distributed connective
tissue variety in the body
- soft, pliable, “cobwebby” tissue that
cushions and protects the body organs
it wraps
- functions as a universal packing tissue
and connective tissue “glue” since it
helps to hold the internal organs
together and in their proper positions
- lamina propria → soft layer of areolar
connective tissue that underlies all
mucous membrane
- its fluid matrix contains all types of
fibers which form a loose network &
appears to be empty space (areola =
small open space)
- provides a reservoir of water and salts
for the surrounding tissues
- where all body cells obtain their
nutrients from and release their wastes
- soaks up excess fluid when a body
region is inflamed and the area swells,
a condition called edema
- contains many types of phagocytes
 Adipose Connective Tissue
 - commonly called “fat“
- adipose (fat) cells predominate
- A glistening droplet of oil occupies
most of a fat cell’s volume and
compresses the nucleus, displacing it
to one side
- forms the subcutaneous tissue
beneath the skin, where it insulates the
body and protects it from bumps and
extremes of both heat and cold
- protects some organs individually—
the kidneys are surrounded by a
capsule of fat, and adipose tissue
cushions the eyeballs in their sockets
- fat “depots” in the body, such as in
the hips, breasts, and belly, where fat
is stored and available for fuel if
needed
- packaged by connective tissue sheets into
organs called skeletal muscles, which are
attached to the skeleton
- can be controlled voluntarily
- when they contract, they pull on bones or
skin, resulting in gross body movements or
changes in our facial expressions
- cells are long, cylindrical, and
multinucleate, and have obvious striations
(stripes)
- often called muscle fibers since they are
elongated to provide a long axis for
contraction

 Reticular Connective Tissue

- consists of a delicate network of
interwoven reticular fibers associated
with reticular cells, which resemble
fibroblasts
- forms the stroma (“bed” or “mattress”),
or internal framework of an organ and
can support many free blood cells,
(lymphocytes) in lymphoid organs such as
lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone
marrow
- “cellular bleachers” where other cells
can observe their surroundings

 BLOOD
- vascular tissue
 Cardiac Muscle
- consists of blood cells surrounded by blood
- found only in the heart wall
plasma (nonliving, fluid matrix)
- as it contracts, the heart acts as a pump to
- its fibers are soluble proteins that become
propel blood through the blood vessels
visible only during blood clotting
- also has striations, but cardiac cells have
- transport vehicle for the cardiovascular
only a single nucleus and are relatively
system
short,
branching cells that fit tightly together (like
3. MUSCLE TISSUE
clasped fingers) at junctions called
- highly specialized to contract or shorten, which
intercalated discs (contain gap junctions
generates the force required to produce movement
that allow ions to pass freely from cell to
- 3 types:
cell)
 Skeletal Muscle
 - This ties the cardiac cells into a functional
syncytium (syn = together, cyt = cell),
resulting in rapid conduction of the
electrical signal to contract across the heart
- under involuntary control

4. NERVOUS TISSUE
 Smooth Muscle
- no visible striations
- cells have a single nucleus & are tapered at
both ends
- found in the walls of hollow organs such as
the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
- the cavity of an organ constricts when
smooth muscle contracts, or dilates when
smooth muscle relaxes, so that substances
are mixed and/or propelled
through the organ along a specific pathway
- contracts much more slowly than
the other two muscle types, and these
contractions tend to last longer
- ex.: Peristalsis → a wavelike motion that
keeps food moving through the small
intestine
- neurons → receive and conduct electrochemical
impulses from one part of the body
to another
→ 2 major functional characteristics:
irritability & conductivity
→ has a unique structure; cytoplasm is
drawn out into long processes
(extensions), as long as 3 feet or more
in the leg, which allows a single
neuron to conduct an impulse to
distant body locations
- neuroglia → insulate, support, and protect the
delicate neurons in the structures
of the nervous system—the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves
TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)
- Ex. of body defenses exerted at the tissue level
are intact physical barriers such as the skin and
mucous membranes, cilia, and the strong acid
produced by stomach glands
- Inflammation → a general (nonspecific) body
response that attempts to
prevent further injury
- Immune response → extremely specific and
mounts a vigorous attack
against recognized
invaders, including bacteria,
viruses, and toxins

2 Major Ways of Tissue Repair:

 REGENERATION- replacement of destroyed

tissue by the same kind of
cells
 FIBROSIS - involves repair by dense (fibrous)
connective tissue, that is, by the
formation of scar tissue

- Which method of tissue repair occurs depends on (1)

the type of tissue damaged and (2) the severity of
the injury
- incisions heal more successfully than ragged tears of
tissue
- Epithelial tissues (skin epidermis and mucous
membranes) & Fibrous connective tissues and
bones regenerate beautifully
- Skeletal muscle regenerates poorly, and cardiac
muscle and nervous tissue within the brain and
spinal cord are replaced largely by scar tissue

Steps of Tissue Repair:

1. Inflammation sets the stage
- Injured tissue cells and others release
inflammatory chemicals that make the capillaries
very permeable
- fluid rich in clotting proteins and
other substances to seep into the injured area
from the bloodstream
- leaked clotting proteins construct a clot, which
“plugs the hole” to stop blood loss and hold the
edges of the wound together
- injured area becomes walled off, preventing
bacteria or other harmful substances from
spreading to surrounding tissues
 - where the clot is exposed to air, it
quickly dries and hardens, forming a scab

2. Granulation tissue forms

- Granulation tissue → delicate pink tissue
composed largely of new capillaries that grow
into the damaged area from undamaged blood
vessels nearby
→ fragile and bleed freely, as when
a scab is picked away from a skin wound
→ also contains phagocytes, which eventually
dispose of the blood clot, and connective
tissue cells (fibroblasts), which produce the
building blocks of collagen fibers (scar tissue)
to permanently bridge the gap

3. Regeneration and fibrosis effect perma-

nent repair
- As the surface epithelium begins to
regenerate, it makes its way between the
granulation tissue and the scab
- The scab soon detaches, and the final result
is a fully regenerated surface epithelium that
covers an underlying area of fibrosis (the scar)
- The scar is either invisible or visible as a thin
white line, depending on the severity of the
wound

Homesostatic Imbalance
 SCAR TISSUE
- lacks flexibility
- unable to perform the normal functions of
the tissue it replaces
- may severely hamper the the functioning of
the organ where it forms
 CONTRACTURE
- permanent tightening of the skin affecting
the underlying tendons or muscles
- develop during the healing process as
inelastic fibrous tissue replaces the normal
elastic connective tissues
- because fibrous tissue resists stretching,
movement of the affected area may be limited