Module 1

13‐Sep‐2017
Welcome To The Course

ME 369 Tribology
Er. CHACKO PRENO KOSHY

Assistant Professor (Sr. Grade)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
SAINTGITS College of Engineering, Kottayam
E-mail ID: chacko.preno@saintgits.org

Mob: +91 9447369296
Prepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy
1
S5 ‐ ME ‐ A ‐ SAINTGITS
Course Details
Course No. Course Name L-T-P-Credits
ME369 TRIBOLOGY 3-0-0-3
Prerequisite : Nil L – Lecture hours

T – Tutorial hours
P – Practical hours
2
Prepared by Er. Chacko Preno Koshy 1
13‐Sep‐2017
Course Objectives
• To provide broad based understanding of the subject ‘Tribology’ and its
technological significance
• To understand the genesis of friction, the theories/laws of sliding and rolling

friction and the effect of viscosity
• To learn about consequences of wear, wear mechanisms, wear theories and

analysis of wear problems
• To learn about the principles of lubrication, lubrication regimes, theories of

hydrodynamic and the advanced lubrication techniques and the application of
lubrications in metal working
• To understand the importance of adhesion property in different applications

and to get knowledge about different bearing materials
• To understand the nature ofPrepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy

engineering surfaces, their topography and learn
3
about surface characterization techniques
SYLLABUS
• Introduction to Tribology - Tribology in Design,
Tribology in Industry, Tribological Parameters
Like Friction, Wear and Lubrication, different
types of lubrication techniques and applications,
measurement of friction and wear
• The Topography of Engineering Surface, Contact

Between Surfaces, surface modification
techniques- Adhesion properties, Adhesion in
Magnetic Recording Systems, Types of Bearings,
Comparison of Sliding and Rolling Contact
Bearings
4
13‐Sep‐2017
Expected Outcome
The students will be able to:
1. Understand the subject ‘tribology’ and its technological significance
2. Understanding the theories/laws of sliding and rolling friction and

the effect of viscosity
3. Get basic idea on consequences of wear, wear mechanisms, wear

theories and analysis of wear problems
4. Get an exposure to theories of hydrodynamic and the advanced

lubrication techniques and the application of lubrications in metal
working
5. Gain overview of adhesion property in different applications and to

get knowledge about different bearing materials
6. Get basic idea aboutPrepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy

the nature of engineering surfaces, their
topography and learn about surface
S5 ‐ ME ‐ characterization techniques 5
A ‐ SAINTGITS
Text Books
1. Ernest Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Materials,
John Wiley & Sons, 1995
2. I. M. Hutchings, Tribology: Friction and Wear of
Engineering Materials, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1992
3. Prasanta Sahoo, Engineering Tribology, PHI Learning
Private Ltd, New Delhi, 2011
Reference Books
1. B. Bhushan, Introduction to Tribology, John Wiley & Sons Inc,
New York, 2002
2. B. Bhushan, B. K. Gupta, Handbook of Tribology: Materials,
Coatings and Surface Treatments, McGraw-Hill,1997
3. Halling J., Principles of Tribology, McMillan Press Ltd.,1978
6
13‐Sep‐2017
Course Plan
• Module I
– Introduction to tribology
– Topography of engineering surface
– Types of bearings
• Module II
– Types, laws and theories of friction
– Measurement of friction
– Stick-slip
• Module III
– Types and theories of wear
– Measurement of wear, wear regime maps
– Lubricated and unlubricated wear of metals
• Module IV
– Lubrication and lubricants – Properties
– Regimes of lubrication
– Lubrication in metal working
• Module V
– Adhesion
– Bearing materials
• Module VI Prepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy
7
– Surface engineering, modification and coating
ME369 TRIBOLOGY
Module 1
• Introduction to Tribology - Tribology in Design,
Tribology in Industry, Economic Aspects of Tribology
• Tribological Parameters Like Friction, Wear and

Lubrication
• The Topography of Engineering Surface, Contact

Between Surfaces
• Types of Bearings, Comparison of Sliding and Rolling

Contact Bearings
8
13‐Sep‐2017
TRIBOLOGY
 "Tribology" is a combination of two Greek words - "tribos" and "logy".
 "Tribos" means rubbing and "logy" means knowledge.
 The study of tribology dates back to 1800 B.C. or earlier.
 Egyptians using lubricant to aid movement of colossus, El-Bersheh, Circa 1880 B.C.
9
BRIEF HISTORY OF TRIBOLOGY

 Egyptian ball bearings with animal fat lubrication dating back to 1000 B.C.
 Roman thrust bearings dating back to 40 A.D.
 Leonardo da Vinci’s (1452-1519) friction postulate
 Amontons’s theory
 Industrial Revolution (1750 – 1850)
 Coulomb verification of Amontons’s theory
 Hydrodynamic lubrication theory - Petroff(1883), Tower(1884) & Reynolds (1886)
 From ‘Rubbing and Scrubbing Department’ to Tribophysics
 Tribology – The word was first reported in a landmark report by Dr. H. Peter Jost
(1966) in England
 Tribology - The science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative
motion and of associated subjects and practices - Jost Committee Report of
1966
 Tribology – Science of interacting surfaces in relative motion
 Tribology is essentially the study of friction, wear and lubrication
 Friction is a principal cause of energy dissipation

 Wear is the major cause of material wastage and loss of mechanical performance
 Lubrication is an effective means of controlling wear and reducing friction10
13‐Sep‐2017
JOST GAVE BIRTH TO THE WORD “TRIBOLOGY”
11
ADVENT OF TRIBOLOGY
The Jost Report 1966 coined the word Tribology for the new interdisciplinary
science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and brought
out the potentials of saving through correct usage of Tribology principles and
practices as shown in the pie chart.
12
13‐Sep‐2017
LUBRICATION
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
“All things and everything whatsoever, however thin

it be, which is interposed
in the middle between objects that rub together,
lighten the difficulty of their
friction”
CONCEPT OF LUBRICATION
13
Leonardo da Vinci’s Experiments
14
13‐Sep‐2017
Industrial Significance of Tribology

• Jost Report (1966) – United Kingdom made a wastage of 500 million
pounds per annum, due to the ignorance of mechanical surface interaction
phenomena in machinery
– At present it is known that the report greatly under-estimated the real
financial importance of tribology (Report neglected loss due to wear)
• United States (1976) – estimated a possible savings of at least 16 billion
dollars per annum by better tribological practices
15
Economic importance of tribology in USA
Loss of usefulness of material objects

with their economic importance
16
13‐Sep‐2017
Application of Tribology
17
Application of Tribology Contd…
18
13‐Sep‐2017
Application of Tribology Contd…
Super-hydrophobicity: Lotus Leaf

19
On/Off Stiction: Gecko Feet S5 ‐ ME ‐ A ‐ SAINTGITS
20
13‐Sep‐2017
The Topography of Engineering Surface
21
Surface Interactions
 Surface interactions take place
at regions where atom-to-atom
contact occurs
 These regions are called
junctions
 Real Area of Contact, Ar
 Sum of the areas of all the
junctions
 Nature of interaction
between two surfaces is
determined by Ar Ar ⁓ (Load, L) / (Penetration Hardness, p)
 Apparent Area of Contact, Aa

 Total interfacial area (as
appeared from outside)
22
13‐Sep‐2017
Surface Topography
All solid surfaces are found to be uneven (except
carefully cleaved mica)
Surface roughness is the departure of the surface
shape from some ideal or prescribed form
Different methods to study the topography:
Stylus measurements
Electrical or thermal measurements
Electron or light microscopy
Other optical methods
23
Stylus Profilometer
• A fine stylus is dragged
smoothly and steadily
across the surface under
examination
• Vertical displacement of
the stylus is picked up by
a transducer and plotted
against its travel along
the surface
• This method gives

roughness in one
dimension Prepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy
24
13‐Sep‐2017
Stylus Profilometer Contd…

• Since the
vertical and
horizontal
magnifications
are generally
different, the
generated
profile appears
to be different
from the actual
one
25
Stylus Profilometer Contd…

• An unavoidable
limitation of this
method results
from the shape of
the stylus
• The stylus tip

cannot fully
penetrate into
deep narrow
features of the
surface
26
13‐Sep‐2017
Digital Optical Interferometer
• Determines surface profile without mechanical contact

27
Three-dimensional Profile Map

(a) A ground steel surface
(b) A shot blasted steel

surface
(c) A diamond-turned surface

28
13‐Sep‐2017
Two/Three-dimensional Profile Map
29
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

• Developed by Gerd Binnig et al. in 1985
• AFM is a high-resolution scanning probe

microscopy (SPM), with a resolution in the order of
fractions of a nanometer.
• It is capable of investigating surfaces of scientific

and engineering interest, on an atomic scale.
• AFM relies on a scanning technique to produce very

high-resolution three-dimensional images of the
sample surfaces Prepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy
30
13‐Sep‐2017
AFM Contd…
• AFM measures ultra small forces (less than 1 nN)
present between the AFM tip surface mounted on a
flexible cantilever beam, and a sample surface
• These small forces are measured by measuring the

motion of a very flexible nano-sized cantilever beam
having an ultra small mass, by a variety of measurement
techniques including optical deflection, optical
interference, capacitance, and tunneling current
• The deflection can be measured to within 0.02 nm, so

for a typical cantilever force constant of 10 N/m, a force
as low as 0.2 nN can be detected.
31
AFM Contd…
32
13‐Sep‐2017
Advantages of the AFM for tribological studies

• AFM investigations are usually made in ambient air
environment
– AFM studies in a vacuum or liquid environment is also
possible
• Direct 3-dimensional visualization of wear tracks
and scars is possible
– Images may be displayed in 2-D projection and 3-D
projection
• AFM can be routinely used on all types of materials
– ceramics, metals, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic,
optical, and biomaterials
33
AFM Images
Three-dimensional atomic force
microscope (AFM) image of a
polish mark on a piece of steel.
The scan range in X and Y is 3
μm and the entire Z range is 40
nm
Metrological study of a scratch

mark in the surface of a
polished material (stainless
steel). Because the AFM directly
measures three dimensional
data, the depth of the scratch
S5 ‐ ME ‐mark is easily quantified. 34
A ‐ SAINTGITS
13‐Sep‐2017
AFM Images Contd…
35
Quantification of Surface Roughness

• Roughness : Small scale irregularities of a surface
• Form error : Measure of the deviation of the shape of the surface from its
intended ideal shape (plane, cylindrical etc.)
• Waviness : Periodic surface undulation intermediate in scale between

roughness and form error
• Roughness is extracted from the surface profile recorded by a profilometer,

by subtracting form error and waviness
 Mechanical filtering is achieved by supporting the measuring head on a

small skid which rides on the surface just behind or in front of the stylus
 The profilometer records the displacement of the stylus relative to

the skid
 Electrical or electronic filtering can
S5 ‐ ME ‐ A ‐ also be done
SAINTGITS
36
13‐Sep‐2017
Quantification of Surface Roughness Contd…

• Graph of the surface profile contains most of the information needed to
describe the topography along one direction
 Several typical quantities can be computed from the surface profile
 Average Roughness, Ra (Centre Line Average)

 Arithmetic mean deviation of the surface height from the mean line
through the profile
 Mean line is defined so that equal areas of the profile lie above and
below it
y(x) = height of surface above the datum

L = sampling length
37

 R.M.S roughness, Rq (Standard deviation)
 Root mean square deviation of the profile from the mean line
 Rq and Ra are similar
 For a Gaussian distribution of surface heights, Rq = 1.25 Ra
 Amplitude density function, p(y)

 Proportional to the probability of finding a point on the surface at height y above the
mean line
 Describes the distribution of surface heights
38
13‐Sep‐2017

 Skewness : Measure of the asymmetry of the amplitude density curve
 Kurtosis : Measure of the sharpness of the peak of the distribution curve
 Gaussian (normal) probability distribution has a skewness value of zero

and kurtosis of 3.0
 Bearing Ratio : Ratio of the contact length to the total length of the profile
 Bearing ratio curve is a plot of bearing ratio against surface height

39
 Differentiation of bearing ratio curve yields amplitude density function

 Autocorrelation function, C(β) : Describes the distribution of hills
and valleys
 Power spectral density function, P(ω) : Conveys information about

the spatial frequencies (i.e. wavelengths) present in the surface profile
 Fourier Transform of the autocorrelation function
40
13‐Sep‐2017
Contact Between Surfaces
41
Contact Between Surfaces

Conforming Contact
 Surfaces of the two bodies ‘fit’ exactly or even closely together
without deformation
 Eg: Flat Slider bearings, journal bearings etc.
Non-Conforming Contact
 Bodies which have dissimilar profiles
 When brought into contact without deformation, “point contact” or
“line contact” occurs
 Eg: Contact between races and balls in a ball or roller bearing,
Contact between a cam and follower, etc.
 On application of normal load, contact area is small
 Stresses are highly concentrated in the vicinity of contact
 Effect is unaffected by the shape of the bodies away from
contact area
42
13‐Sep‐2017
Contact Stresses - Hertz Theory of Elastic Contact

Two contacting surfaces under load will deform
Deformation may be either plastic or elastic depending on

the magnitude of the applied load and the material’s
hardness
To determine stresses acting in contacts of rolling contact

bearing, cams, gears, seals, etc. an analytical formulae based
on the theory of elasticity was developed by Hertz in 1881.
Hertz developed these formulae during his Christmas

vacation in 1880 when he was 23 years old
43
Elastic Half Space

 When the dimensions of the body are large compared to the contact
area, stresses in this region are unaffected by the shape of the
contacting bodies far away from the contacting region
 The stresses may be calculated to a good approximation by

considering each body as a semi-infinite elastic solid bounded by a
plane surface: i.e. an elastic half space
 Bodies of any profile may be regarded as semi-infinite in extent

and having a plane surface
 If the loading is along a narrow strip, a state of plane strain is
assumed
• Justified when the thickness of the solid is large compared
with the width of the loaded region
 Classical theory of Prepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy

elasticity can now be used to determine the
contact pressure and subsurface stresses
44
13‐Sep‐2017
Elliptical Contact Between Two Elastic Bodies – General Case

P
45
P
Hertz Theory (1881-82)

 When two spheres are in contact with a normal force P, Hertz made the
hypothesis that the contact area is, in general elliptical
 For calculating local deformations, each contacting body can be

regarded as an elastic half space, loaded over a small elliptical region
of its plane surface
 The significant dimensions of the contact area must be small

compared to the dimensions of each body and with the relative
radii of curvature of each surface
 Strains in the contact region are considered to be sufficiently small so

as to lie within the scope of the linear theory of elasticity
 The surfaces are assumed to be frictionless so that only a normal

pressure is transmitted between them
46
13‐Sep‐2017
Assumptions to Hertz’s Theory

 Materials in contact are homogeneous and the yield stress is not
exceeded
 The surfaces are continuous and non-conforming: a<<R, ie; contact
area is very small compared with the dimensions of the contacting
solids
 Strains are small: a<<R
 Each solid can be considered as an elastic half space: a<<R1,2, a<<l
 The surfaces are frictionless
 The two surfaces do not touch or interfere outside the loaded region
 Contacting solids are at rest and in equilibrium
 Effect of surface roughness is negligible
 Contact stress is caused by the load which is normal to the contact
tangent plane which effectively means that there are no tangential
forces acting between the solids
 P(x,y) is required to be found

47
CONTACT BETWEEN TWO ELASTIC SPHERICAL OR

SPHEROIDAL BODIES
 Elastic bodies in contact deform and the contact geometry, load and
material properties determine the contact area and stresses.
 The contact geometry depends on whether the contact occurs

between surfaces which are both convex or a combination of flat,
convex and concave.
 The shape of the contact area depends on the shape (curvature) of

the contacting bodies.
• For example, point contacts occur between two balls, line
contacts occur between two parallel cylinders and elliptical
contacts, which are most frequently found in many practical
engineering applications, occur when two cylinders are
crossed, or a moving ball is in contact with the inner ring of a
bearing, or two gear teeth are in contact.
 The curvature of the bodies can be convex, flat or concave. 48
13‐Sep‐2017
Geometry of two elastic bodies with convex surfaces in contact
49
Geometry of two bodies with one convex and one flat surface in
contact
50
13‐Sep‐2017
Geometry of two bodies with one convex and one concave surface in
contact
51
Reduced Radius of Curvature
52
13‐Sep‐2017
Contact Area, Pressure, Maximum Deflection and Position of the

Maximum Shear Stress
Most frequently used contact parameters are:
 the contact area dimensions,
 the maximum contact pressure, often called the Hertzian stress,
 the maximum deflection at the centre of the contacting surfaces,
 the position of the maximum shear stress under the surface.
Two balls in contact or when 2 cylinders are crossed at 90° :

circular contact
Two cylinders crossed at an angle ≠ 90° : contact area is
ellipse
Two parallel cylinders : narrow rectangle
53
Geometry of contact between two spheres
54
13‐Sep‐2017
Contact between a sphere and a plane (flat) surface
55
Geometry of contact between two parallel cylinders
56
13‐Sep‐2017
Geometry of contact between two cylinders of equal diameters with

axes perpendicular
57
General Notations
a = radius of the contact area (m)
P = normal load (N)
p = contact pressure (Hertzian stress) (Pa)
po = maximum pressure (Pa)
δ = total deflection at the centre of the contact; δ1 and δ2 are the

maximum deflections of body A (1) and body B (2), respectively, (m)
τ = shear stress (Pa)
E* = reduced Young’s Modulus (Pa)
R = reduced radius of curvature (m)
z = depth under the surfacePrepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy

where
S5 ‐ ME ‐the maximum shear stress acts (m)58
A ‐ SAINTGITS
13‐Sep‐2017
Two solids of general shape, after deformation

 Separation between the
two surfaces is given
by, h = Ax2 + By2
 Within the contact
region,
 S1, S2 are coincident

points within the
contact surface
 Outside the contact
region,
59
Geometry of contact between two spheres - Two Solids of revolution

P
60
P
13‐Sep‐2017
Two Solids of revolution Contd…

 Contact area is circular with radius, a
 Boundary conditions for displacements within the contact,
 Pressure distribution proposed by Hertz,
 Writing,
 Radius of the contact circle is,
 And the mutual approach of distant points in the two solids is given by,
61

 Total load compressing the solids is given by,
 In terms of total load,
 Area of contact increases as (normal load)2/3

 Before applying this equation,
 Uniqueness of the boundary conditions are to be checked
 Ensure that the surfaces do not touch or interfere outside the
contact region
62
13‐Sep‐2017

 Stress distributions at the surface (z = 0), inside the loaded circle (r <
a) are,
 Outside the circle (r > a) ,
63

 Stresses on the z-axis may be calculated by considering a ring of
concentrated force at radius r :
 Principal shear stress, has a maximum value of

0.31 po at a depth of 0.48a when ν = 0.3
 OR τmax = (1/3) po at a depth of z = 0.638a

64
13‐Sep‐2017
Stress and pressure distribution
65
Example
 Find the contact parameters for two steel balls. The normal force
is W = 5 [N], the radii of the balls are RA = 10 × 10-3 [m] and RB
= 15 × 10-3 [m]. The Young's modulus for both balls is E = 2.1 ×
1011 [Pa] and the Poisson's ratio of steel is ν = 0.3.
Solution
• Determine R, E*, a, po, δ, τmax., z, Average contact pressure (pavg.)
• R = 6 × 10-3 m
• E* = 1.15 × 1011 Pa
• a = 5.799 × 10-5 m
• po = 709.9 MPa
• δ = 5.6 × 10-7 m
• τmax = 236.6 MPa
• z = 3.7 × 10-5 m
• pavg. = P/πa2 = 473.3 MPa S5 ‐ ME ‐ A ‐ SAINTGITS 66
13‐Sep‐2017
Two-dimensional Contact of Cylindrical Bodies

• Separation between corresponding points on the unloaded surface is
given by;
• Within the contact area,
• Outside the contact region,
• Due to the inherent drawback of 2D problems, relationship with

reference to surface gradients are generally obtained;
67
Two-dimensional Contact of Cylindrical Bodies Contd…..

• Solving the equations,
68
13‐Sep‐2017
Stresses in 2D contact along z-axis
69
Stress and pressure distribution
70
13‐Sep‐2017
Example
 2 steel rollers are in contact as shown. Given; W = 5 [N], RA = 10
× 10-3 [m], RB = 15 × 10-3 [m], E = 2.1 × 1011 [Pa], ν = 0.3, l = 10
× 10-3 [m]. Compute maximum contact pressure and width of
contact. How deep below the surface does the maximum shear
stress occur and what is its value.
Solution
• Determine R, E*, P, a, po, τmax., z
• R = 5.99 × 10-3 m
• E* = 1.15 × 1011 Pa
• P = W/l = 500 N/m
• a = 5.75 × 10-6 m
• po = 55.4 MPa
• τmax = 16.8 MPa
• z = 4.4 × 10-6 m Prepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy
71
BEARINGS
 A bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative motion between two
components or parts, such as the shaft and housing, with minimum friction.
 Objective of bearing is to provide relative positioning and rotational freedom

while transmitting a load between two parts.
 Bearings permit smooth, low-friction movement between two surfaces. The

movement can be either rotary (a shaft rotating within a mount) or linear (one
surface moving along another).
 Bearings can employ either a sliding or a rolling action. Bearings based on

rolling action are called rolling-element bearings. Those based on sliding
action are called plain bearings.
 In rolling contact bearings as the name implies the friction is of rolling type.
 It is much smaller than the sliding type.
72
13‐Sep‐2017
Types of Bearings
Broadly, bearings can be classified into
Sliding bearing and

Here load is transferred through a thin
film of lubricant (oil).
Rolling element bearing

Here load is transferred through rolling
elements such as balls, straight and
tapered cylinders and spherical rollers.
73
Types of Bearings – General Classification
74
13‐Sep‐2017
Comparison between types of Bearings
Refer any standard textbook and/or google yourself
75

Module 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

13‐Sep‐2017

Welcome To The Course

Er. CHACKO PRENO KOSHY

E-mail ID: chacko.preno@saintgits.org

ME369 TRIBOLOGY 3-0-0-3

Prerequisite : Nil L – Lecture hours

• To understand the genesis of friction, the theories/laws of sliding and rolling

• To learn about consequences of wear, wear mechanisms, wear theories and

• To learn about the principles of lubrication, lubrication regimes, theories of

• To understand the importance of adhesion property in different applications

• To understand the nature ofPrepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy

• The Topography of Engineering Surface, Contact

1. Understand the subject ‘tribology’ and its technological significance

2. Understanding the theories/laws of sliding and rolling friction and

3. Get basic idea on consequences of wear, wear mechanisms, wear

4. Get an exposure to theories of hydrodynamic and the advanced

5. Gain overview of adhesion property in different applications and to

6. Get basic idea aboutPrepared By: Er. Chacko Preno Koshy

• Tribological Parameters Like Friction, Wear and

• The Topography of Engineering Surface, Contact

• Types of Bearings, Comparison of Sliding and Rolling

 "Tribos" means rubbing and "logy" means knowledge.

 The study of tribology dates back to 1800 B.C. or earlier.

BRIEF HISTORY OF TRIBOLOGY

 Friction is a principal cause of energy dissipation

JOST GAVE BIRTH TO THE WORD “TRIBOLOGY”

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

“All things and everything whatsoever, however thin

Leonardo da Vinci’s Experiments

Industrial Significance of Tribology

Loss of usefulness of material objects

Application of Tribology Contd…

Application of Tribology Contd…

Super-hydrophobicity: Lotus Leaf

The Topography of Engineering Surface

 Apparent Area of Contact, Aa

• This method gives

Stylus Profilometer Contd…

Stylus Profilometer Contd…

• The stylus tip

Digital Optical Interferometer

• Determines surface profile without mechanical contact

Three-dimensional Profile Map

(b) A shot blasted steel

(c) A diamond-turned surface

Two/Three-dimensional Profile Map

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

• AFM is a high-resolution scanning probe

• It is capable of investigating surfaces of scientific

• AFM relies on a scanning technique to produce very

• These small forces are measured by measuring the

• The deflection can be measured to within 0.02 nm, so

Advantages of the AFM for tribological studies

Metrological study of a scratch

AFM Images Contd…

Quantification of Surface Roughness

• Waviness : Periodic surface undulation intermediate in scale between

• Roughness is extracted from the surface profile recorded by a profilometer,

 Mechanical filtering is achieved by supporting the measuring head on a

 The profilometer records the displacement of the stylus relative to

Quantification of Surface Roughness Contd…

 Average Roughness, Ra (Centre Line Average)

y(x) = height of surface above the datum

Quantification of Surface Roughness Contd…