Merely Being with You Increases My Attention to Luxury Products: Using EEG to

Understand Consumers' Emotional Experience with Luxury Branded Products

Author(s): RUMEN POZHARLIEV, WILLEM J.M.I. VERBEKE, JAN W. VAN STRIEN and
RICHARD P. BAGOZZI
Source: Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 52, No. 4 (AUGUST 2015), pp. 546-558
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43832380
Accessed: 11-10-2019 06:08 UTC

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 RUMEN POZHARLIEV, WILLEM J.M.I. VERBEKE, JAN W. VAN STRIEN, and
RICHARD P. BAGOZZr

Electrophysiological and hemodynamic studies provide substantial

evidence of dissimilar brain responses when people view emotional
compared with neutral pictures. This study investigates consumer brain
responses underpinning passive viewing of luxury (high emotional value)
versus basic (low emotional value) branded products when participants
are alone or with another person. Conforming to social facilitation theory
and using electroencephalogram methods, the authors recorded event-
related potentials while female participants passively viewed pictures of
luxury and basic branded products. They examined event-related-
potential amplitudes in three time windows, corresponding to the P2 and
P3 components and the late positive potential (LPP). Dissimilar brain
responses occurred in the Together but not the Alone condition for the P2
and P3 components over visual cortex sites. The LPP amplitude was
higher for luxury than for basic branded products, but only in the Together
condition, suggesting that the presence of another person magnifies the
emotional effect of brand type. Taken together, the results suggest that
LPP amplitude during passive viewing of relevant marketing images
reflects increased attention allocation and motivational significance, both
enhanced by the presence of another person, to stimuli with higher
emotional value.

Keywords: luxury products, event-related potentials, late positive

potential, attention, social facilitation theory

Online Supplement http://dx.doi.org/10.1509/jmr.13.0560

Merely Being with You Increases My

Attention to Luxury Products: Using EEG
to Understand Consumers' Emotional
Experience with Luxury Branded Products

According to marketing scholars, instances of consumer presence of other people, regardless of whether they are
behavior such as allocating attention to branded products,family members, friends, strangers, or salespeople (Ariely
seeking variety, and making decisions are affected by theand Levav 2000; Jayasinghe and Ritson 2013; Kurt, Inman,
and Argo 2011; Ratner and Kahn 2002; White and Argo
201
*Rumen Pozharliev is a doctoral candidate, Erasmus School of Economics 1 ; Yang and Allenby 2003). Prior marketing research has
(e-mail: pozharliev@ese.eur.nl), William J.M.I. Verbeke is Professor, Eras-
examined changes in consumer behavior in individual ver-
mus School of Economics (e-mail: verbeke@ese.eur.nl), and Jan W. van
sus social contexts, using a wide variety of explanations
Strien is Professor, Erasmus Institute of Psychology (e-mail: vanstrien@fsw.
from different disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology,
eur.nl), Erasmus University Rotterdam. Richard P. Bagozzi is Dwight F. Ben-
and social psychology (see http://www.ejcr.org/curations-5.
ton Professor of Behavioral Science in Management, Ross School of Business,
University of Michigan (e-mail: bagozzi@umich.edu). The authors thank the html). However, no research has investigated the underlying
three anonymous JMR reviewers for their important guidance during the
neural
review process. This article was processed by Editor in Chief Robert Meyer.
processes associated with consumers' adjustments to
the social context. In this study, we examine brain activity

© 20 15 , American Marketing Association Journal of Marketing Research

ISSN: 0022-2437 (print), 1547-7193 (electronic) 546 Vol. LII (August 2015), 546-558

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 Attention to Luxury Products 547

in participants who better life ("I'm interested

passively view in luxury,"pictures
"Luxury products of
luxury branded products, either
make life more beautiful," "I like luxury";alone
Dubois and Lau- or t
another person. rent 1994, 1996).
A study ofPleasure and arousal responses
brain of this sort are fre- to
relevant stimuli quently
in the reported as theversus
Alone two primary factors of motivation
Together c
vides a window, complementary to
that activate human experience (Bradley self-repo
et al. 2007; Wundt
workings of consumers' [1896] 2014). minds (e.g., Yoon e
turn, these insights However,
help not allmarketing
people (e.g., due to differences in profes
stan-
understand consumers' dards ofattention-allocation
living) have positive experiences with luxury prod- beh
might eventually translate into more sales.
ucts (e.g., due to low budget constraints) and thus, depend- Ind
to marketing stimuli ising onathekey situation (e.g.,
issuegiving giftsfor to friends versus
marketin
als because attention is usage),
personal scarcemight not desireand breaking
luxury goods. People with
marketing communicationthis frame of mind feel clutter
uneasy about luxury poses
goods and tend maj
(e.g., Pieters, Wedel, to
and Zhang
characterize luxury products 2007).
as overly frivolous, flashy,
Two aspects of social and uselesscontext
(Dubois and Laurent 1994,characterize
1996). However,
First, using electroencephalogram
Dubois and Laurent (1994) suggest that people (EEG)
attribute rec
focus on people's attention allocation
most negative emotions to "others' luxury" butto brande
assign posi-
the first second after tivepicture onset
emotions to "my" luxury. Regardless (Plassmann
of whether posi-
Milosavljevic 2012). Specifically,
tive or negative emotions are triggered, we they affectexamin
the vigor
consumers' brain responses during
of consumers' attention to these stimuli mere obser
(e.g., Dubois and
implies seeing or noticing
Laurent 1994, 1996;salient cues
Ferrari et al. 2011; Sweeney and (e.g.,
Soutar pi
product, brand logos,2001).packaging) without a con
ence, such as sampling by tasting or actua
Nunes, and Drèze 2010).ERP and Attention
Second, to Emotionally we Significant Stimuli
focus on th
in which another person is passively copresent
Event-related potentials offer high temporal resolution,
noninteractive social which or mere
makes them presence
a valuable technique to distinguish early situ
1965). Specifically, a social agent
perceptual reactivity from moreis physically
complex and elaborate
does not attempt to engage
emotional processes the other
(Gardener person
et al. 2013). Early ERPs, or in
Using recent marketingthose occurring andup to theneuroscience
first 300 milliseconds (ms) after res
we report evidence on whether
stimulus onset, tend to reflect human brain r
reflexlike visual attention,
more emotionally significant
which presumptively promotesstimuli (photos),
initial sensory encoding of
for luxury branded products,
emotionally significant differ
stimuli (Junghöferfrom et al. 2001; brain
less emotionally involving stimuli,
Schupp et al. 2003; Schupp which
et al. 2007). This early sensory oc
branded products. Second, we use social facilit
encoding is likely to lead to more sophisticated processing
to explain how social of
context might
emotional visual stimuli, modulate
presumably producing more
differences. Third, we develop
elaborate emotional effect, hypotheses
which is reflected in enhanced on w
sure to pictures of luxury versus
later ERP components, such as thebasic brande
P3 and late positive
reflected differently potential
in early and
(LPP; see Cuthbert late
et al. 2000). Herein, event-re
we exam-
(ERP) time windowsineand whether
three components: the
the P2, the P3, and the LPP. mere
another person can modulate the difference
The P2 is a positive-going waveform in the 150-250 ms
present our material,time including experimental
window after stimulus onset. It is believed to index
logical and behavioralearlydata collection,
selective attention. The P2 is modulated EEG reco
by emotional
statistical procedures, arousal
and and marks the onset of a persistent positive shift of Fi
report the results.
cuss the theoretical and practical
the ERP waveform in response toimplications
affective stimuli
ings and provide suggestions
(Amrhein et al. 2004; for
Olofsson etfurther
al. 2008). resear

THEORY The P3 is characterized by a positive-going waveform

within the 250-450 ms latency range. Typically, task rele-
Luxury Branded Products and Emotion vance modulates the P3 amplitude. However, affective stim-
We conceive luxury branded products as emotionally uli also
sig-elicit increased P3 amplitudes (Cuthbert et al. 2000;
nificant stimuli. Emotional stimuli direct attention so as to Palomba, Angrilli, and Mini 1997). This bottom-up effect of
enable more detailed evaluation or provoke a response. motivationally relevant stimuli on the P3 may indicate auto-
Luxury products may evoke emotions that are positive matic attention capture by these stimuli (Di Russo et al.
2006; Hajcak, MacNamara, and Olvet 2010).
(rewarding; people want them) or negative (punishing; peo-
ple avoid them). Considerable empirical evidence indicates that enhanced
As Kumar and Garg (2010) argue, luxury branded prod- LPP amplitude is a reliable, replicable, temporally sensitive
ucts induce positive emotions, such as enjoyment, because indicator of emotional processing (Cacioppo et al. 1994;
of the aesthetic qualities of the brand logo or design. More-
Cuthbert et al. 2000; Hajcak, Moser, and Simons 2006; Keil et
over, the intangible perception of luxury is strongly corre-
al. 2002; Schupp et al. 2003; Schupp et al. 2007). The LPP is a
lated with pleasure, happiness, and inspiration (Dubois and
long-lasting, positive slow wave and is maximal over cen-
Laurent 1994; Sweeney and Soutar 2001). When discussingtroparietal sites, peaking around 500-700 ms after stimulus
their own relationship with luxury products, many con- onset (Cuthbert et al. 2000; Hajcak, MacNamara, and Olvet
sumers indicate that luxury goods make them dream of a 2010; Münte et al. 2000; Olofsson et al. 2008). In particular,

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 548 JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, AUGUST 201 5

higher amplitude of the LPP tendsseveral

to occur more
neural pathways that often
ultimately for
influence the vigor
andunpleasant)
emotionally significant (pleasant and direction of attention
than to what
for theneu-
perceiver considers
tral visual stimuli (see Olofsson et emotionally
al. 2008). Furthermore,
significant in the environmentin
(e.g., Robbins
the context of affective perceptual 1997).
processing, the LPP emo-
tional effect is assumed to indicate sustained enhanced atten-
HYPOTHESES
tion allocation and motivational significance to emotional
visual stimuli (Bradley et al. 2003; Lang and Bradley 2010). As we discussed previously, luxury products might pro-
Functional neuroimaging research in support of previous voke both positive (attraction) and negative (avoidance
electrophysiological findings reports more enhanced activ- reactions. However, for many customers, luxury products
ity in the visual cortex when a person views emotional typically elicit pleasure and desire when contemplated at a
rather than neutral pictures, with more substantial differ- distance (passive viewing), compared with situations in
ences in the right than the left hemisphere (Lang, Bradley, which actual purchase is considered or experienced; this lat-
and Cuthbert 1998). Moreover, combined functional mag- ter situation involves deliberation, which might elicit nega-
netic resonance imaging (fMRI) and ERP studies report that tive emotions, such as anticipatory guilt (Dubois and Lau-
LPP reflects enhanced sustained processing of emotionally rent 1994). For the experimental task in the study, which
significant stimuli in visual cortices, resulting from re- involves only passive viewing of marketing-related stimul
entrant processes from the amygdala, of which the brain and, thus, no specific buying decision, we expect luxur
nuclei are involved in emotional processing (Britton et al. branded products to evoke more intense emotions (e.g.
2006; Sabatinelli et al. 2007). pleasure, joy, desire) than basic branded products. It is
Mere Presence and Nondirective Arousal important to acknowledge that basic branded products
might also induce emotions, but generally with lesser inten
Argo, Dahl, and Manchanda (2005, p. 211) propose that
sity than luxury ones. To test this prediction, we asked a
marketing researchers should examine Zajonc's (1965)sample of female undergraduate students to appraise a set o
social facilitation theory because it might present "a more pictures of luxury branded products versus a set of basic
comprehensive theoretical explanation" for the effect of branded products, using a multiple-item scale that gauges
mere presence on consumer behavior in a social context. We customer perceptions of the value of consumer durabl
draw on Zajonc's social facilitation theory, which consists products at the brand level (Sweeney and Soutar 2001
of a four-step process: (1) the mere presence of others More precisely, we investigated the emotional value dimen
(2) evokes arousal (automatic physiological process), which sion at the brand level to test whether luxury branded prod
(3) facilitates a dominant response (e.g., luxury branded uct pictures scored higher on emotional value than basi
products evoke emotions and consequently stimulate atten- branded product pictures (Sweeney and Soutar 2001). Prior
tion to them), (4) expressed as either increases in well- research has suggested that viewing luxury branded prod-
learned tasks or decreases in lesser-learned tasks (e.g., buy-
ucts elicits intense positive emotions, such as pleasure,
ing branded products impulsively vs. buying a complex desire, and joy (Dubois and Laurent 1994, 1996; Hagtved
mortgage) (see Sabini 1992). Our passive viewing task and Patrick 2009; Kapferer 1997; Sweeney and Soutar
excludes the fourth step, which might encompass easily 2001). Thus, we hypothesize the following:
accomplished behavior (e.g., impulse buying). Zajonc also
suggests that mere presence, defined as noninteractive Hļ! Pictures of luxury branded products will score higher on the
emotional value dimension at the brand level than pictures
exposure, thus giving little opportunity for competitive
behavior or imitation, is a sufficient condition to cause of basic branded products.

nondirective and nonspecific arousal: "In the presence ofSocial facilitation theory suggests that the mere presence
others, some degree of alertness or preparedness for the of others, even in the absence of the possibility to engage in
unexpected is generated, not because there is the anticipa-imitative or competitive behavior, is a sufficient condition
tion of positive or negative incentives, or threat of evalua-
for the occurrence of nondirective and nonspecific arousa
tion, but simply because one never knows what sort of that is likely to magnify an ongoing dominant respons
responses- perhaps even novel and unique - might be(Zajonc 1965). The experimental task used in our stud
required for the individual" (Zajonc 1965, p. 16). Zajonc's does not require action or overt behavior, only passive
theory of mere presence suggests that "being around people viewing of marketing stimuli, and thus it conforms well
works like [a] cup of coffee: It is stimulating" (Sabini 1992,
with the hypothesis that the mere presence of others can
p. 71). Zajonc observes that mere presence is also influen- produce nondirective arousal. Furthermore, compared with
tial in the animal kingdom (e.g., among cockroaches and physical stimuli, social stimuli have a less systematic and,
primates), highlighting the evolutionary roots of this facili-
thus, less predictable effect on a person (Markus 1978)
tation process and thus suggesting its occurrence at an Arousing stimuli typically elicit a more positive-going ER
unconscious level in humans.
waveform, starting around 200 ms after stimulus onset (e.g.
We conceptualize arousal as a physiological, unconscious Amrhein et al. 2004). We expect that a more arousing socia
process (e.g., Cacioppo, Berntson, and Cri tes 1996). This context (Together vs. Alone) elicits a comparable ERP
differs from the viewpoint that arousal is a subjective experi- effect. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:
ence of energy mobilization and can be measured solely
from self-reports (Di Muro and Murray 2012). Physiological H2: More positive-going ERP amplitudes will occur for all com-
arousal is not a specific process that can be reduced to the ponents (P2, P3, and LPP) in the Together condition than in
activation of one specific neural pathway but, rather, affects the Alone condition.

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 Attention to Luxury Products 549

Finally, we explore product

whether participants
pictures they perceived as luxury and as basic. A d
emotionally motivatedbranded
attention
product was considered to luxury pictures
or basic if at least of
basic branded products. As Hļ
90% of the participants rated itsuggests,
as such. From the results oflux
products should possess greater
the pretest, emotional
we created two categories of products: 60 luxurysign
and 60 basic
basic branded products. branded products. We we
However, divided the
do 120 pictures
not ex
early ERP differences intobetween
two sets of 60 picturesthe(30 basic and
two30 luxurybrand
in each
ERP modulation over set), each of which we then
occipital assigned tois
sites eitherlikely
of the study to
conditions (Bradley
matic selective attention (Alone or Together). Onet average,
al. 97% 2007;
and 95% S
2007). From a perceptual point
of the participants of
classified both the view, bot
30 luxury branded
products and the 30similar
basic brand pictures present basic branded products as such in each (i.e
content
beverages, shoes, and Set 1 and Set 2, respectively.and
lingerie), Web Appendixes
thus A, B, C,
weand do
D provide more details
ERP brand-type differences on the two
for thesets of 60
P2pictures.
and P3
Conversely, the LPP seems
In addition, weto reflect
investigated differences in sustained
perceptions of
the emotional
significant stimuli that is value of the luxury versus
under consciousbasic branded c
studies have demonstrated
products. We used the that cognitive
well-established five-item measure re
PERVAL (Consumer in
modulate the LPP amplitude Perceived Value) scale (for further
response to sti
emotional and motivational significance
information, see Web Appendix E) to assess perceptions of(e.g
Nieuwenhuis 2006). Inthe other
emotional value words,
of a consumer durablethe productLPP
at the em
may be dependent onbrandhow level (Sweeney
a personand Soutar 2001). Sweeney and
appraises a
stimulus. Therefore, Soutar
higher (2001, p. 211)LPP
describe the emotional value dimen- ca
amplitudes
sion as "the utility
for luxury than for basic brandderived from the feelings or affective
pictures. Thu
states that a branded producta
that in the Together condition, generates."
greater In the next step, we
alloca
created four
tion to more emotionally sets of four branded products
significant each. Two sets
stimuli (lu
products) than to lesscontained four randomly selected basic
emotionally branded products
significant
branded products) will(onebechocolate, one beverage, one shoe,
magnified byand one lingerie aro
the
item). The other
the copresence of others. This two sets included four randomly
brand- type selectedemo
reflected in posteriorluxury
LPP branded products (one chocolate, one beverage,
modulation, will onelike
shoe, and one lingerie
a dominant response under the item). We created two questionnaires,
framework of s
each featuring
tion theory (Zajonc 1965). As one set of basic and one set of luxury
previously discus
branded products.
luxury branded products isWelikely
alternated the order
to ofevoke
the sets
between the two questionnaires.
emotions, such as pleasure, joy, and Thus, one questionnaire
desire,
basic
branded products, which
started with should
an evaluation of the set of luxury produce
branded prod-
ucts,Laurent
emotions (Dubois and and the other started with
1994,an evaluation of the set of
1996). A
expect to observe basic branded
more products. We did this
enhanced LPP to avoidamplitude
order effects in
versus basic branded products
the evaluation of the different in the
sets. After Togeth
viewing each set of
than in the Alone four products, participants
condition. answered the five-item PERVAL
Consequently, we
the following: scale. Each of the two questionnaires was answered by 30
female undergraduate students from the same Dutch univer-
H3: Viewing luxury branded products compared with basic
sity who participated in exchange for a chocolate bar. In
branded products will reliably enhance the LPP amplitude.
total, 60 female participants (age M = 21.16 years, SD =
The LPP brand effect will be greater in the Together than in
the Alone condition.
2.55) took part in the PERVAL study.
Procedures
METHOD
We conducted the experiment in two sessions (Alone and
Participants
Together). For the Alone condition, we collected EEG
Forty female (age M = 22.07 years, SD = 2.09)recordings
under- from participants completely isolated in a dimly
graduate students from a Dutch university participated in
lit, electrically shielded EEG laboratory. For the Together
this study. Participants enrolled in the experiment in two participants were together in the same EEG
condition,
exchange for course credit. All participants had normal or
lab. Participants sat in comfortable chairs approximately
corrected-to-normal vision. Informed consent was obtained 100 centimeters (cm) from and at eye level with a 40-by-30
at the beginning of the experiment. cm Iiyama PC computer screen. In the Together condition,
Materials the participants sat beside each other, both facing the com-
puter screen. We alternated the order of the Alone and
The stimuli consisted of a pool of 120 pictures chosen Together conditions. Participants interacted with each other
from various product categories (chocolates, beverages, during the installation of the EEG caps and in the period
shoes, and lingerie). The pictures were selected by a group between
of the Alone and Together condition sessions. In all
five female students who received payment for this task. Inconditions,
a the leader of the experiment left the room,
pretest, 80 female undergraduate students (age M = 20.16 ensuring that his mere presence did not affect the findings.
years, SD = 2.35) from the same Dutch university were In both conditions, participants saw a succession of 60
asked to classify the 120 branded pictures. They were asked
pictures of branded products displayed centrally on the com-
to make a dichotomous choice and to indicate which branded
puter screen using E-Prime presentation software. The pic-

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550 JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, AUGUST 201 5

category(food,
tures included 30 luxury branded products (basic, luxury) from the an
beverages,
shoes, and lingerie) and 30 basic them
brandedwith products
others (only(food,two participants
beverages, shoes, and lingerie). The pictures were presented
Statistical Analysis
in random order, and each picture was viewed once only and
in only one of the two conditions. WeThe averaged
pictures wereERPs, time locked to
per-
branded
fectly counterbalanced across conditions. product
The picture,
first couple of per participan
brand
participants viewed Set 1 in the Alone category
condition and(basic,
Set 2luxury)
in and sepa
the Together condition, the second dition
couple (Alone,
viewed Together).
Set 2 in Participants v
30Together
the Alone condition and Set 1 in the luxury pictures
condition,of and
branded products
so on. Each picture was presented conditions.
for 6,000Two ms,setswith of an
60 pictures wer
Alone
interval of 2,500 ms of fixation point (+) and
in theTogether
center of sessions
the (for furth
computer screen between pictures. Web Appendices
Participants A were
and B). We alternate
sentation
instructed to watch the visual stimuli of the
without two sets
making anybetween the tw
as the the
overt response or movement. To reduce order of the
amount of conditions.
ERP As a
artifacts caused by eye movements,waveforms were computed
the participants were for 30 basic
tures of and
instructed to relax and reduce blinking branded
otherproducts
ocular for each Alon
dition, respectively.
movements during the visual task studied in this experiment.
Prior research
Immediately after the two EEG sessions, suggests
participants com-that the modul
amplitude
pleted a postexperiment questionnaire, to emotional
reporting visual stimuli is
if they felt
posterior
more comfortable watching the pictures of the scalp branded location
prod- (Carretié, Ma
2001;condition
ucts in the Alone or in the Together Carretié, Mercado, et al. 2001;
(alone, noKeil et al. 2002;
dif-
Schupp
ference, or together with another person). et al. 2004). Moreover, previous studies have found
that emotional modulation of the LPP is most pronounced in
EEG Recordings and Analysis the superior-posterior scalp locations, maximal at parietal
electrodes (Cacioppo
The EEG was recorded continuously fromet32 al. 1994; Codispoti, Ferrari, and
active
Bradley 2006;
Ag/AgCI electrode sites using a BioSemi Cuthbert et al. 2000;
32-channel De Cesarei and Codis-
elastic
poti 2006; Sabatinelli et al.
head cap with standard international 10-20 system layout. In 2005; Sabatinelli et al. 2007;
Schupp et al.with
the Together condition, EEG was recorded 2007; Zilber,
two Goldstein,
identical and Mikulincer
2007). Posterior-lateralized
32-channel EEG caps. Each cap signal was acquired modulation
from of early and late
two separate, identical amplifiers ERP amplitude toActive-Two
(BioSemi emotional visual stimuli
sys- has frequently
been reported for
tem AD-box) connected with each other and the same com-both left and right hemispheres (Doleos
and Cabeza
puter with optical cable. Flat-type active2002;electrodes
Jünghofer et al. were
2001; Keil et al. 2002;
Schupp etElectrodes
attached to the right and left mastoids. al. 2003). Therefore,
locatedwe performed
on statistical
analysis
the outer canthi of each eye, as well as at nine subsequent
below and above electrodesthe sites: left (C3, P3,
Ol), midline
left eye, measured bipolar horizontal (Cz, Pz, Oz), electroocu-
and vertical and right (C4, P4, 02).
lography activity. In addition, we used an active visual
In response to emotional pin-typestimuli, we quantified P2,
P3, and LPP at the
electrode (common mode sense) and a passive pin-type posterior scalp locations,
elec-basing the cho-
sen timeawindows
trode (driven right leg) to compose on previous
feedback research
loop for (for comparable
time windows,
amplifier reference. Online, EEG was digitizedsee Amrhein
at a et al. 2004; Bradley et al. 2007;
sampling
Carretié,
rate of 512 Hz, 24-bit AID conversion. Martin-Loeches, et al. 2001; Cuthbert et al. 2000;
Further offline processing wasDoleos and Cabeza 2002;
performed Hajcak, Brain
with Moser, and Simons 2006;
Ikezawa, Corbera, and Wexler
Vision Analyzer. Offline, the EGG signals were rerefer- 2013; Keil et al. 2002) and
visual
enced to the average of the left and inspection
right of grand-averages
mastoids. Thewaveforms.
EEG
We evaluated the P2, P3, and LPP time windows area
data were band-pass-filtered between .1 Hz and 30 Hz. Arti-
facts caused by ocular movements measures
were with a three-way repeated
removed measures analysis of
by apply-
variance (ANOVA): the within-subject factors were brand
ing independent component analysis with Brain Vision Ana-
lyzer. Next, EEG signals for each (basic,
pictureluxury), were
condition segmented
(Alone, Together), and laterality
(left, midline, right). We controlled for multivariate normal
with 200 ms prestimulus (baseline) to 1 ,000 ms poststimu-
distribution with the Mauchly test of sphericity and applied
lus ERP epoch. The ERP signals were defined relative to the
the Greenhouse-Geisser correction, when appropriate (Gar-
mean of the 200 ms prestimulus baseline period. Each seg-
dener et al. 2013). We considered a p-value less than 5%
ment was subjected to artifact-rejection processing. The
significant (Keeser et al. 2011). Significant interaction
artifact-rejection method excluded epochs with large ampli-
effects were followed by paired-sample t-tests. We imple-
tude (more than ±100 'xV). The EEG recordings were ana-
mented Bonferroni correction to adjust for multiple com-
lyzed four times independently by two experienced EEG
parisons and analyzed statistics with the IBM SPSS 13.0
researchers (blind to the stimulation condition) with particu-
software.
lar attention to residual contamination of the EEG epochs
due to eye or muscle artifacts. As a result, weRESULTS considered
only epochs completely free from artifacts for the statistical
Behavioral Results
analyses. To ensure an adequate signal-to-noise ratio in the
ERPs, we excluded participants with Perceived
fewer value of the25
than branded products (PERVAL). The
artifact-
free epochs per condition (Alone, results
Together) in questionnaires
of the PERVAL each brand lend support to Hj . As

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 Attention to Luxury Products 551

expected, participantParietal-distributed
ratingsLPPs on the
showed emotion
strong positivity from 500
sion, on a seven-point
ms torating
700 ms after thescale
onset of the (7 =
luxury "strong
branded product
differed as a function of (see
pictures brand type.
Figure 2, left The
panel). There was no ANO
such
tors questionnaire type
enhanced (luxury before
positivity for basic branded productbasic,
pictures.
luxury) and brand type
However,(basic,
this emotionluxury)
effect was shapedrevealed
by condition.
main effect for brand type
Specifically, (F(l,
the emotional 28)
effect was present=
only157.
in the
Pairwise brand-type contrasts indicated
Together condition, from a signif
500 ms to 700 ms after stimulus
ence on emotional dimension ratings
onset (see Figure 2, left panel). betw
To test these observations,
branded products (M = 5.91, SD = .93) and
we computed ANOVAs on ERPs from the left (C3, P3, Ol), b
products (M = 2.90,midline
SD(Cz, =Pz,1.12);
Oz), and right t(58) = areas
(C4, P4, 02) scalp 13.5 at
There was no significant
the threemain effect
time windows: P2 (150-250 of
ms), P3questi
(250-450
28) = .31,/? = .57), and the interaction
ms), and LPP (500-700 ms). effect b
tionnaire and brand was also not significant (F
P2 (150-250 ms). A repeated measures ANOVA on the
p = .39). Cronbach's alpha of the five items use
P2 mean amplitude in the 150-250 ms time window showed
the emotional value dimension was .92 for the set of basic
significant main effects of condition (F(l, 39) = 9.09, p =
branded products and .90 for the luxury branded product set.
.004) and laterality (F(2, 78) = 17.70,/? < .001, = .885). The
Self -report of experienced comfort between conditions.
condition effect showed that P2 mean amplitude was sig-
Most participants in the EEG experiment reported that they
nificantly lower in the Alone condition (M = 1 .39 ±2.23 piV)
felt no difference in comfort watching the branded product
than in the Together condition (M = 2.41 ±2.82 'iV). Pair-
pictures in either the Alone or Together condition (Alone =
22.5%; no difference = 72.5%; Together = 5%). wise laterality contrasts revealed that P2 mean amplitude
was significantly different between left (M = 2.48 ±2.49
ERPs |xV) and midline (M = 1.65 ±2.45 t(39) = 5.18,/? <
The overall shape of the ERPs was similar for luxury and.001) and between left (M = 2.48 ±2.49 jxV) and right (M =
basic branded products across conditions (Alone, Together)1.58 ±2.22 'xY; t(39) = 4.61,/? < .001) scalp areas. There
and, as we expected, characterized by P2, P3, and LPP com-no significant difference between laterality midline and
was
ponents. We identified a condition effect for both luxury right
and scalp areas (/? = .641). All pairwise comparisons were
basic branded product pictures. Early posterior- (parieto-at the 5% level (Bonferroni corrected). The main effects
occipital) distributed ERPs in the Together condition werewere not quantified by significant interaction effects. In
more positive-going than ERPs in the Alone condition (see summary, the results indicated more enhanced P2 amplitude
Figure 1, left panel). Importantly, however, and consistent
in the Together than the Alone condition over occipital scalp
with previous findings, we found an emotion effect: sites (see Figure 1 , right panel).

Figure 1
P2 CONDITION EFFECT

Notes: The left panel depicts grand mean ERP waveforms from the Oz electrode, elicited by viewing basic products (Alone, Together) and luxur
products (Alone, Together). The right side depicts scalp topographies for the difference between conditions (Together minus Alone) within the in
marked by the blue-shaded area (150-250 ms) in the ERP plot. Mean P2 amplitude was significantly higher in the Together than the Alone conditi
occipital scalp locations (red).

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 552 JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, AUGUST 201 5

Figure 2
LPP EFFECT OF BRAND TYPE

Notes: The left panel depicts grand mean ERP waveforms from the Pz electrode, elicited by viewing basic products (Alone, Together) and luxury p
(Alone, Together). The right side depicts scalp topographies for the difference between brand-type (Luxury minus Basic) waves for both Alone
Together (right) conditions within the interval marked by the blue-shaded area (500-700 ms) in the ERP plot. There was no significant difference betw
LPP amplitude of basic and luxury branded product pictures in the Alone condition. However, in the Together condition, LPP mean amplitude was h
luxury than basic branded product pictures in the centroparietal scalp locations (red).

P3 (250-450 ms). A repeated measures ANOVA on More P3 important, these main effects were qualified by a
mean amplitude in the 250-450 ms time window revealed third-order condition x brand x laterality interaction (F(2,
significant main effects of condition (F(l, 39) = 6.03, 78)p==3.37,/? < .040, = .992). Pairwise basic versus luxury
contrasts at each laterality position revealed that the LPP
.019) and laterality (F(2, 78) = 14.17,/? < .001, = .916). The
P3 mean amplitude was significantly lower in the Alonebrand con- effect was significant for all lateral positions in the
dition (M = 2.01 ±2.80 jaV) than in the Together condition Together condition, with the LPP amplitude higher for lux-
ury than basic. Particularly in laterality left, the LPP mean
(M = 3.17 ±3.23 fxV). Pairwise laterality contrasts revealed
that P3 mean amplitude was significantly different between amplitude for luxury (M = 4.25 ±3.25 jiV) was significantly
higher
left (M = 3.14 ±2.89 'xV) and midline (M = 1 .96 ±2.88 'iV ; than that for basic (M = 3.12 ±3.84 fxV; /? = .013). In
t(39) = 6.16,/? < .001) and between midline (M = 1.96 ±2.88laterality midline, the LPP amplitude for luxury (M = 3.59
|aV) and right (M = 2.67 ±2.46; t(39) = - 3.18,/? = .003) ±3.38
scalp |iV) was again significantly higher than that for basic
(M = 2.07 ±3.56 (XV; /? = .001). Finally, in laterality right,
areas. There was no significant difference between laterality
left and right (/? = .07). All pairwise comparisons are at the LPP amplitude for luxury (M = 3.92 ±3.08 ^iV) was sig-
the
nificantly
5% level (Bonferroni corrected). In summary, the results indi- higher than that for basic (M = 2.56 ±3.03 ^iV; p =
.001; see Figure 2). However, the LPP brand effect was not
cated more enhanced P3 amplitude in the Together than the
significant in any lateral positions for the Alone condition
Alone condition, which was most robust over lateral parieto-
(left: p = .341; midline: p = .374; right: p = .927 ; see Figure
occipital scalp sites (see Figure 3, right panel).
4). This implies that participants had greater late parietal
LPP (500-700 ms). A repeated measures ANOVA with
activation for luxury branded products than for basic
condition (Alone, Together), brand (basic, luxury), and lat-
branded products when they were in the Together condition
erality (left, midline, right) as within-subject factors on the
than in the Alone condition (see Figure 2, right panel).
LPP mean amplitude in the 500-700 ms time window
revealed significant main effects of laterality (F(2, 78) = DISCUSSION
9.67,/? < .001, = .976) and brand (F(l, 39) = 13.58,/? This
= study primarily investigates whether the mere pres-
.001). Pairwise laterality contrasts revealed that LPP mean
ence of others modulates attention allocation during passive
amplitude was significantly different between left (M =viewing
3.23 of emotionally significant marketing stimuli. In
±2.44 'iV) and midline (M = 2.44 ±2.41 'iV ; t(39) = line
4.67,with H1? we found that luxury branded products hav
/? < .001), between left (M = 3.23 ±2.44 ^V) and right (M =
higher emotional value than basic branded products. Th
2.80 ±2.10 fxV; t(39) = 2.24,/? = .031), and between physiological
mid- results provide partial support for H2. The P2
line (M = 2.44 ±2.41 nV) and right (M = 2.80 ±2.10and ^iV;P3, but not the LPP, amplitudes were reliably enhanced
t(39) = -2.02,/? = .05) scalp areas. The LPP mean ampli-
by the mere presence of others, regardless of the emotiona
tude was significantly higher in luxury (M = 3.22 ±2.25
significance of the presented marketing visual stimuli
jxV) than in basic (M = 2.42 ±2.41 ^iV). However, there
Although all the results were in the predicted direction, th
was no significant main effect of condition (F(l, main
39) = condition effect of LPP did not reach statistical signifi
2.55,/? = .118). All pairwise comparisons are at the 5% This suggests that the LPP is less sensitive to general
cance.
level (Bonferroni corrected). nondirective arousal elicited by the social context and prob-

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 Attention to Luxury Products 553

Figure 3
P3 CONDITION EFFECT

Notes: The left panel depicts grand mean ERP waveforms from the Oz electrode, elicited by viewing basic products (Alone, Together) and
(Alone, Together). The right side depicts scalp topographies for the difference between conditions (Together minus Alone) within the inte
blue-shaded area (250-450 ms) in the ERP plot. Mean P3 amplitude is significantly higher in the Together than the Alone condition in the p
occipital) scalp location (red).

Figure 4
LPP (500-700 MS) MEAN AREA MEASURES FOR BASIC VERSUS LUXURY BRANDED PRODUCTS AS A FUNCTION OF CONDITION
(ALONE, TOGETHER) AND LATERALITY (LEFT, MIDLINE, AND RIGHT)

Notes: The LPP mean amplitude was significantly different between luxury and basic branded product pictures only in Together for all three posterior later-
ality areas. There was no significant difference between luxury and basic branded product pictures in the Alone condition.

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554 JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, AUGUST 201 5

mere presence
ably more sensitive to sustained motivated attention of others
elicitedamplifies the
which in our case
by actual emotionally significant stimuli. is the allocation
Finally, of attentionin
largely to emotion-
ally significant
line with H3, viewing luxury branded products marketing visual stimuli.
resulted in a Zajonc (1965)
more enhanced LPP amplitude in the speculated that the arousal
Together versusprovoked by the mere presence
Alone
of others
condition than viewing basic branded is a physiological
products. process occurring
Although in in the body
and brain, especially
the Alone condition the LPP was slightly higher in theforautonomic
the nervous
lux- system, but
he did not did
ury than the basic brands, the difference examinenot how arousal statis-
reach affects brain processes.
tical significance. This suggestsRecently,
that Sarathe
(2009)
luxury
showed that
brands
attention behavior to
stimuli is also affected
hardly attracted more sustained motivated attentionby arousal processes
than the involving the
basic brands. As the brand type x condition
production interaction
of norepinephrine in the brain stem, which
clearly demonstrates, only in theaffects
Togetherfunctioningcondition
of other parts in was
the brain. That people
more motivated attention directedpayto the to
attention luxury
marketing than to thewhen they are
stimuli differently
basic branded products. with others fits well with observations that have emerged in
qualitative marketing research, such as the observation that
Theoretical and Practical Implications
consumers cocreate the meaning of these stimuli with others
The results conform to previous (for a review,in
studies see the
Schau,literature,
Muñiz, and Arnould 2009). Note
that Schau,
which qualify LPP modulation during the Muñiz, and Arnould
passive (2009) base their work on
viewing
of pictures as a key ERP index ofresearch
attentionin social construction
allocation theory andin sociology, covering
motivational significance (Bradleylonger
et periods
al. 2007; Ferrari
than investigated et
in our al. such as people
study,
2011; Hajcak, MacNamara, and Olvet
visiting baseball2010).
games on a However,
regular basis. However, in our
work, the two suggest
extending previous research, our findings participants didthat
not know each other, but their
social
context, defined here as the condition of noninteractive
copresence affected their attention resources, even presum-
mere presence of another person, modulates
ably unconsciously. We might motivated
assume that this attention to
attention to emotionally significant marketing
emotionally stimuli.
significant stimuli, which wasIn amplified by the
simple effect,
terms of the temporal course of this social context, constitutes a baseline
compared with or foundation
for the
basic branded product pictures, the LPP cocreation of meaning
elicited by of luxury
marketing-related stimuli
branded product pictures differed to which
in the Schau, Muñiz, and Arnould
500-700 ms time allude (see also
window after stimulus onset (e.g.,Beckes
De and Coan 2011).
Cesarei andZajonc (1965) emphasizes the evo-
Codispoti
2006; Doleos and Cabeza 2002; Hajcak, Moser,
lutionary roots, observableand
even in Simons
insects, of social facilita-
tion. Therefore, the
2006). Regarding the spatial lateralization of modulation of attention resources to
the emotion
emotionally
effect, we found higher left and right significant visual stimuli
hemisphere mean in LPP
the mere presence
amplitudes. These results are consistent with
conditions is most likely previous
an unconscious process. In support
of this conclusion,
research findings that show stronger emotion immediately
effects after the
overexperiment, we
the right parieto-occipital sites asked participants
(Doleos and whether
Cabezathey felt that viewing the
2002;
branded
Jünghofer et al. 2001; Schupp et al. product Consistent
2003). pictures during the with
Alone and Together
our findings, Keil et al. (2002) present
conditions evidence
was the same for
or different (i.e., "equally comfort-
enhanced LPP mean amplitudes overable").
the Surprisingly, 72.5% of the participants answered that
left posteroinferior/
posterosuperior sites compared withthey
the felt no difference
right between viewing the marketing
posteroinferior/
visual stimuli
posterosuperior sites for emotional versusin either condition. Thus,
neutral neuroscience can
visual
stimuli. Importantly, however, all help uncover processes
marketing that people
stimuli used are in
not consciously
our experiment are not completely aware of and thusBasic
neutral. complement traditional marketing
branded
product pictures imply a certain research
level of methods, such as self-reports,
emotional value, which might be
though this was significantly lowerinsensitive
than to attention
that forand the
other processes
luxury and give mis-
leading conclusions.
pictures, as suggested by the behavioral results. This made
Perhaps the
it more challenging to find significant most noteworthy
ERP brand finding
differ- was that when peo-
ple viewed
ences, thus providing a tougher test marketing-relevantthan
of hypotheses stimuli in the Together ver-
non-
sus Alone conducted
marketing electrophysiological studies condition, the more
toemotionally
date. intense visual
Furthermore, recent studies report stimuli
that elicited higher LPP mean
emotional amplitudes. This increase
processing
in LPP amplitude
elicited by pictures, faces, and words may might be conceived
be similar as a brain
in signature of
terms of their spatial and temporalthecharacteristics
enhanced allocation of relevant processing
(Kissler etresources to
al. 2007; Schacht and Sommer 2009). Therefore,
promote our
and speed up a proper find-
response to stimuli carrying
evolutionary
ings likely generalize across different significance
stimuli (Lang, Bradley,
relevant to and Cuthbert
marketing communication. 1997). Fast preferential reactions to emotionally significant
stimuli
Marketing is a social activity, and much are considered
work biologically
has already adaptive because they
usually stand
alluded to this dimension of consumer for objects that,
behavior if experienced
(e.g., Argo, in reality,
would most likely enhance
Dahl, and Morales 2008). The physiological resultsor diminish
ofpersonal
our well-being.
study confirm the regulatory role of Practically,
mere these findings have on
presence several implications for
con-
marketers.attend
sumer behavior. In other words, people First, regardless of the level of emotional
differently to signifi-
visual marketing stimuli when viewedcance of alone
the specific brandedin
than product,
themarketers
co- should try
presence of others. Our reasoning to iscreate
based social platforms
on social on which potential customers can
facilita-
tion theory, which assumes that the experience
arousal brand advertising
produced intensely.
by Social
thecontexts are

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Attention to Luxury Products 555

likely to enhance customer

research, engagement
borrowing fro
increased nondirectiveexperimental arousal, such psychology,
as nons
tion engagement withing branded advertising products, in isolatio in
manifestation that has this a brand approach focus, has merit,
beyond
theoretically interesting a
resulting from motivational drivers" (Van Doo
to which it contributes.
p. 254). In retail settings, the mere presence o
sumers in places where shoppers
Introducing social context into the congregate
field of neuromarket- m
feelings of pleasure, desire,
ing could help scholars and joy.
gain a better In the
understanding of the digi
presence might unfold different even
brain processesin taking virtual
place as people, alone comm
or
Naylor, Lamberton, and West 2012).
with others, view relevant marketing stimuli. These insights
Second, more emotionally
can help marketers make significant
better predictions about consumer brand
pictures evoke more emotionally
behavior; for example, what happens when motivate
people are
reflected by the superior-posterior
alone, are with others in an interaction or inLPP modu
a group, or even
is higher in the mere are presence
with others virtually (online) of likelyothers
involves different than
Marketers of luxury mental
branded processes with differentproducts
marketing implications should
(see
amplifying effect ofVenkatraman
mere et al. presence
2012). in emotio
cant visual stimuli (a caseFinally, the of "social
results indicate that EEG is a atmospher
fertile method to
1992), which is likely to motivational
study customer motivate engagement with people
emotionally to
viewing behavior. For example,
significant marketing materialswhen displaying brandedcustome
prod-
ing, one idea is
dress to the
ucts. Indeed, LPP is sales consultants
theoretically related to motivated atten- in
products on offer
(e.g., sales consultants
tion, which is likely modulated by the emotional value of at
stores are required tothewear
visual stimuli.the company's
For example, marketing researchers clot
clients can have the could
emotional
apply these implications toexperience
assess the effectiveness of of
people in a dynamic, printkinesthetic
ads. Imagine a marketing scenario way
that compareswearin
bill-
could buy. When selling luxury
boards or flyers. branded
The neuromarketer might suggest that produ
an
be appropriate to motivate
ad that evokes the highestcustomers
posterior LPP amplitude wouldto sh
(e.g., "Armani familyalsoand
be the mostfriends
likely to induce moresales progra
emotionally moti-
the mere presence of vated attention. A more productive and appropriate way to thei
others enhances
experience with a certain brand.
approach questions Store
on the effectiveness manage
of certain market-
people to show interest in might
ing materials the be toluxury
combine EEG methods branded
with
group settings, analogous to the
behavioral measures, wayGoing
such as self-reports. someone step pre
didates organize town hall meetings full
further, researchers in neuromarketing could take advantage of
stimulating the mereof presence effect (see
the temporal and spatial resolution of EEG and fMRI, Tur
man 2000). Alternatively,
respectively, with the retailers might
aim to achieve higher predictive
choose to place their stores
validity in and
(Camerer, Loewenstein, close
Prelec 2005). proxim
stores. However, marketers should be aware th
Further Research
consumers, merely seeing other people wea
products might make Goalsthem
determine whatfeel
people give uneasy
attention to (Plass- (e.g
Laurent 1994). Such mann,
consumers might experi
Rams0y, and Milosavljevic 2012; Wang and Griske-
jealousy when surrounded by
vicius 2014), and people
thus further wearing
research could examine l
ucts or watching people
whetherfascinated by
goals in a social context are likely luxury
to modify the p
Third, our
researchwayshows the value
people attend to emotionally and ro
significant marketing
neuroscience methods insuch
stimuli consumer research.
as luxury and basic branded products. For M
research was conducted with people acting
example, instead of having consumers only passively view a
not consider the possible
pictures ofeffects of research
products in an experiment, social could askconte
the results of our work
them if they wanted to choose one product or buy shoes res
indicate that brain
passive viewing of emotionally significant
they could wear to a party or business meeting. Doing so mar
uli differ in the Alone
would modifyand Together
their attention condit
behavior, which is likely to be
responses in the Alone
reflected by early or late ERP modulations, thereby eventu- to p
condition are used
behavior, whether related topreferences,
ally affecting liking, marketing and choice. (Bern
2012) or health (Falk Our et al.
sample 2010)
consisted contexts,
of female undergraduate students, th
nals gathered are likely
given thatto have
the preselected low
marketing predictive
visual stimuli were most
Ariely and Berns 2010; Venkatraman
relevant to women and we wanted to avoid gender et al. 201
confounds
rent findings resonate with previous observat
and reduce resources needed to conduct our experiment.
laboratory experimentsHowever,tofuture gauge
researchers could advertising
conduct a similar study e
and the elaboration
of
with malemarketing
participants viewing luxury versus messages.
basic branded
Stewart (1992, notes, p. 13)
products relevant to men, such as cars, sport watches, and
Advertising has become business clothing.
a part Furthermore,
of dothe men attend to gender- fabr
social
society. It is expectedrelevant
and stimuli (e.g., lingerie) in theby
accepted same way as women?
consumers
not, however, a phenomenon
Would the same patterns that isbehavior
in attention easily under
arise using
outside the context in which
gender-relevant it occurs.
branded product pictures? ResearchersAdvert
could

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 556 JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, AUGUST 201 5

design different social contexts for viewing

Britton, stimuli.
Jennifer C., For
Stephan F. Taylor, Keith D. Sudheimer, and
example, what would happen if men and women
Israel Liberzon watched
(2006), "Facial Expressions and Complex IAPS
marketing stimuli together? Using Pictures:
the same marketing
Common and Differential Networks," Neurolmage , 31
(2), 906-919.
visual stimuli applied in our study, researchers could then
test whether emotional responses, suchCacioppo,
as John T., Gary G. Berntson, and Stephen L. Crites
embarrassment,
play a role at the level of attention(1996),
in "Social
consumerNeuroscience:choice
Principles of Psychophysiologi-
(Dahl, Manchanda, and Argo 2001). Embarrassment,
cal Arousal and Response," a inself-
Social Psychology : Handbook of
conscious emotion that happens suddenly and in
Basic Principles relation
, E. Tory Higgins andtoArie W. Kruglanski, eds.
New York: Guilford, hardwired
the presented self, is assumed to be a biologically 72-101 .
response indicating submission to a reference group (e.g.,
Keltner and Bus well 1997). If so, EEG research
(1994), might
"Bioelectrical Echoes from Evaluative C
explain embarrassment occurring in socialI. A Late Positive
context Brain Potential
better That Varies as a Function of
than self-reports because it is less susceptible
Trait Negativity to
andevaluation
Extremity," Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology , 67 (1), 115-25.
apprehension and social desirability effects.
Camerer,
Finally, the participants in our study hadColin, George Loewenstein,
a similar social and Drazen Prelec (2005),
"Neuroeconomics:
status, so we must be cautious in generalizing our How Neuroscience Can Inform Economics,"
findings.
Further research could investigate the Journal
role of of Economic
socialLiterature
status , 43
in(1), 9-64.
modulating consumer brain responses Carretié, Luis, Manuel Martín-Loeches,
to emotionally signifi- José A. Hinojosa, and
Francisco
cant marketing stimuli in different social Mercado (2001),
contexts. "Emotion and Attention Interaction
Additional
research could also determine what might happen
Studied Through in social
Event-Related Potentials," Journal of Cogni-
contexts when people with modest incomestive Neuroscience, 13 (8), 1109-28.
watch marketing-
relevant products (e.g., luxury goods) with a person dressed
in luxury brands, thus signaling higher(2001), "Emotion,
social status. Attention, and the 'Neg
Perhaps
feelings of envy would emerge as theyThrough Event-Related Potentials," Int
compare themselves
Psy chophysiology,
and find that they are lower in status (e.g., Mandel, Petrova,41 (1), 75-85.
and Cialdini 2006; Salovey and Rodin Codispoti,
1984). Maurizio, Vera Ferrari, and
(2006), "Repetitive Picture Processing: Au
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