Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ramon C. Reyes (1989)
Ground and Norm of Morality: Ethics for College Students
From . Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila Press. Pp. 16.
A Etymology
Etymologically, the word “ ETHICS
” comes from the Greek word ethos
meaning customs, usage,
character. The Roman language and culture, which inherited the Greek culture, expressed the
same concept in the word mores MORALITY
, which in turn is the root of the words “ MORAL
,” “ ,” and
“MORALS.” We see then that “ethics” and “morals” are ordinarily used as equivalent terms. In
general, they mean the traditional manners, customs, habits, or character of a community or
group, which pertain to the group’s standards or norms, or what is sometimes called the group’s
“system of values” which determines what is considered “good,” “right,” or the “proper” way of
living, of acting, of doing.
B Norms of Morality
Such a broad concept, however, needs further precision for we see immediately that there are
various meanings of the expression of “what is proper,” or “what is good and right.” Hence we
talk sometimes of the “right man for the job,” or “the proper political action to take,” or “good
manners at table,” or “a good and just man.” What this means is that, within the broad ethos or
mores of a community, there are several different standards to be found.
Upon closer analysis, we can distinguish at least four types of norms or standards within
ethos
the mores
or of a community. There is what may be called the technical norm . This
refers mainly to man’s needs which come from his bodily spacetime limitations. This norm has
to do with survival, health and wellbeing. It is concerned with problems of effecting change, of
transforming the natural world, the problems of coping with natural forces, both within and
without the human organism. Thus, the technical norm is concerned with the techniques of
relating means to ends and the techniques of healing and health, of work, production, and
organization. Therefore, because of its survival and wellbeing, every community prescribes
certain proper ways of working and doing things. For example, there are the “right” things to
eat, the “accepted” way of performing an appendectomy, the “right” way of preparing the field for
planting rice, the “correct” way of constructing the roof of a house, the “established” way of
dividing the work so that certain things are done by men, others by women. Because of this
technical norm certain community members are considered “good,” meaning good workers,
industrious, efficient, and productive. Others are considered lazy, goodfornothing, inefficient.
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Third is the
aesthetic norm . This refers to typical perceptual forms, regarding color,
shape, space, movement, sound, feeling and emotion, touch and texture, taste, scent and odor,
both in the natural and in the manmade environment, which are considered by the community
as “ennobling,” “cathartic,” “heightening man’s existence,” or “beautiful,” because they represent
a certain free play and celebration of the human spirit.
Fourth is the
ethical or
moral norm in the narrower or stricter sense. In the life of the
community, the ethical or moral norm combines with religion to form what is sometimes referred
to as the “ethicoreligious” norm. The moral norm refers to some ideal vision of man, an ideal
stage or perfection of man, which serves as the ultimate goal and norm. In relation to moral
norm man and his actions are judged to be right or wrong, good or bad. Because of this ideal
vision of man, a community has what is sometimes called the “nonnegotiables,” those things
which the community cherishes and considers of ultimate worth, which give ultimate sense and
direction to human existence. Therefore, all the other norms—technical, societal,
aesthetic—are to be subordinated to this moral norm.
C Definition of Morality
In a narrower and stricter sense, therefore, ethics or morality refers to that dimension of human
existence whereby man confronts or finds himself, an ideal vision of man, or an ideal state and
goal of his existence which he finds himself oriented toward. The ideal vision thus constitutes
for him an exigency, a demand to action in accord with the ideal vision and goal. By the same
token, this ideal vision of man constitutes a fundamental norm in relation to which his life and
actions are judged to be either right or wrong, good or bad. Right and wrong mean literally
being straight or not, in line with, in conformity or not, with the norm. Good and bad are often
used as equivalents of right and wrong. However, in more precise language, right and wrong
refer specifically to that which is morally binding or obligatory. Thus, the right action is that
which we ought to do or ought to have done, the wrong action that which we ought to refrain
from or ought to have refrained from doing. On the other hand, good and bad have the
connotation of that which is in conformity or not with the goal. Therefore, good and bad signify
fulfillment, completion, perfection or not. Some moral theories are considered to be
“deontological,” because they put more stress on the aspect of moral duty and obligation. (The
term “deontology” was originally coined by Jeremy Bentham in his work, Deontology or the
Science of Morality, published posthumously in 1834.) Other theories are “teleological”
(telos—end, fulfillment, realization), because they put more emphasis on morality as the
attainment of man’s end, fulfillment and happiness.
D The Concept of Value
Related to the concepts of “ethics,” “morality,” “good and bad,” “right and wrong,” is the concept
of more recent usage, that of “value.” “Value,” in general, means what an individual or a group
deems to be useful, desirable, or significant. The concept of the “good” has an ontological bias
toward that which is objectively the goal or fulfillment of the being of man, and the “right” has the
connotation of moral obligation or duty which imposes itself on man. But “value,” which is of
more recent origin stresses the relation to some aspect of the human subjectivity. Value is that
which corresponds to some need, desire or yearning of the human subject. Insofar as a thing
responds to a human need, desire or yearning, it is a value, or is of value. Value, however, is
sometimes used to refer to the qualities of a thing which make it actually desirable by man or
which should make it intrinsically desirable to him because it answers a human need, desire or
yearning. Like the various norms and levels of meaning of goodness and propriety within the
Reyes (1989) Page 2
broad concept of ethos mores
or we saw above, “value” also may be differentiated into various
senses or levels (material value, societal value, aesthetic value, moral value) corresponding to
the different needs and yearnings of man. Sometimes value means what the human individual
actually desires. At other times, it refers to what a group desires and thus prescribes for the
individual member as something to be desired. Finally, particularly when applied to moral value,
value means what is intrinsically desirable, and thus what should be desirable for all men and all
groups.
The concepts of ethos
and mores indicate that the ethical or moral dimension of human
existence is something which man is initiated into by the life and tradition of the community.
Born into and raised within the milieu of communal life, the individual human being imbibes the
culture of his community in all its aspects—technical, societal, aesthetic, ethicoreligious. As he
grows up within the community, he is trained in basic skills and eventually prepared for an
occupation or profession. He is taught within the family and thereafter through other groups and
institutions—peers, school, private associations, work group—the societal rules and manners of
the community. From his natural and social environment he assimilates the aesthetic forms,
tastes, and style of the community. Throughout his life, he imbibes the moral and religious
traditions and practices of the community.
We see, therefore, that ethics or morality does not begin as an idea or theory of a moral
philosopher. Ethics or morality is essentially a dimension of man’s existence as a
sociohistorical being. [...] Man is first initiated into moral experience and life by the community.
Moral experience and life are part of the culture handed down ( to hand over,
trado, tradere—
thus trade, tradition) to man by society and history.
E Moral Reflection
This traditional moral life and experience, however, which we inherit as part of our communal
culture, soon leads to something which brings about its transformation, namely, moral reflection
or moral philosophy. There are several factors which lead to this transformation.
First, the process of psychological maturation, eventually involves the appropriation, the
“making our own,” the moral tradition that we inherit. As we grow to adulthood, we ask
questions about the moral principles and practices that we were taught, if only to comprehend
them and make them our own. By this process, what initially were merely traditional ways and
external moral precepts and impositions, become internalized, and become moral convictions
and reflected positions. Psychologists like [Lawrence] Kohlberg have made interesting studies
showing the psychological transformation of the moral perspective as the individual normally
develops into adulthood [“Stages of Moral Development”].
Second, the very nature of ethical or moral experience leads to moral reflection. Moral
experience, as we shall see later, essentially signifies some kind of an absolute demand or
obligation, addressed to the human individual as a human person, as an “I,” as a being of
intellect and will, who reflects and acts on his own account. Hence, inherent to morality is the
imperative of action. The imperative of action means basically an initiative, a movement
originating from the human individual himself. It is something that is his own and done on his
own responsibility, something he understands and willfully posits. Therefore, it implies some
reflection and freedom.
Reyes (1989) Page 3
Third, in its history, the community eventually encounters other cultures and thus, other
moral or ethical traditions. This encounter with other moral traditions inevitably leads one’s own
moral tradition to question itself in relation to the other traditions. Which one is the right one? Is
there a set of elements common to all the moral traditions? Is morality purely relative to the
community that one belongs to?
In brief, the ethical or moral tradition that we inherit naturally leads to a moment of moral
reflection or moral philosophy. The moral tradition that we inherit cannot remain for long as
purely “traditional,” or merely “what our elders have taught us.” In order for us to remain faithful
to this ethical or moral tradition that we inherit, we soon find ourselves necessarily reflecting
upon it, deepening our grasp of it, and taking seriously its profound meaning and implications for
our existence. In this sense, we may say that the ethical or moral tradition that we inherit is of
itself not sufficient. Traditional morality of its nature gives rise to the existential necessity of
moral reflection or moral philosophy. [END]
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