Socio-religious causes of Revolt of 1857

The racial discrimination by British against Indians, forceful conversion to Christianity and
Revolts of 1857 and other revolts against British Raj social reforms like abolition of Sati, 1829; legalization of widow remarriage, 1856 etc.
offended the orthodox elements of Indian society.

There were a serious of revolt and rebellion against the British rule because of inherent
conflicts in the interests of British Raj and Indians. Among those revolts, the Revolt of 1857
gave a serious jolt to the British Raj in India. Thus the Revolt of 1857 is an important
landmark in the history of India. As per the British historians it was the “Sepoy Mutiny”,
however according to Indian scholars it was the “First war of independence”.
Causes of the Revolt of 1857
The revolt of 1857 was a result of combination of political, economic, socio-religious and
military causes.
Military causes of Revolt of 1857
British discriminated against the Indian soldiers and adopted the policy of exclusion in the
service conditions and promotion by which the high and key posts were reserved only for
the Europeans.
Immediate causes of Revolt of 1857
The introduction of Enfield greased rifles whose cartridges were said to have a greased
cover made of beef and pork sparked off the revolt. It antagonized both Hindu and Muslim
soldiers

Political causes of Revolt of 1857 The course of events

The old aristocracy was alienated by British Raj on various pretexts. This alienation
reached at its apex level during the reign of Lord Dalhausie. He annexed various states and
Doctrine of Lapse became the most powerful instrument in annexation of Indian states.
According to Doctrine of Lapse, an Indian state was annexed by British if the ruler had no
natural heir. As a result the aristocracy was in the favor of uprooting the British Raj.
The leaders of the revolt were mainly from the aristocracy and had multiple grievances
against the British rule. For example, Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the
adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Avadh was annexed in 1856, on charges of mal-
administration. Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Sambhalpur were annexed owing to Doctrine of
lapse.
Economic causes of Revolt of 1857
The economic policy of the British Raj destroyed the Indian economy on all fronts.
The exorbitant tax rates from the cultivators, introduction of new land revenue
arrangements in India without proper understanding of the ground realities, forcibly
evictions and cruel methods to extract the land revenue resulted in breakdown of
traditional agrarian economy.

On March 29, 1857, an Indian sepoy of 34 Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey, killed two
British officers-Hugeson and Baugh-on parade at Barrackpore (near Calcutta).

The 7th Avadh regiment was disbanded as it defied its officers.

The mutiny really started at Merrut on 10th May 1857. The 3rd Native Infantry revolted.
The occasion was the punishment of some sepoys for their refusal to use the greased
cartridges. The soldiers along-with other groups of civilians, went on a rampage
shouting ‘Maro Firangi ko’. They broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their
houses and marched to Delhi after sunset.

The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning (i.e. 11th May) in Delhi was a
signal to the local soldiers, who in turn revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 82-
year old Bahadur Shah ‘Zafar’ , as Shahenshah-i-Hindustan (i.e. Emperor of India).

Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt spread to the different parts of India.

South India remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally affected.

The British allies during the revolt were Sindhia, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the
Begum of Bhopal.
Major Centres of Revolt of 1857 and the events:

Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and destruction of traditional

S. Date of Date of British
handicrafts resulted into deindustrialization and thousands of artisans suffered. Indian Leader
No. Centre Beginning Ending officer
The drain of wealth from India to Britain without any quid-pro-quo and distorted pattern 11 May, Bahadur Shah II ‘Zafar’ John
of foreign trade, wherein the raw material were exported from India while finished goods 1 Delhi 20 Sep.,1857
1857 and Bakht Khan Nicholson
were imported had serious implications.
2 Kanpur 4 June, 1857 6 Dec., 1857 Nana Sahib and his loyal Colin
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 Causes of failure of Revolt of 1857
S. Date of Date of British
Indian Leader The following were the causes of failure:
No. Centre Beginning Ending officer
1. British Raj was better equipped with the technology and equipments as compared to
Commander Tantiya Campbell the revolutionaries. It had some brilliant officers which played key role in suppressing
Tope the revolt.
Colin 2. The revolt didn’t spread to entire country. South India remained quiet and Punjab and
3 Lucknow 4 June, 1857 21 Mar., 1858 Begum Hazrat Mahal
Campbell Bengal were only marginally affected.
4 Jhansi 4 June, 1857 18 June, 1858 Rani Laxmi Bai Huge Rose 3. Disunity of Indians and poor planning.
4. There was no vision for the post mutiny institutions and the leaders didn’t have the
5 Allahabad 5 June, 1857 March, 1858 Liyaqat Ali Colonel Neil forward looking program.
William 5. Lack of complete nationalism-Scindias, Holkars, Nizam and others actively helped the
Kuer Singh and Amar
6 Jagdishpur Aug., 1857 Dec., 1858 Taylor and British.
Singh
Vincet Eyre 6. Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes.

The nature of revolt Impact of the Revolt of 1857

As per the British historians the revolt was merely a “Sepoy mutiny”, on the other hand as
per the Indian scholars it was the first war of independence. However, the exact nature of
the revolt was somewhat between these extreme views.

It was not just the “Sepoy mutiny” because it was a popular revolt against the British
imperialism. The revolt was not just confined to the sepoys or soldiers, but was much
broader in base. The civilian population, aristocracy, peasants, religious leaders etc
played active role in the revolt.

The revolt was also not the first war of independence because of the following reasons:
1. India was merely a geographical term at that time; it was only during the early
20th century that a pan Indian consciousness generated in India.It was also not the
“first” revolt as there were series of civil, tribal and military revolts that took place
before 1857.
2. The leaders of revolt like Rani Luxmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantya Tope, Begam Hazrat
Mahal etc had personal grievances against the British Raj.
3. Also the leaders like Nana Sahib, Rani Luxmibai and Bahadur Shah Zafar were
initially reluctant to join the revolt.
4. The aim of the leaders was not the independence of India, but to get back their
kingdoms which were annexed British on one pretext or the other.
1. The major impact of the revolt was the end of East India Company’s rule in India. By the
Government of India Act 1858, the British government took over the rule of India in its
own hand. A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of state for India
was made responsible for the governance of India.
2. The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy.
3. The revolt marked the end of British Imperialism and Princely States were assured
against annexation. The policy towards the native states changed from subordinate
isolation to that of subordinate union.
4. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of white soldiers in
the army.
5. India army was thoroughly reorganized and an ideology of martial race was developed
to recruit Sikhs and Gorkhas.
6. After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of ‘divine and rule’.
7. The British government decided not to interfere in the matter of religion of Indians.
This derailed the socio-religious reforms by government.
Important books on revolt of 1857

Book Author
It has been said that dead Julius Caesar was more powerful than Julius Caesar alive. The
same may be said about the Revolt of 1857. Whatever might have been its original The First Indian War of Independence-1857-59 Karl Marx
character; it soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British Empire in India and
remained a shining star for the rise and growth of the Indian national movement. Rebellion, 1857 : A Symposium P.C. Joshi
The Sepoy Mutiny & the rebellion of 1857 R.C. Mazumdar
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 Civil Rebellion in Indian Mutinies S.B. Chowdhury purification movement

1857 S.N. Sen Oraons (Tana

Jatra Bhagat & Other
16 Bhagat) 1914 Religious Reason
Causes of Indian Revolt Sayed Ahmad Khan Bhagats
The First War of Indian Independence V.D. Savarkar
17 Chenchus 1921-22 ------------ British control of forests.

The tribal revolt under British rule 18 Koyas/ Rampas 1922-24 Alluri Sitaram Raju British Rule
A reformist movement
Jadunang (1905-31) and
S. 19 Naga 1932 later directed against
Tribe Year Leaders Cause Rani Gaidinliu
No. excess of British rule
Excess Revenue demand,
1 Chuar 1766 Raja Jagannath The civil revolts under British rule
Bengal famine
2 Bhills 1817 Sewaram Agrarian hardship

Sanyasi (Bengal, 1780): lt was led by religious monks against British restrictions and
British occupation of ruin of peasantry.
3 Hos 1820 …………
Singhbhum
Kattabomman Revolt (1792-98): By Vira Pandya Kattabomman against imposition of
Chittur Singh, Pratap British Suzeraiity.
4 Ramosi 1822 British Rule
Singh, Dattaraya Patkar
Paik Revolt (Orissa, 1804-06): Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu against British occupation
5 Kolis 1824 …….. Dismantle of forests and revenue policy.

Velu Thampi (Travancore, 1805): Led by Velu Thampi against British extortions.
6 Ahom 1828-33 Gomadhar kunwar British occupation

Kittur Revolt (Karnataka, 1824): Led by Chinnama and Ryappa against British
7 Khasi 1829-32 Tiruth Singh British occupation interference in Kittur.
Land transfer to
Pagal Panthis (Maimansinh, 1825-33): Led by Karam Shah and Tipu. Religious
8 Kol 1831-32 Buddhu Bhagat nature.
outsiders

Raju (Vizag, 1827): Led by Birabhadra Raju.
9 Santhals 1855-56 Sidhu & Kanhu British Rule

Faraizi (1838): Led by Haji Saraitullah and Dadu Mian for cause of tenants.
For Dharma Raj against
Satavandi (Maharashtra, 1839): Led by Phond Savant and Anna Sahib against British
10 Naikda 1858 Rup Singh ban Joria Bhagat on rule.
grazing and timber

Kuka (1840): Led by Bhagat Jawahar Mal or Sian Saheb in Punjab.
11 Bhuyan & Juang 1867-68 Ratna Nayak Installation of British
Gadakari (1844): It was against revenue policy in Kolhapur.
12 1891 Dharni Nayak protégé on throne
Poligar (Karnool, 1846): It was led by Narasimha Reddy.
13 Kacha Nagas 1882 Sambhuden British intervention
Land system, Missionary
14 Munda (Ulgulam) 1899 Birsa Munda activity and Forced
labour
Formation of Congress and its moderate phase
15 Bhills 1913 Govind Guru A temperance and
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 The Indian National Congress was not the first organization that was formed in India. From
The Indian National Union was formed in 1884 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman and a
the mid 19th century there were many organizations which took up the political agenda. retired civil servant, in association with various national leaders who called for a
However, all the predecessors of the Indian National Congress were the regional conference in Pune in December 1885.
organization and lacked the pan India orientation.
The venue was shifted to Bombay for various reasons (esp. outbreak of plague at Pune).

Indian National Union was later renamed as Indian National Congress.
Some of the organizations that were the predecessors of Indian National Congress were as
follows:
The first session of the Indian national Congress was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit
College in Bombay under the presidentship of W.C. Bannerji and it was attended by 72
delegates from all over India.
S.
Organization Place Year Founder(s)
No.
The "Moderate" phase
1 Landholders Society Calcutta 1837 Dwarka Nath Tagore From 1885 to 1905 the leadership of INC was dominated by the leaders who are known as
moderates. They had the following views:
2 British India Society London 1839 William Adam
British India Association
They believe that British rule should continue in India as it was gradually preparing the
3 (Result of the merger of 1 and Calcutta 1851 Devendra Nath Tagore Indians to be capable for self rule
2)

They were of the view that if the British rule is uprooted in India, the anarchy of
4 Madras Native Association Madras 1852 C.Y. Mudaliar medieval age would return in India
5 Bombay Association Bombay 1852 Jagannath Shanker Sheth
The leaders of this phase were of the view that the bad plight of the Indians was due to
the negligence and apathy towards people by the civil servants of the company. They
6 East India Association London 1866 Dadabhai Naoroji firmly believed that if the grievances of Indians were notified to the British government
S.H. Chiplunkar, V.V. Joshi, M.G. the plight of Indians would improve.
7 Poona Sarvajanik Sabha Poona 1870
They adopted the 3 “P” i.e. Prayer, Petitions and Protests to ventilate their grievances
Ranade

The demands of this phase were elitist in nature like expansion to supreme and
8 Indian Society London 1872 Anand Mohan Bose
legislative councils, more funds for technical education, cuts in military expenditure,
9 Indian League Calcutta 1875 Shishir Kumar Ghosh Indianization of ICS exams etc.
Indian Association Anand Surendra Nath Bannerji & Anand
10 Calcutta 1876 Moderate Leaders
Mohan Bose Mohan Bose
Dada Naoroji, A.O. Hume, Badruddin Tayebji, M.G. Ranade, W.C. Bannerji, Ferozshah Mehta,
Surendra Nath Bannerji & Anand Surendra Nath Bannerji, C. Shankaran Naiyar, Madan Mohan Malviya, V.S. Shrinivas Shastri,
11 India National Conference Calcutta 1883
Mohan Bose Tej Bahadur Sapru, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Anand Mohan Bose, E. Dinesh Wacha, Ras
P.Rangia Naydu, V. Raghavechari, Bihari Ghosh, Mohan Lal Ghosh, P. Anand Charlu, C.Y. Chintamani, R.C. Dutt, S.
12 Madras Mahajan Sabha Madras 1884 Subrahmanyam Aiyer, K.T. Tailang, Madhusudan Das, Rahimtulla M. Sayani.
Anand Charlu, G.S. Aiyer
Bombay Presidency Ferozshah Mehta, K.T. Tailang & Extremist phase and Partition of Bengal
13 Bombay 1885
Association Badruddin Tyebji The INC was dominated by “extremists” from 1905-17. The emergence of extremist phase
was the result of various factors. However, the failure of moderates to bring about some
phenomenal change in India and the rise of political consciousness in India were the two
Formation of Congress main reasons for the emergence of extremists.

Reasons for the emergence of Extremists

7 8

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It was gradually realized that British Raj was exploitative in its character and there are
inherent conflicts in the interests of British Raj and the Indian masses.

The rise in vernacular newspapers and expansion of middle class expanded the political
base of the congress. As a result the elitist demands by Moderate no longer satisfied the
masses.

International influences and events which demolished the myth of European
supremacy. These events included-Abyssinia/Ethopia’s victory over Italy (1896), Boer
wars (1899-1902) in which the British faced reverse, Japan victory over Russia (1905).

Reactionary policies of Curzon such as Calcutta Cooperation Act (1905) and Partition of
Bengal.

Existence of a militant school of thought and emergence of a trained leadership.
A critique of Moderates
The Moderates were the forerunner in generating political consciousness in India, yet they
failed to achieve anything phenomenal in their dominance of two decades on INC. The
following are the reasons for their failure:
1. They failed to realize the true character of the imperial British Raj
2. They lived in an illusion that India was being prepared for the self rule by the British
Raj
3. They also were unable to recognize the fact that miserable condition of Indians was not
due to the apathy of bureaucracy but because of the inherent conflicts in the interests of
the two nations.
4. The moderate style of prayer and petitions was considered as dishonorable and was
considered as political mendicancy
Methods of Extremists
1. They used vernacular languages to propagate their ideas
2. They used the religion and culture as vehicles to gain popularity
3. They tried to evoke pride among the masses for the ancient religion and culture
4. They did not have faith in “prayers and protests”, rather they adopted mechanisms like
boycott, constructive work, political extremism passive resistance and non cooperation
5. They gave great emphasis on self reliance
Extremist leaders
1. Bal Gangadhar Tilak : ‘Lokmanya’ Tilak was the uncompromising leader of extremists
as was influenced by Agarkar, Ranade and Naoroji. He launched two newspapers the
Kesari (in Marathi) and the Maratha (in English). He organized Ganpati Festival (1893)
and Shivaji Festival (1895). He was deported to Mandlay Jail (Burma) for writing
9 10
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seditious articles. He started Home Rule League in 1916. He wrote Gita Rahasya. Tilak
asserted that: ‘Swarj is my Birth Right and I will have it.’
2. Lala Lajpat Rai : He was an extremist from Punjab. Under the influence of Arya Samaj
founded National School at Lahore, he presided over the AITUC in 1920. He boycotted
Simon Commission and demonstrated against it at Lohore during which he was brutally
assaulted by the police and succumbed to his injuries.
3. Bipin Chandra Pal: He discarded orthodox Hinduism and entered Brahmo Samaj and
visited England and America. He founded English weekly New India. He led the
Swadeshi movement. He carried gospels of Boycott, Swadeshi, National Education,
Swaraj and the Passive Resistance.
4. Sri Aurobindo Ghosh : He passed ICS exam with record marks in Greek & Latin. He had
European upbringing. He worked for secret societies in Bengal and Maharashtra. He
started Bengali daily Jugantar. He wrote seditious articles in “Vande Matram”. He was
trialed for Maniktalla (Calcutta) Bomb Conspiracy Case. He finally retired to the life of a
Yogi at Pondicherry.
The Partition of Bengal (1905)

The Partition of Bengal came into effect on October 16, 1905, in the reign of Viceroy
Lord Curzon.

The official stated reason for the partition was administrative convenience However the
main objective was to ‘Divide and Rule’ the most advanced region of the country at that
time.

The main reason for partition of Bengal was to destroy the political influence of the
educated middle class among whom the Bengali intelligentsia was the most prominent.
It also set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.

The INC unanimously condemned the partition of Bengal

The Boycott and Swadeshi movement was galvanized by the anti-partition movement
which was started to oppose the British decision to divide Bengal.

The INC took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905, presided over by G.K.
Gokhle.The extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilk, B.C. Pal, Arbindo Gosh and Lala
Lajpat Rai played an active role in the movement.
The Swadeshi movement in Bengal had three major trends:
1. To ignore the British Raj by constructive programs like promoting local industries,
national education etc
2. Political action based on passive resistance and boycott
3. Revolutionary terrorism.
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The events

On Aug 7, 1905, a resolution to boycott British goods was adopted at a meeting of the
INC held in Calcutta. It was started a purely economic measure for the development of
Indian industry.

Many social and political organizations mushroomed up during the Swadeshi wave in
Bengal. For example Krishna Kumar Mitra’s Anti Circular society, Pulin Das’s Dhaka
Anushilan Samiti and Ashwani Kumar’s Barisal Swadeshi Bandhav.

Bone fire of foreign goods was conducted on a large scale in all major cities.

Tilak took the movement to different parts of India especially in Pune and Mumbai.

Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Roy spread the Swadeshi message in Punjab and other parts
of Northern India.

Syed Haidar Raza set up the agenda in Delhi. Rawalpindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan and
Hardwar witnessed active participation in the Swadeshi Movement.

Chidambram Pillai took the movement to Madras Presidency which was also galvanized
by Bipin Chandra Pal’s extensive lecture tour.
Freedom Movement I (from 1905 to 1922)
Formation of Muslim League (1906)
In December, 1906, All India Muslim League was set up under the leadership of Aga Khan,
Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk at Dacca. It was the results of the
British policy of divide and rule along with the parochial vision of some Muslim elitist
leaders.
The League supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement and
demanded special safeguards for its community and a separate electorate of Muslims.
However, for sometime the leadership of League went into the hands of the Young and
nationalist leaders like Mohammad and Shakut Ali, Hasrat Mohani etc. these leaders were
pan-Islamic, militant and accommodating towards the Hindus. They also realized the true
character of British Raj and thus Muslim League and Congress formed a joint front.
Calcutta Session of INC (1906)
In Dec. 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under the leadership of Dada Bhai Naoroji adopted
‘Swaraj’ as the goal of Indian people. Naoroji in his presidential address declared that the
goal of the INC was ‘self government of Swaraj like that of United Kingdom’. The 4
important resolutions adopted by Congress in this session were:
11
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Swaraj

Swadeshi

National education

Boycott
Surat Split (1907)
The INC split into the two groups i.e. the extremists and the moderates at the Surat session
in 1907. The extremists were led by Tilak, Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal while the
moderates were led by Pheroz Shah Metha.
The extremists wanted to extend the agenda of swaraj, boycott, sawdeshi and national
education on the pan –Indian level. The reason for this was the success of Swadeshi
movement in Bengal. However, the moderates anticipated the reforms promised by the
British government and were in no mood to antagonize government with the revolutionary
agenda of the extremists.
After the Surat spilt the government launched a massive attack on the extremists by
suppressing the newspaper and arresting their main leader, Tilak, and sending him to
Mandalay Jail (Burma) for 6 years.
The extremists were not able to organize an effective alternative party or to sustain the
movement. Aurbindo Ghosh gave up politics and left for Pondicherry. Bipin Chandra Pal
also left politics temporarily. Lajpat Rai left for Britain. After 1908, the national movement
as a whole declined.
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)
Morley-Minto Reforms were introduced in 1909 during the period when Lord Minto was
the Viceroy of India while Morley was the secretary of the state. The reforms laid the
foundation of institutionalized communalism as per the policy of divide and rule by
introducing the separate electorates for Muslims.
As per the provisions of the reform Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates. This
was done to encourage the notion that the political, economic and cultural interests of
Hindus and Muslims were separate and not common. Indian political leaders were however
dissatisfied by these reforms.
In 1916 through the Locknow Pact, Congress and Muslim League joined the hands. One of
the important consequences of this union was the fact that Congress accepted the separate
electorates for Muslims.
Home Rule Movement (1915-16)
12
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 B.G Tilak was released from the Mandlay jail in the year 1914. In 1915 he reentered INC.
B.G. Tilak founded Indian Home Rule League at Pune on 28 April, 1916. Annie Besant,
inspired by the Irish rebellion, started Home Rule Movement in India in Sep., 1916. She
started two newspapers i.e. Young India and Commonweal. The leagues advocated passive
resistance and civil disobedience.
The movement spread rapidly and branches of the Home Rule League were established all
over India.
The activities of the league ended by the following two events:
1. Annie Besant accepted the proposed Montage-Chelmasford reforms
2. Tilak went abroad to for the libel suit against Valentine’s Chirol’s Indian Unrest.
Lucknow Pact-Congress-League Pact (1916)
An important step forward in achieving Hindu-Muslim unity was the Lucknow Pact (1916).
Anti-British feelings were generated among the Muslims following a war between Britain
and Turkey which opened way for Congress and Muslim League unity. Both the Congress
and the Muslim League held session at Lucknow in 1916 and concluded the famous
Lucknow pact. The congress accepted the separate electorate and both organizations
jointly demanded ‘dominion status’ for the country.
Montagu Declaration (August Declaration of 1917)
Montague made the landmark statement in the context of self rule in India in 1917. He said
that the control over the Indian government would be transferred gradually to the Indian
people. This was the result of Hindu-Muslim unity exhibited in Lucknow pact.
Rowlatt Act and Jaliawalla Bagh massacre
The First World War started in 1916, in order to gain support of Indians, the British
government promised many reforms after the completion of the war. The Government also
curtailed public liberties in India under “emergency measures” on the pretext of the War.
The war over in 1919 and Indians expected reforms as promised by the government.
Ironically instead of introducing reforms in India, the British government extended the
“emergency measures” for indefinite period on the recommendation of Rowlatt committee.
The Rowlatt Act was a law passed by the British in colonial India in March 1919.
Gandhi gave a call for Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act on April 6, 1919 and took
command of the nationalist movement for the first time. On April 6, a "hartal" was
organized where people suspended all the business and fast as a sign of their hatred for the
legislation. This is known as the Rowlatt satyagraha.
13
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In the Punjab the protest movement was very strong, and on April 10, two outstanding
leaders of the congress, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested and taken
to an unknown place.
To protest against the arrest of the two leaders, the protest took place at several places in
Punjab. A protest was held in Amritsar, which led to the infamous Jalliawalan massarce. At
Jalliawalan Bagh the British General Dyer opened fire at the peaceful protest meeting
without any warning. Gandhi returned back the title Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal and
Rabindra Nath Tagore return back his “Knighthood” to protest against Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.
Khilafat movement
The main objective of the Khilafat movement was to force the British Government to
change its attitude to Turkey and restore the Turkish Sultan to his former position. The All
India Khilafat Conference at Delhi called for the non cooperation and elected Gandhi as its
president (Nov. 1919).
The following events radicalized the Khilafat movement:

Treaty of Serves with Turkey was considered as too harsh by Muslims.

The Hunter commission report on Punjab disturbances which gave clean chit to General
Dyer in Jallianwala massacre
Non cooperation movement (1920-22)
The Non cooperation was the first mass movement launched under the leadership of
Gandhi. The following were the causes for the launch of the movement:
1. The Punjab wrongs and the Hunter commission report after which the House of Lords
in Britain favored the action of General Dyer.
2. The ill treatment of Turkey and Caliph by British after 1st World War. The Muslims
regarded the Caliph of Turkey as their spiritual head and were upset by the Treaty of
Serves by which the Caliph lost control over the holy places.
3. The Montague-Chelmsford reforms introduced diarchy which failed to satisfy Indians.
4. To achieve Swaraj.
The movement changed the goal of Congress. Prior to Non cooperation movement, the
Congress aimed at attainment of self rule by constitutional and legal means, which changed
to attainment of self rule by peaceful and legitimate means.
In order to galvanize the mass movement, the changes were made in the organizational
structure and the working of Congress as well. These changes were:
1. A working committee of 15 members came into being to look after the day-to-day
affairs.
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 2. The Provincial Congress Committees were organized for the first time on the linguistic
basis
3. In order to penetrate at local level the ward committees were formed at the village
levels
4. The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas per year to allow active participation of
economically weaker section as well.
The program of non-cooperation included:
1. Surrender of titles
2. Boycott of government affiliated educational institutions
3. Boycott of courts of law
4. Boycott of foreign cloth
5. Nonpayment of taxes
Chaura Chouri incidence (1922)
On 12th February 1922, the Non Cooperation Movement was called off by Gandhi because
of an unfortunate incidence at Chaura Chauri in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
In this incidence the crowd participating in the Non Cooperation and Khilafat procession
indulged into the violence with the police. As a result the crowd burnt a Police station and
in the incidence 22 policemen were killed.
Freedom Struggle II (from 1922-47)
The Sawraj party (1922)
After the withdrawal of the Non Cooperation movement, there was wide spread
demoralization and disorganization in the nationalists rank. Many nationalist began to
question the efficacy of Gandhian leadership.
During this time a new political strategy; to carry forward the struggle against the colonial
rule; was advocated by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru. These leaders were of the view that the
nationalists should end the boycott of legislative councils (as introduced by the Montague
Chelmsford reforms). These leaders advocated that the nationalists should enter these
councils, in order to expose these councils as “sham parliaments”.
C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru put forward this changed strategy in Gaya session (1922) of the
Congress. There were leaders in Congress like Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and
C.Rajgopalacharya who opposed these changes of council entry. The group within the
Congress which supported the changed strategy of council entry was called “Pro-Changers”
while those opposing the changes were called “No Changers”. However the proposal of the
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council entry was defeated in the Gaya session. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from
the Congress and formed the Swaraj Party.
The Swarajist claimed that they would transform the councils into the theatre of political
struggle. The councils would thus be wrecked from within by creating deadlocks on every
measure.
The elections for the legislative councils were held in November 1923, the Swarajist
performed well in the election. They won 42 out of 101 seats in the Central Legislative
Assembly, got a clear majority in the Central Provinces, they were the largest party in
Bengal; and did well in Bombay and U.P. However their performance was not good in
Madras and Punjab.
The Swarajists demanded the release all the political prisoners, provincial autonomy,
repealing of the repressive laws imposed by the government. However, after the death of
C.R. Das in 1925 they drifted towards a policy of cooperation with the government. This led
to dissension and the party broke up in 1926.
Simon Commission (1927)
The Conservative Government of Britain in 1927 feared the victory of Labour Party in the
forthcoming elections suddenly decided that Labour Party would give Congress more than
they desire. The Conservative Government formed Indian Statutory Commission, popularly
known as the Simon Commission to recommend whether India was ready for the further
constitutional progress and on which lines.
The peculiar feature of this commission was that no Indian was included in this
commission which was about to play a crucial role in deciding the future of India.
The Commission was boycotted in India, not only by Congress but also by Liberal
Federation, Hindu Mahasabha and large section in Muslim League.
Nehru’s Report (1928)
Lord Birkenhead, the Conservative Secretary of the State challenged Indians that they were
not capable to formulate a concrete scheme of the constitutional reforms which had the
support of wide section of political parties. He was of the view that a scheme of
constitutional reform made by one political party in India would be opposed by the others
and Indian political parties lacked the capabilities to form a consensus.
To meet this challenge All Parties Conferences were held in 1928. A scheme was finalized
which is popularly called “Nehru Report” as Motilal Nehru was its chief architect.
Features of the report:
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The report defined Dominion Status as its aim (not complete freedom)

It rejected the principle of separate electorates for Muslim.

The report recommended the reservation of Muslim at Centre and in provinces in which
they were in numerical majority, while it discarded reservation for Muslims in the
provinces in which they were in majority

The report recommended universal adult suffrage, equal rights for women, freedom to
form unions etc.
14 Points of Jinnah (March 9, 1929)
Jinnah, the leader of Muslim League, did not accept the Nehru Report. Jinnah thereafter
drew up a list of demands, which was called ’14 points of Jinnah’.
Lahore Session
At its annual session held in Lahore in Dec. 1929, under the presidentship of Jawaharlal
Nehru, the Indian National Congress passed a resolution declaring ‘Poorna Swaraj’
(Complete Independence) to be the goal of the national movement.
On Dec. 31, 1929, the newly adopted tricolor flag was unfurled and Jan 26 fixed as the
Independence Day which was to be celebrated every year, pleading to the people not to
submit to British rule any longer
Civil Disobedience Movement
Phase “I” of Civil Disobedience Movement
In 1929 at Lahore Session, Congress made the “Purna Swaraj” or the complete
independence as the aim of the Congress.
On 31st January 1930, Gandhi gave his ultimatum to Lord Irwin with his 11 point demand.
The Gandhi asked Irwin either to accept the 11 point demands else the Congress will
launch Civil Disobedience.
The demands were ignored by the British government. Thus Gandhi launched the Civil
Disobedience Movement with the Dandi march. It was from Sabarmati to Dandi . Gandhiji
along with his 78 followers broke the Salt Act.
The course of events

In Tamil Nadu C.Rajgopalacharya led the salt march from Trichinopoly to
VedranniyamIn Malabar, K.Kellapan walked from Calicut to Payannur

During this time Surya Sen raided the Chittagong ArmoryKhan Abdul Gaffar Khan’s
“Khudai Khidmatgars” were active in the North West Frontier Province
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The soldiers of Gharwal Rifles defied the orders of firing at the mob in North West
Frontier ProvinceThe working class participation was seen in the form of Sholapur mill
strike.

Gandhi was arrested in mid-May 1930

Congress working committee sanctioned non-payment of revenues in the provinces
where Ryotwari system prevailed and no Chowkidari tax campaign in the Zamindari
provinces and violation of forest laws in the central provinces

The no Chowkidari Tax campaign started in Eastern parts of the country

The government retaliated with an iron hand.
Gandhi Irwin Pact
While the Civil Disobedience movement was continuing the Simon Commission submitted
its report in 1930, the report nowhere talked about even Dominion Status. In a conciliatory
gesture, the Viceroy suggested the Round Table conference.
The first Round Table Conference was held on 9th July under the chairmanship of the
then Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay Macdonald. The congress along with most of the
business leaders (except Homi Modi) kept away from the conference. Muslim leaders like
Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Shafi, Aga Khan, Fazlul Haq, Jinnah etc, Hindu Mahasabha
leaders like Moonje and Jayakar, liberals like Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Shastri were
present.
The government made a gesture of goodwill by releasing Gandhi and other Congress
leaders. The Viceroy Irwin directly held talks with Gandhi. In Feb. 1931, the talks ended
with the famous Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
Terms and conditions of the pact

The terms included an immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of
violence

Remission of fines not collected

Return of confiscated property not sold

Right to make salt

Right to peaceful picketing
In return the Congress agreed to withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement and
participate in the second Round Table Conference
Second Round Table Conference was held on September 7, 1931. Gandhi was the sole
representative of the Congress. Gandhi demanded that a responsible government must be
established, immediately and in full, both at the Centre and in the Provinces. There was a
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 deadlock on the minority issue. The separate electorates were now demanded not only by
the Muslims but also by the depressed classes, Indian Christians and Europeans.
Phase “II” of Civil Disobedience Movement
After the failure of Second Round Table Conference, the working committee of the Congress
resumed Civil Disobedience in. The second phase of the Civil Disobedience movement
comprised of the wide range of activities, partly because the list of the activities declared
illegal by the Government had lengthened and civil liberties were almost suppressed.
The government took strong repressive measures to curb the movement.
Communal award and Poona Pact
Macdonald’s announced the communal awards in August 1932. This communal award
provided separate electorates for each minority i.e. Muslim, Christians and Sikhs. Apart
from these minorities the awards also provided the separate electorates to depressed
classes.
Gandhi began the fast unto death in opposition of the separate electorates for the
depressed classes. He demanded that representatives for the depressed classes should be
elected by the general electorates under a wide, if possible universal, common franchise. At
the same time he also didn’t object to the demand for a larger number of the reserved seats
for the depressed classes.
In the end the agreement known as Poona Pact broke the impasse; this agreement took
place between Gandhi and Dr B.R. Ambadkar (the leader of depressed class). As per this
Pact the idea of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes was abandoned but the
seats reserved for them in the provincial legislatures were increased from 71 in the award
to 147 and in the Central Legislature to 18% of the total.
The Government of India Act, 1935
The Simon Commission report submitted in 1930 formed the basis for the Government of
India Act, 1935. The new Government of India Act received the royal assent on Aur. 4,
1935. The continued and extended all the existing features of earlier constitutional
reforms. But in addition there were certain new principle introduced. It provided for a
federal type of government. Thus, the act:
1. Introduced provincial autonomy
2. Abolished diarchy in provinces
Made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre. The Act of 1935
was condemned by nearly all sections of Indian public and was unanimously rejected by
the Congress. The Congress demanded itself the convening of a Constituent Assembly
elected on the basis of adult Although the Congress opposed the Act, yet it contested the
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elections when the constitution was introduced on April 1, 1937; and formed ministries,
first in 6 provinces and then in another 2. The Muslim League was however, not happy with
the Congress rule, esp. Mr. Jinnah, who described it in those words: ‘Congress was drunk
with power and was oppressive against Muslims’.
The freedom movement and World War “II”
The World War II broke out in September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland. Britain and
France after the attack on Poland were force to aid Poland. The British Government of India
immediately declared India to be at war with Germany without consulting the Congress or
the elected members of the Central Legislature.
The Congress ministries in the seven provinces resigned on 1st November 1939 to manifest
their protest as India was declared to be at war without any consultations from the
nationalists. Muslim League celebrated the resignation of Congress ministries as “Day of
Deliverance” from the rule of Congress.
Pakistan Resolution/Lahore Resolution (March 24, 1940)
It was 1930 that Iqbal suggested the union of the Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and
Kashmir as Muslim state within the federations. This provided to be a creative idea which
germinated during the early thirties to burst into vigorous life with the advent of the new
reforms. The idealist Chaudhry Rehmat Ali developed this conception at Cambridge, where
he inspired a group of young Muslims and invented the term ‘Pakstan’ (later ‘Pakistan’) in
1935. His ideas seemed visionary during that time, within 7 years they had been turned
into a political programme byJinnah with the new name as its slogan or banner. The
ideology of Iqbal, the vision of Rehamat Ali, and the fears of Muslims were thus united by
the practical genius of Jinnah to blind Muslim together as never before during the British
period and lead effect an act on political creation, i.e. Pakistan. Pakistan Resolution was an
important landmark in this context. The Lahore session of the Muslim League, held on
March 24, 1940, passed Pakistan Resolution and rejected the Federal scheme an envisaged
in the government of India Act, 1935.
The August Offer (1940)
In order to win the public opinion in India, Linlithgow put up an offer to get the support of
the nationalist in the World War “II”. The following were the major features of the August
Offer

A promise of Dominion Status in an unspecified future

A post war body to be created to enact a constitution, however this was to happen only
after the approval from the British Parliament

Immediate expansion in the Viceroy’s executive council

Formation of a war advisory council.
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 Individual Satyagraha
The August offer shocked nationalists, and the Congress launched the individual
Satyagraha. As per the strategy of this limited Satyagraha the few individuals would be
selected in every locality that would mobilize people for the goal of complete independence
and preach against the participation in War.
Vinobha Bhave was the first Satyagrahi while Nehru was second.
Cripp’s Mission

The mission was sent to under the pressure from President Roosevelt of the USA and
President Chiang Kai Shek of China

The aim was to secure the active cooperation of Indians in war by promising some
constitutional reforms

The declaration promised India Dominion Status and a constitution making body after
the war whose members would be elected by the provincial assemblies and nominated
by the Princely States

The demand for separate Pakistan was accommodated by the clause that any province
which do not accept the constitution has right to secede.
The Congress objected the proposal of Cripp’s Mission on the following grounds:

The demand for complete independence was not fulfilled, rather the Mission promised
Dominion Status, that too after the war

The Congress leaders objected the nomination of the candidates in the constitution
making body by the rulers of the princely states rather than elected by the people

The Congress was vehemently opposed to the creation of separate Pakistan
Quit India Movement
The causes for the launch of Quit India Movement were:

The failure of the Cripp’s Mission was an eye opener for the nationalist

The popular discontent because of the war time shortages and inflation added to the
miseries of the common mass

The news of Allied reverses in World War and British withdrawal from South-East Asia
and Burma leaving local people at the mercy of Japanese
Course of Events

Quit India resolution was passed on 6th August 1942 at Bombay.

The Congress envisaged a “mass struggle on the non-violent lines on the widest
possible scale
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It was made clear that if Congress leadership gets removed by arrest, “every Indian who
desires freedom and strives for it must be his own guide”.

The government had armed itself with the draconian measures and suppressed the
basic civil liberties.

Gandhi and all the leaders of the Congress working committee were arrested on the
early hours of August 9, 1942.

There was a three month strike in Ahmedabad, the Stalinguard of India

Usha Metha ran an illegal radio station

Rajgopalacharya and Communists opposed the Quit India Movement

The three parallel governments were formed at:
1. Ballia under Chittu Pandey
2. Tamkul- Jatia Sarkar of Satish Samant
3. Satara- Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil
Gandhiji’s Fast (Feb. 10 – March 7, 1943)
Gandhiji undertook a 21-day fast in jail. His condition deteriorated after 13 days and all
hopes of his surviving were given up. However, as a result his moral strength and spiritual
stamina, he survived and completed the 21-day fast. This was his answer to the
government which had been constantly exhorting him to condemn the violence of the
people in the Quit India Movement. Gandhi not only refused to condemn people resorting
to violence but unequivocally held the government responsible for it.
C.R. Formula (1944)
In 1994, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (C.R.) proposed to appoint a commission to
demarcate the district in North-West and East where Muslims were in majority. In such
areas, a plebiscite to be held on the basis of adult suffrage to decide the issue of separation.
They would be given freedom in case they favoured a sovereign state. In case of acceptance
of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce,
communications etc.
Muslim League was to endorse Congress demand for independence and cooperate in
formation of provisional government. Jinnah objected, as he wanted Congress to accept
two-nation theory and wanted only Muslims of the North-West and East of India to vote in
the plebiscite. Hindu Leaders led by V.D. Savarkar condemned the plan.
Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (June 14 – July 14, 1945)
The war situation in Europe improved in the beginning of the year 1945. India’s goodwill
was, however, needed as the war against Japan was expected to last for about two years.
The situation within the country worsening day by day as a result of deteriorating
economic situation and famines. The British Government was compelled to come forward
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 with some sort of plan to satisfy the Indians. After consultations with the British
B.C Dutta scrawled Quit India on the ships
Government on the Indian problem, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, issued a statement
The HMIS Hindustan in Karachi also mutinied
known as Wavell Plan. The Plan, which chiefly concerned Viceroy’s Executive Council,

By the end of February the strike had spread to naval bases all over the country
proposed certain changes in the structure of the council. One of the main proposals was
involving about 20000 ratings
that the Executive Council would be constituted giving a balanced representation to main
communities in it, including equal representation to Muslims and Hindus.
Sardar Patel and Jinnah had to intervene to
Soon after the Wavell Plan was issued the members of the Congress Working Committee
were released from jails. A conference of 22 prominent Indian leaders called at Shimla to Cabinet Mission Plan
consider the Wavell Plan, reached no decision. What scutted the conference was Mr. The Cabinet Mission which came to India on 19th March, 1946 comprised of three
Jinnah’s unflinching stand that Muslim approved only by the Muslim League should be members:
included in the Executive Council. Communalism thus again became a stumbling block. For
Lord Pathrick Lawrance
the Britishers, however, the dissension between the Congress and the Muslim League was a
source of happiness.
Sir Stafford Cripps

A.V. Alexander
Indian National Army and Subash Chandra Bose

The idea of the INA was first conceived by Mohan Singh in Malay The provisions as per the plan were:

In 1943 at Singapore, Subash Chandra Bose took the command of Azad Hind Fauz or
It proposed Union of India, embracing both British India and the Indian states
INA
The Union of India consists of a weak Centre controlling only:

Rashbehari Bose who was living in exile in Japan since 1915, joined him 1. Foreign Affairs
2. Defense

Indian prisoners of war in Japanese camp provided the ready recruiting ground for INA 3. Communication

INA also introduced a women’s regiment named Rani of Jhansi.
All the other powers were to be vested in Provincial governments

In 1944, INA appeared on the border of Assam
The Provinces were free to form group among them

INA besieged Imphal with Japanese soldiers
The country was to be divided into three sections i.e. A, B and C for electing the

The collapse of Japan made INA soldiers prisoners again constituent assembly

The section A consist of Madras, Bombay, UP, CP, Bihar and Orissa
INA Trials
The section B consist of Punjab, NWFP and Sind

The first trial of INA prisoners took place at Red Fort
The section C consist of Bengal and Assam

P.K. Seghal, Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were made accused
After the first general election a province could come out of group

The counsels for defense were Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bhadur Sapru, K.N. Kataju, J.L.
Each group had the power to set up intermediate level legislature and executive of their
Nehru and Asaf Ali own.

Even though the Court Martial held the INA prisoners guilty, the Government felt it
expedient to set them free.
Direct Action Campaign (Aug, 16, 1946): Provoked by the success of the Congress (in the

The question of guilt was not the issue, however it was Britain’s right to decide the voting for Constituent Assembly), the Muslim League launched a ‘direct action’ campaign
matter concerning Indians. on Aug. 16, 1946, which resulted in heavy communal riots in the country.

The revolt of Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Interim Government (Sept, 2, 1946): On Sept. 2, 1946, an interim government was

In Feb. 1946, Bombay Ratings of HMIS Talwar revolted against British and struck work formed. Congress members led by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru joined it but the Muslim League did
not as it withdrew its earlier acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan.

The racial discrimination and bad food was the immediate cause of the revolt
23 24

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 Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec. 9, 1946): This Constituent Assembly met on
Dec. 9, 1946, and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The Muslim League did not
join the Assembly.

Attlee’s Announcement (Feb. 20, 1947): On Feb. 20, 1947, British Prime Minister Attlee
announced that the British would withdraw from India by June 30, 1948 and that Lord
Mountbatten would replace Wavell.

Mountbatten Plan or 3rd June Plan

Features

Immediate transfer of power on the basis of granting Dominion Status

The transfer of power to the two Central governments

15th August was decided as the day of independence leaving only 72 days

The boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the awards were to be
announced after independence.

The Indian Independence Act, 1947

The Bill containing the provisions of the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, was introduced
in the British Parliament and passed as the Indian Independence Act, 1947. The Act laid
down detailed measures for the partition of India and speedy transfer of political powers to
the new government of India & Pakistan.

Integration of States
By Aug. 15, 1947, all states except Kashmir, Junagadh & Hyderabad had signed the
Instrument of Accession with India. The Maharaja of Kashmir acceded to India in Oct., 1947
when irregular Pakistani troops invaded his state. The Nawab of Junagadh was a Muslim
whereas most of its people were Hindus. In Feb. 1948, through a referendum the people of
this state decided to join India. The Nawab of Junagadh, therefore, left for Pakistan. The
Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to accede to the Indian Union under the pressure of
internal anarchy and military action against him in Sep., 1948.

French Colonies: By the end of 1954, French colonial rule in Pondicherry, Chandranagar,
Mahe, Karaikal and Yanam came to an end. These territories were integrated with India.

Portuguese Colonies: The Portuguese colonies in India were Goa, Daman, Die, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli. In 1954, Dadra and Nagar Haveli were liberated by freedom fighters. Indian
troops liberated Goa, Daman and Diu from the Portuguese in 1961.

Compiled By- Sanjay Singh

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