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VF-04-06-A3

OPERA-2D
USER GUIDE

Vector Fields Limited


24 Bankside
Kidlington
Oxford OX5 1JE
England
Copyright © 1999-2006 by Vector Fields Limited, England

This document was prepared using Adobe® FrameMaker®.

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X Window System is a trademark of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
I-DEAS is a trademark of Structural Dynamics Reseach Corporation

All other brand or product names are trademarks or registered trademarks


of their respective companies or organisations.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


CONTENTS

Chapter 1
Structure of the User Guide
Road Map ................................................................................................ 7

Chapter 2
Program Philosophy
Introduction ............................................................................................. 9
Pre-processing ....................................................................................... 11
Analysis ................................................................................................ 14
Post-Processing ..................................................................................... 16

Chapter 3
Getting Started
Starting the OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor ................................... 17
Pre-processing ....................................................................................... 19
Solving the Problem .............................................................................. 43
Post-Processing ..................................................................................... 46

Chapter 4
A Permanent Magnet Motor Example
Introduction ........................................................................................... 51
Pre-Processing ...................................................................................... 53
Post-Processing ..................................................................................... 87

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Chapter 5
Eddy Current Example: AC and Transient
AC Analysis Case 1 .............................................................................. 95
AC Analysis Case 2 ............................................................................ 102
TR Analysis ........................................................................................ 106

Chapter 6
Dynamic Analysis of a PM Motor
Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis ........................................ 109
Analysis .............................................................................................. 122
Post-Processing ................................................................................... 126

Chapter 7
Stress Analysis Notes and Examples
A review of stress analysis .................................................................. 131
Example - A Simple Beam ................................................................. 143

Chapter 8
Thermal Analysis Notes and Examples
Thermal Analysis ............................................................................... 155
Example - A Simple Heat Bath ........................................................... 157

Chapter 9
Coupled Analysis: Static Fields and Stress, AC Fields and Transient
Thermal
Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal ................... 167

Chapter 10
Space Charge Example
Introduction ......................................................................................... 189
OPERA-2d Pre-processor ................................................................... 191
Creating the Emitter Data ................................................................... 203
Post-Processing ................................................................................... 206

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5

Chapter 11
Application Notes
Introduction ......................................................................................... 211
Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions ........................................ 213
Inductance Calculations in OPERA-2d .............................................. 216
Power and Energy Calculation in AC Solutions ................................. 219
Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions ........................................... 221
Complex Material Properties .............................................................. 227
Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem ............................................... 231
Use of Command Scripts to Calculate Fourier Series ........................ 237
External Circuits in OPERA-2d .......................................................... 239
Shared Filamentary Conductors in OPERA-2d .................................. 247
3-phase Systems .................................................................................. 251
Delta Connected Loads ....................................................................... 254
Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet .................................. 257
Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” ....................... 270
Linear Motion Models ........................................................................ 284
Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors ...................................... 293
Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors ........................................... 300
Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM ................................. 309
Stress Analysis Solver Validation ....................................................... 317
Particle Trajectory Intersections in OPERA-2d .................................. 326
Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D ..................................................... 328
Importing DXF Files .......................................................................... 332

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OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 1
Structure of the User Guide

Road Map

The OPERA-2d User Guide is structured into the following chapters.

Program Philosophy
An overview is given about the underlying philosophy of the software - the
fact that models are created in a pre-processor including material defini-
tions and mesh generation, and the computed results viewed and processed
in the post-processor. Both of these functions are carried out in a single
module, called the Pre and Post-Processor, so that whilst viewing results,
changes can immediately be made to the model in order to optimise a
design.

Getting Started
This gives a detailed description of how a model is prepared and analysed.
New users are encouraged to spend some time going through this chapter,
as it will answer many questions that can otherwise arise when using the
software.

Application Notes
This chapter contains a number of useful techniques that can be used for
performing various tasks. If a question arises as to how to use the software
in a particular way, this chapter should first be consulted in case an answer

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8 Road Map

is presented. Note that Application Notes assume basic knowledge of the


workings of OPERA, which can be gained by going through the Getting
Started example.

Tutorials
A series of examples using the software is included. Each attempts to high-
light a typical application using various analysis modules.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 2
Program Philosophy

Introduction

OPERA-2d is a suite of programs for 2-dimensional electromagnetic field


analysis. In addition, there are modules for stress and thermal analysis. The
programs all use the finite element method to solve the partial differential
equations that describe the behaviour of fields. Such equations include:-
• Poisson’s equation
• Helmholtz equation
• Diffusion equation

The solution of these equations is an essential part of design in the follow-


ing areas:-
• Magnetostatics
• Electrostatics
• Time-varying magnetic fields (low frequency)
• Time-varying electric fields (low frequency)

The ability to model nonlinear materials is essential to these applications.

The software uses the finite element method (FEM). Since much informa-
tion is required before the analysis may be performed, data entry is carried
out using a powerful interactive pre-processor. Using the graphical interac-
tion within the pre-processor, the model space is divided into a contiguous
set of (triangular) elements. The physical model may be described in carte-
sian or cylindrical polar (axi-symmetric) coordinates.

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10 Introduction

Once the model has been prepared, the solution is calculated using a suita-
ble analysis module. Several modules exist for analysis of the different
types of electromagnetic excitation conditions e.g. static, steady state. The
analysis program iteratively determines the correct solution including non-
linear effects if these are modelled.

The result may then be examined using a versatile interactive post-proces-


sor. Many system variables are available for examination, including poten-
tials, currents, fields, forces, temperature. The additional feature of user
defined variables allows the solution results to be tailored to specific appli-
cations. Numerical errors due to coarse mesh definition are also analysed
so that the mesh can be refined to achieve the required accuracy.

A complete problem solution with OPERA-2d consists of 3 phases: data


preparation or pre-processing; analysis; results display or post-processing.
The Pre and Post-Processor allows modification to data immediately after
post-processing. The sections that follow in this chapter discuss aspects of
pre and post-processing and briefly introduce the user to the analysis pro-
grams that are available within the OPERA suite.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Pre-processing 11

Pre-processing

The OPERA-2d Model


A large number of electromagnetic devices can be represented by a two
dimensional model. This assumes that the device falls into one of the fol-
lowing categories:
• rotationally symmetric. There is no component of field in the azimuthal
direction, and the field distribution is the same for any axial cross sec-
tion. In OPERA-2d, such models are referred to as AXISYMMETRIC.
• long in one direction, with uniform cross-section over much of the
length. In such devices, it is a reasonable approximation to assume that
for much of the length, the field distribution over the cross section does
not change and that there is no component of field parallel to the long
axis. In OPERA-2d, such models have XY symmetry.

Aspects of Pre-processing
The geometry of a device to be analysed by OPERA-2d is presented to the
Pre and Post-Processor as a set of polygonal areas or regions on the 2d
plane. One region can be a ‘background’ region which covers the whole
problem space. The others are non-overlapping polygons which specify the
other materials in the problem. In magnetic devices, for example, a region
can represent one of the following:
• free-space;
• a conductor with a prescribed or induced current density;
• permeable material with a linear or nonlinear material characteristic;
• a permanent magnet.

Permeable and permanent magnet regions can also be electrically conduct-


ing.

A special gap region must be defined for the interface region between the
stator and rotor of rotating machines for OPERA-2d/RM. The gap region
may also be used beneficially for electrical machine models with other
analysis programs. For more information see the OPERA-2d Reference
Manual.

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12 Pre-processing

OPERA-2d/LM models make use of a special remeshing technique that


requires the user to separate the model into three groups of regions: the
moving regions, the static regions, and the regions that define the space in
which the moving parts can move. During the time stepping solution proc-
ess, the moving section of the model is repositioned and a reconnected
mesh between the moving and the static sections is created. For more infor-
mation see the OPERA-2d Reference Manual.

Within each region, finite element mesh generation is automatic, using the
subdivisions of the sides to control the mesh density. There are two classes
of regions shapes: quadrilaterals and general polygons. The mesh within
quadrilaterals is generated by transformation to a unit square and regular
subdivision. The mesh is therefore predictable and mesh generation times
are short. Elements with large aspect ratios necessary for small air gaps can
be generated. The mesh within polygons is generated using an algorithm
based on Delaunay triangulation. Internal nodes are added if necessary to
achieve element sizes which vary smoothly across the regions and element
shapes which are as near to equilateral as possible. Polygons allow large
areas of space, especially near a ‘far-field’ boundary, to be meshed with a
minimal number of elements.

To enable repeated structures to be defined efficiently, regions carry with


them replication parameters, which create multiple copies of the region
with the same material properties. Local coordinate systems are also avail-
able with each region.

Region data is entered with the DRAW and POLYGON commands, and
can be edited with the EDIT, MOVE and MODIFY commands. Regions
can be copied with the COPY command.

All the material properties and boundary conditions are stored with each
region. The exceptions to this are the nonlinear relationships between flux
density and field strength which are stored as tables of values, related to the
regions by material code numbers. Such BH tables are defined and edited
with the BHDATA command.

Regions are also used in post-processing as the smallest units of area over
which integration can be performed (INTAREA command).

OPERA-2d/PP also has commands for displaying the region data, numeri-
cally and graphically (LIST, RECONSTRUCT), generating and checking
the mesh (MESH, CHECK) and reading and writing files (READ,
WRITE). Before writing a data file, specific data needed for the type of
analysis to be performed should be added using the SOLVE command. The
SOLVE command allows the user to define such items as convergence tol-

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Pre-processing 13

erances, output time points, nonlinear iteration type. A data file containing
the model and the analysis specific data is then created. No further interac-
tion is necessary before running the analysis program, which can be started
without leaving the Pre and Post-Processor.

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14 Analysis

Analysis

Once the analysis has started no further user interaction is required. The
programs create results files which contain a copy of the data and the solu-
tion(s), as well as a log file containing diagnostics.

There are a number of analysis programs in the OPERA-2d Suite. They all
read data prepared by the Pre and Post-Processor and create results files
which can be read by the Pre and Post-Processor. The analysis programs
are:
Statics:
ST This handles both magnetostatic and electrostatic problems. It
assumes that the excitation current is constant with time, and
allows excitation by permanent magnet. The material properties
can be linear or nonlinear (i.e. the permeability may be a func-
tion of the field strength at each point in the material). Isotropic
or anisotropic material properties are also catered for.
SP This module solves for time invariant electric fields including
the effects of space charge created by beams of charged parti-
cles. Infinite XY or axisymmetric coordinate systems can be
used. A magnetic field may also be applied in addition to the
electric field.
Eddy Currents:
AC Steady-state ac eddy currents with linear or nonlinear materials
and either current or voltage driven sources. Permeabilities can
either be taken from the region data, looked up from a previous
ST or TR solution, or calculated from the maximum field in the
AC solution. In all cases the permeability can be complex.
TR This assumes the excitation current or voltage is of any form that
is described by a variation over time. The solution is determined
at discrete time steps. The transient waveform may be selected
from standard driving functions or may be explicitly defined in
tabular format.
VL Eddy currents induced by constant velocity motion of one part
of the model with respect to the rest. Only static excitation is
allowed.

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Analysis 15

RM Rotating Machines Module: a transient eddy current module,


extended to include the effects of rigid body rotation, time vary-
ing currents and coupling to external circuits. Transient wave-
forms may be selected from standard driving functions or may
be explicitly defined in tabular format. The material properties
can be nonlinear (i.e. the permeability may be a function of the
field strength at each point in the material).
LM Linear Motion Module: a transient eddy current module,
extended to include the effects of general motion that induces
eddy currents. The solution can have XY symmetry, where
motion can be in both X and Y directions, as well as allowing for
rotational motion about a point. The solution can also have
axisymmetry, where the motion is restricted to the Z axis. The
solver also provides for the use of external circuits and coupling
to mechanical equations.
DM This models the magnetization process for hard magnetic mate-
rials. During a transient nonlinear analysis it can use a virgin
BH-Curve for material magnetization and then secondary
‘demagnetization’ BH-Curves as the field decreases.
Stress Analysis:
SA Stress analysis, using nodal forces as input, or body force densi-
ties calculated from an earlier electromagnetic analysis.
Thermal Analysis:
TH Thermal analysis, using nodal temperatures as input, and ele-
ment power densities calculated from an earlier electromagnetic
analysis.
THTR Transient version of the thermal analysis.
Other:
LD The Lossy Dielectrics option enables modelling of devices con-
sisting of materials with both conductive and dielectric proper-
ties in static, time-harmonic and transient conditions.

Adaptive mesh refinement to reduce the error in the solution by improving


the mesh discretisation is available as a standard feature with the ST, AC
and VL solvers.

It is often important to know the mechanical effects of electromagnetic


forces and the heating effect of currents. For this purpose, OPERA-2d has
a stress analysis program and two thermal analysis programs, which can
take as input body force densities or power densities calculated from an
electromagnetic analysis and return displacements and stresses or temper-
atures.

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16 Post-Processing

Post-Processing

The Pre and Post-Processor, OPERA-2d/PP, can READ files of results


from the analysis programs, display and process the solutions. The solu-
tions consist of the nodal values of potential, and element values of current
or charge density and permeability or permittivity. Any simple field quan-
tity (potential, field intensity, flux density, current density, etc.) can be dis-
played at POINTS, along LINES or as CONTOUR plots over regions.
Algebraic expressions of such field quantities can also be used.

Further processing can take the form of integrations along lines or over
regions giving values for forces, stored energies etc., or particle trajectory
calculations.

The first request for a field value from the Post-Processor prompts the pro-
gram to perform ‘field averaging’. The finite element method used gives
potential derivatives which are discontinuous from one element to the next.
The field averaging process finds the average from each element which sur-
rounds a node and applies that average value to the node. (Physical discon-
tinuities are maintained.) The averaged values are used in all the post-
processing commands, but some can also access the un-averaged values.
Comparison of the averaged and un-averaged fields allows an estimate of
the local and global errors in the solution. These error estimates are calcu-
lated following the field averaging and can be displayed in the same ways
as the fields.

The electromagnetic fields, B and H, can also be calculated by integration


of the magnetization and current densities in each permeable or current car-
rying element. This feature makes it possible to calculate very accurate
results for some demanding applications, as well as in the far field.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 3
Getting Started

Starting the OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor

OPERA-2d and associated operating system software should be installed


as described in the installation notes. Once this has been completed, the
program may be started.

Starting the OPERA Manager

Microsoft On Microsoft Windows systems the OPERA Manager is started from the
Windows menu bar as follows:
Platforms
Start -> Programs -> Vector Fields OPERA -> OPERA 11.0

Alternatively the OPERA Manager can be started from the system icon tray

by clicking on the OPERA icon as shown here:

Unix Platforms On UNIX systems, the OPERA Manager is started from the command line
by typing:

$vfdir/bin/opera.sh $vfdir

where $vfdir is a shell variable set to the directory where the software is
installed.

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18 Starting the OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor

Starting the Pre and Post-Processor


The OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor can be started from the OPERA
Manager menu bar as follows:

OPERA-2d -> Pre and Post-Processor

or by clicking on the 2d Pre and Post-Processor icon on the toolbar.

The project folder can be changed from the default by the menu route:

OPERA-2d -> Change Project Folder -> OPERA-2d

Alternatively, a folder in a Folder Window may be set as the project folder


through its context menu.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Pre-processing 19

Pre-processing

The Pre and Post-Processor Environment


Upon entering the Pre and Post-Processor environment, a graphics window
with a command menu (at the top of the window) is created, as illustrated
in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Command menu, graphics screen and display text

Changing the Units


The default set of units is SI and the axes are displayed in metres. These
default units may not always be convenient, as is the case here. In this
example, a more suitable length unit is centimetres. To make this change
click on the units button which brings up the dialog box shown below
in Figure 2.

The length unit is set to centimetres by clicking on the centimetres radio


button at the top of the dialog in the section labelled Length unit and then
clicking on the OK button.

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20 Pre-processing

Figure 2 The result of selecting the length units to be centimetres

This sequence of selections will be represented in these notes by the fol-


lowing format.

Click on the Set Length unit to centimetre.


Units button

Select OK to finish.

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Pre-processing 21

To refresh the graphics screen click on the Refresh button . The axes are
now scaled in centimetres.

Building a Model
Figure 3 shows a three dimensional cut view of a coil, wound around an
iron “E” shaped former positioned close to a circular metallic disc.

Figure 3 Three Dimensional View of Coil Former and Disc

Using the axial symmetry of the coil, former and disc, it is possible to
model this using a two dimensional section. The two dimensional represen-
tation is shown in Figure 4.

Each component of the model (including air) must be defined as a region


(or a set of regions). A region is the basic OPERA-2d building block for
model construction. It consists of:
• A polygon which defines the geometric properties of the component.
Once the model has been completed, this is subdivided into finite ele-
ments by the automatic mesh generator, according to the number of sub-
divisions assigned on each side of the polygon.

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22 Pre-processing

Figure 4 Two Dimensional View of Coil Former and Disc

• A set of characteristics which define the material properties of the com-


ponent. These properties include magnetic and electric properties of the
region. These characteristics are specified at the time the region is
drawn but may be modified later.

Setting the Solution Symmetry and Potential


The problem is axi-symmetric with the axis of symmetry displayed as the
vertical direction on the screen. To set this use the following menu route to
access the Solution type dialogue box.

Model -> Solution Type...

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Pre-processing 23

Geometry is set to Axisymmetry (RZ) and the


Use recommended Potential type box is
checked. This will lead to the use of Modified
r*A

An information panel will give the following message:

Select OK to close. This will then cause the UNITS and PROBLEM DATA panels
to the right of the screen to be changed and an appropriate message is con-
veyed to the user.

This has now set the model to use axisymmetry i.e. an R-Z coordinate
(cylindrical polar coordinate) system. The solution potential of MODI-
FIED R*A is a modified vector potential that should be used to improve
accuracy near the axis in axi-symmetric problems.

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24 Pre-processing

Refresh the display as before using the Refresh button and the axes
change to display the R-Z coordinate system.

Drawing Regions - Modelling The Disc


The material properties for the disc will first be defined. For this model, the
disc is assigned a material label of 3 (implying that it is not an air like mate-
rial) and a relative permeability of 100.

Click on the Set the region to be a Polygon by clicking on the radio button at the top of the
Region prop- dialogue box. On the Material properties tab set the Material label to 3
erties for a and the Permeability to 100. Other values remain unchanged.
new region
button

Select OK.

The number of subdivisions on each side of the region will be used to create
the finite element mesh at a later stage. At this stage it is necessary to set
up how many subdivisions will be used during the mesh creation, though
these values can be modified later as required.

If the side properties are set at this point this will become the default for all
regions created until it is changed again. For this model a good starting
point is to specify 10 subdivisions (elements) per side.

Biasing can be used to concentrate or grade the elements towards either the
start of a side (bias values near 0) or towards the end of a side (bias values

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Pre-processing 25

near 1). Initially the bias will be left at 0.5 to give an even spread of ele-
ments.

Click on the Change the way the subdivisions are specified to be Specify subdivision by
Side proper- number and set the Number of elements to 10.
ties... but-
ton

Select OK.

In order to enter the points used to define the disc region more easily a grid
is set up which enables ‘Snap to Grid’.

Click on the Select Cartesian grid and set the Grid sizes
Grid button for Step in X and Y to 1 followed by OK.

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26 Pre-processing

Now the disc can be created using the grid.

Click on the The first side is created by clicking on the first two corners at (0,7) then at
Create new (10,7).
corner at
cursor (or
grid point)
button

The grid point being chosen is identified by the


software in the left hand end of the Status bar
at the bottom of the screen.

The number of corners created so far in this


polygon is shown at the right hand end of the
Status bar at the bottom of the screen.

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Pre-processing 27

The next side is created by clicking on the third corner at (10,8).

Side three is created by clicking on the forth and last corner at (0,8).

Click on the Finally the forth side is created and the region is completed by clicking on the
Close poly- Close polygon button. Each region is identified by a number displayed at the
gon button centre. The region for the disc is identified by the number 1.

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28 Pre-processing

If while creating this region a mistake is made the last point and side cre-
ated can be erased by clicking on the Erase last side button .

Drawing Regions - Modelling The Coil


The next region to be specified is the conductor cross-section. The conduc-
tor will be modelled as a single region, even though the actual coil has mul-
tiple turns. The fields produced by using such a model are a good
representation of the actual fields. The same techniques used when build-
ing the disc will be applied here.

Initially the material properties of the region will be set. The settings are a
material label of 1, a permeability of 1 and a current density of 2e6Am−2.
Then coordinates of the region and the side data will be entered.

Click on the Set the region to be a Polygon by clicking on the radio button at the top of the
Region prop- dialogue box. On the Material properties tab set the Material label to 1,
erties for a Permeability to 1, and the Current density to 2e6.
new region
button

Select OK.

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Pre-processing 29

The Coil region is entered as before by clicking on the grid to enter the cor-
ner coordinates.

Click on the The first side is created by clicking on the first


Create new two corners at (1,1) then at (1,6).
corner at The second and third sides are created by
cursor (or clicking on the next two corners at (3,6) and
grid point) at (3,1).
button
Finish by selecting Close polygon button

Drawing Regions - Modelling The Coil Former


Using Existing Points
The region representing the “E” shaped former is to be drawn next.

The material properties will be set first, giving this region a material label
4 with a permeability of 300, and resetting the current density to 0.

Click on the Set the region to be a Polygon by clicking on the radio button at the top of the
Region prop- dialogue box. On the Material properties tab set the Material label to 4
erties for a and the Permeability to 300. Reset Current density to 0.
new region
button

Select OK.

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30 Pre-processing

For the point definition, selection of existing points from the conductor ver-
tices will be used to quickly enter the first 4 points. Four additional points
will be defined using the previous method, before closing the polygon.

Click on the Position the cursor near the existing corner at (1,6) and click to use this exist-
Pick an ing corner.
existing
corner button

Pick the remaining three points in an anti-clockwise direction at points (1,1),


(3,1) and (3,6).

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Pre-processing 31

Click on the The remaining 4 points are entered as before using the grid by clicking at
Create new points (5,6), (5,0), (0,0) and (0,6).
corner at
cursor (or
grid point)
button

Click on the The Core is completed by closing the region using Close polygon.
Close poly-
gon button

Drawing Regions - Modelling The Surrounding Air


For most electromagnetic analysis problems, it is necessary to model the air
regions surrounding the problem. The air regions may be drawn using pol-
ygons that fit between and around the 3 regions drawn so far.

However a more convenient method is also available. This method defines


a background region. This is a region which may be easily defined and
placed over the existing model (note however that only one background
region is permitted in the model). The spaces between existing regions are
automatically meshed. This method will be used here.

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32 Pre-processing

Initially set the material properties to air and define this to be a background
region.

Click on the Set the region to be a Background by clicking on the radio button at the top of
Region prop- the dialogue box. On the Material properties tab set the Material label
erties for a to 0 and the Permeability to 1.
new region
button

Select OK.

The background region can be entered in the same way as other polygon
regions. As the air region is much larger than the rest of the model, to
ensure that the far fields are captured correctly, the display needs to be
resized. In order to use the grid for creating the background region this also
needs to be resized.

Click on the Set the grid to a step size of 10 followed by OK.


Grid... but-
ton

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Pre-processing 33

Click on the Change the view by setting the Coordinate


Set view... limits to go from 0 to 100 in R (Left to
button Right) and -50 to 50 in Z (Bottom to Top).

Select OK.

With a larger area now visible the background region can be entered by
clicking on the grid to pick the four corners.

Click on the Click on the grid at (0,50) then (50,50),


Create new (50,-50) and (0,-50) to create the four cor-
corner at ner points and the first three sides.
cursor (or
grid point) Click on the Close polygon button to
button close.

As the polygon is closed, a test is performed to see whether it intersects any


other regions. In this case it intersects both the disc and the coil former. A

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34 Pre-processing

message box appears indicating that points are being added to allow conti-
nuity across the different region boundaries. Click on Yes.

Select YES to close message box.

The geometry of the model is now complete, but the mesh should be
checked to ensure that it is suitable and the boundary conditions for the
problem must be set.

Generating And Viewing The Mesh


The finite element mesh is generated automatically from the subdivision
and bias data of the regions.

Click on the Switch the grid off by selecting No grid.


Cursor
grid... but-
ton

Click on the The default mesh generator parameters are


Generate used.
mesh... but-
ton

Select OK for the mesh to be created.

The mesh generator now operates on the model data and reports on the size
of the mesh in a message box. The message box also reports on the checks
carried out by OPERA-2d on the model. Two warnings are given indicating

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Pre-processing 35

that boundary conditions have not yet been applied and that no BH curve
has been assigned to Material 4.

Close the message box to leave the model outline displayed. The outline
should be checked carefully. Region boundaries between materials of the
same type are not shown, boundaries between different materials are shown
in text colour and external boundaries are orange. If there are any orange
lines within the interior of the model, then the mesh is not continuous and
must be corrected before an acceptable solution can be obtained. If this

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36 Pre-processing

needs to be done then a message is displayed stating that a number of


closed loops have been found.

Click on the The mesh can be displayed on the model by clicking on Display mesh. This
Display mesh button acts as a toggle (so selecting again will remove the mesh from the dis-
button play).

In order to obtain accurate results from a finite element model it is essential


to ensure that the finite elements are small enough to model the field gra-
dients. The large elements used around the outside edge of the background
region are adequate for this, but those near the middle of the model are too
large. The model could be modified by increasing the number of subdivi-

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Pre-processing 37

sions along the axis, however a better method is to use biasing to grade the
mesh towards the centre.

Click on the Place the cursor just inside the background region, at about (1,30), and click
Modify side to select the edge (this does not have to be very accurate as the nearest edge
by picking will be selected).
button Set the Number of elements to 10, and the Bias to 0.05 so that the elements
are grouped towards the start of the edge.

Repeat with the edge along the negative z-axis at around (1,-30). This time
set the Bias to 0.95 so that the elements are grouped towards the end of the
edge.

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38 Pre-processing

Click on the The default mesh generator parameters are


Generate again used.
mesh... but-
ton

Click on the The mesh is created and checked as before. The new mesh is displayed show-
Refresh but- ing the grading along the z-axis.
ton

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Pre-processing 39

To check the mesh around the coil former and disc it is necessary to resize
the display to be closer to the area of interest.

Click on the
Set view...
button

It can be seen that the mesh is not very good in the Disc (too coarse) or in
the air gap (varying too rapidly). This can be improved by changing the
number of subdivisions along the edges of the Disc and the background
region edge on the z-axis.

Click on the Place the cursor just inside the background


Modify side region at about (0.2,6.5) and click to select
by picking the edge.
button Change the Number of elements to 4.

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40 Pre-processing

The four edges that make up the Disc also need to be changed. Select the inner
edge by clicking at (0.2,7.5) and change the Number of elements to 4.
Repeat for the outer edge by clicking at (9.8,7.5) and again changing the
Number of elements to 4.
Select the upper edge by clicking at (5,7.8) and change the Number of ele-
ments to 35.
Repeat for the lower edge by clicking at (5,7.2) and again change the Number
of elements to 35.

This completes the mesh refinement so the model can be re-meshed and
displayed.

Click on the
Generate
mesh... but-
ton

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Pre-processing 41

Click on the The refined mesh shows a much better mesh in the air gap and disc regions.
Refresh but-
ton

Setting Boundary Conditions


The boundary conditions must be set so that the flux does not cross the Z
axis. This is achieved by setting the B field on this boundary to be tangen-
tial. The far field boundaries must also be set with this condition, although
the effect of this boundary condition will be negligible if the boundary is
far enough away from the device.

The boundaries are set by selecting the boundary condition type and then
clicking near the edge to be set.

Click on the Select Field is tangential and then choose


Set boundary the Pick button. Click along the z-axis at
conditions points (0.2,-1), (0.2,3), (0.2, 6.5),
by pick- (0.2,7.5) and (0.2,9).
ing... button

Select Cancel when finished selecting these


edges to close the dialog.

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42 Pre-processing

Click on the Switch off the mesh display.


Display mesh
button

Click on the Zoom out to see the whole model.


Zoom bound-
ing box but-
ton

Click on the Select Field is tangential and then choose


Set boundary the Pick button. Click around the outside edge
conditions of the model at points (25,49), (49,0) and
by pick- (25,-49).
ing... button

Select Cancel when finished selecting these


edges to close the dialog.
Click on the Having performed all necessary refinements to
Generate the model, the mesh can be generated as before
mesh... but-
ton

The Error check display now shows the position and type of boundary
nodes as well.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Solving the Problem 43

Solving the Problem

Solution Methods
A solution method is needed for the example problem. The analysis pro-
grams available are listed below. Note that only analysis modules that are
licensed are available for use.
• The static analysis module (ST)
• The steady-state ac analysis module (AC)
• The transient analysis module (TR)
• The velocity analysis module (VL)
• The rotating machines module (RM)
• The linear motion module (LM)
• The transient demagnetization module (DM)
• The space charge module (SP)
• The thermal analysis module (TH)
• The transient thermal analysis module (THTR)
• The stress analysis module (SA)
• The lossy dielectrics module (LD)

A more detailed description of all modules can be found in Pre-processing


[page 11].

The problem to be modelled has a constant drive current and hence can be
solved using the static analysis module (ST).

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44 Solving the Problem

Model -> Analysis Options -> Static Analysis (ST)


Select the default options by just clicking the
OK button. This sets the analysis to be linear
and reports the options set in an Information
box.

Storing a Problem
It is important to save the model regularly to back up your work while
building the model. This can be done at any time during the pre-processing
stage.

Click on the Save the model by entering the file name


Save... but- disc.
ton

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Solving the Problem 45

Two OPERA-2d files containing the model and mesh data are created when
a model is saved. These are disc.op2 and disc.mesh respectively. The .op2
file contains all the model data and should be kept. The .mesh file is less
important and can be deleted if storage space is limited (although for an
adaptive analysis, the mesh file must be kept as well as the .op2 data file,
as this mesh data cannot be reproduced from the model data). It is useful as
it avoids the need to re-mesh the model, which can be time consuming for
very large models.

Starting the Static Analysis


Now that the model has been built and saved it can be analysed.

Model -> Start Analysis

OPERA-2d then reports on the progress of the solution in a separate win-


dow. When it is completed, click on Close Window.

The solution process has created a solution file, disc.st. This contains the
solution data from the static analysis for post-processing.

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46 Post-Processing

Post-Processing

Examining the Solution


The solution file, disc.st, needs to be loaded into the Pre and Post-Processor
so that the results can be viewed.

Click on the Enter the file name disc.st.


Open... but-
ton

Click on the Change the view by setting the Coordinate


Set view... limits to go from 0 to 10 in R (Left to Right)
button and 0 to 10 in Z (Bottom to Top).

Pressing the Options for Post-processing button (towards the bottom


right of the dialog) will set some default values (such as removing the
region labels and node markers to give a clearer display).

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Post-Processing 47

Line Contours of Modified Vector Potential


The model solution potential was selected as r*A. With an axisymmetric
solution, contour lines of constant r*A represent flux lines (note that in XY
symmetry using a vector potential, equipotential lines represent lines of magnetic
flux).

Click on the The default settings for a Contour map are set
Contour to produce a plot of flux lines.
map... button
Select Draw contours button to give the con-
tour plot shown on the right.

The model error is calculated and displayed at the bottom right of the
screen on the status bar when the first field quantity is calculated.

Zone Contours of Flux Density Magnitude


In the previous contour plot, vector potential (component name POT) was
displayed. This can be changed to display the magnitude of flux density
(component name BMOD) as zone contours.

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48 Post-Processing

It is possible to restrict the display to particular regions or material types.


In this case the flux density display is to be restricted to regions of material
1, 3 and 4 (and not 0 i.e. air regions).

Click on the This is a three step process. Do not Draw con-


Contour tours until the third step is complete.
map... button

Step 1 Set the Expression to be BMOD (either typing


the value, or using the expression list menu
activated by the right arrow next to the
Expression box if desired).

Under Style, select the Coloured zones but-


ton.

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Post-Processing 49

Step 2 Under Coloured zone options, ensure Auto-


matic range is checked, and set Number of
contours to 100.

Step 3 Under the Regions tab, allow regions to be


excluded by removing the tick from Exclude
no materials and set the Exclude material
to be 0.

Now press Refresh picture and Draw con-


tours to display the contour map.

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50 Post-Processing

Graphs of Flux Density Component with Position


The variation of the flux density in the z-direction along a line between the
disc and the former can be looked at by plotting BZ along a radial line.

Click on the Set the following quantities on the X or R


Fields along directed tab:
a line... Start at = 0
button End at = 10
Y or Z = 6.5
Number of steps = 100
Field component Expression to BZ.

To leave the Pre and Post-Processor select


File -> Exit

and confirm this by selecting Yes

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 4
A Permanent Magnet Motor Example

Introduction

This example of a simplified six pole permanent magnet synchronous


motor will illustrate the use of several features, some of which have not
been included in previous examples. They are:
• Using model symmetry
• Replications
• Permanent magnets
• Rotating machine air gap region
• BH curves
• Quadratic elements

Since the motor has rotational periodicity (symmetry), only a single pole
pitch needs to be modelled (in this case - 60 degrees). This reduces the
amount of work needed to create the model and reduces the number of ele-
ments and nodes required. Figure 5 shows the complete model.

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52 Introduction

Figure 5 The complete model

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Pre-Processing 53

Pre-Processing

Setting the Pre and Post-Processor Environment


Launch OPERA-2d and enter the Pre and Post-Processor as described in
previous tutorials. Change the default SI units to a more suitable set.

Set units Click on the CGS units button.

Click on Quit

The units displayed on the information panel of the graphics screen change
to reflect the new unit system.
Note: Make sure this is set correctly at this stage, as all subsequent data will
be defined in this unit system. Changing the units will not change
the overall dimensions of the model.

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54 Pre-Processing

The axes dimensions also need to be set to be suitable for a stator radius of
5 cm. To do this:

Set view Set the Right and Top values to 5, followed


by OK.

Model information is given on the right hand side of the graphics display.
It can be seen that the default element type is linear. It is recommended to
solve a problem with linear elements initially, so that the model solution
can be validated. After this, quadratic elements can be used to obtain an
improved solution with an associated increase in computational effort and
time.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Pre-Processing 55

However in this example, quadratic elements will be used to demonstrate


their application. This will reduce the RMS error and produce more accu-
rate results. Select

Model -> Solution Type


Click on the Quadratic button followed by OK

The material label to be used when drawing the stator regions will now be
set. Material label 5 and a relative permeability of 2500 will be used,
although material characteristics may easily be modified at a later stage.

Region prop- Click on the Polygon radio button and set the Material label to 5 and the
erties for a Permeability to 2500, followed by OK.
new region

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56 Pre-Processing

Entering Construction Lines


To outline the model geometry, construction lines may be used.

Construction To draw a line 5.4 cm long at 60 degrees to the


lines X-axis, enter 5.4 for End at X or R and 60
for Rotation, followed by Straight line.

Construction lines do not form part of the model but are useful for defining
points within the geometry.

Several other straight construction lines are needed and, as the dialog has
not been closed, the user can continue defining Straight lines.
Start at Start at End at End at
Rotation
X or R Y or Z X or R Y or Z
0 0 5.4 0 10
0 0 5.4 0 0
0 0 4.5 0 4
0 0 2.7 0 7.5

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Pre-Processing 57

Arc shaped construction lines can also be drawn (these are mathematically
“straight” lines in polar coordinates). This is also from the same dialog.

To draw an arc of radius 5.4 cm between 0 and


60 degrees centred on the origin, enter 5.4 for
Start at Radius and End at Radius and 60
for End at Angle, followed by Arc

Several other arc construction lines are needed and, as the dialog has not
been closed, the user can continue defining Arcs.
Origin Origin Start at Start at End at End at
X or R Y or Z Radius Angle Radius Angle
0 0 4.5 0 4.5 60
0 0 2.7 0 2.7 60
0 0 2.5 0 2.5 60

Click on Cancel to leave the Construction Line dialog. Figure 6 shows the
screen after entering these 9 construction lines.

Drawing the Stator Tooth


To help draw the stator, the display will be resized.

The stator tooth will be constructed by connecting the region vertices.


These can be identified with intersection points of the construction lines.

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58 Pre-Processing

Figure 6 Construction lines to draw stator

Set view Set the Left value to 2, Right value to 5 and


Top value to 3, followed by OK.

Figure 7 shows region 1 completed.

Figure 7 The first region - Half the stator tooth

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Pre-Processing 59

The mouse can be used to select the intersections of construction lines..

Pick at nearest Move the mouse cursor near to the intersection


construction at 5.4, 0 and click. A cross is drawn at the
line intersec- intersection.
tion

Continue to select points at the intersections


near the following points. Note that the cursor
position is shown at the bottom left of the
graphics screen.
4.5, 0
2.7, 0
2.5, 0
2.5, 0.3
2.7, 0.3
2.7, 0.2
4.5, 0.3
4.4, 0.8
5.3, 0.9
Close polygon The region is completed by closing the poly-
gon.

Display mesh The finite element mesh in the tooth is drawn.


The size of the elements was obtained from the
default edge element size (1 unit).

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60 Pre-Processing

Modify side by The discretisation of this region is poor at the moment. The number of ele-
picking ments on each edge will be modified; bias and curvature will be added where
necessary. Pick the edge near 5.3,0.4 which is then highlighted. Complete
the dialog box as shown and click on OK
.

Continue modifying the side properties of region 1 by selecting each side con-
secutively in a counter-clockwise direction.
Number of elements = 4, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = 0,
Boundary condition = None

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Pre-Processing 61

Number of elements = 5, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = -1/4.5,


Boundary condition = None

Number of elements = 15, Bias = 0.2, Curvature = 0,


Boundary condition = None

Number of elements = 3, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = 1/2.7,


Boundary condition = None

Number of elements = 3, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = 0,


Boundary condition = None

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62 Pre-Processing

Number of elements = 10, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = -1/2.5,


Boundary condition = None

Number of elements = 3, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = 0,


Boundary condition = None

Number of elements = 15, Bias = 0.8, Curvature = 0,


Boundary condition = None

Number of elements = 4, Bias = 0.5, Curvature = 0,


Boundary condition = None

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Pre-Processing 63

Refresh The improved mesh can be displayed.

Using Copies and Replications


OPERA-2d allows two distinct methods of producing new regions with the
same geometry as existing regions.

These are:-
• Copy
This produces a new region (with a new number). Once created, the new
region may be modified or deleted without affecting the region from
which it was copied.
• Replication
This produces a clone of the original region. Any modifications (includ-
ing deletion) will affect the region from which it was replicated.

The remainder of the stator core will be made by making replications of


region 1.

Previous size Redraw the geometry so that all the replica-


tions will be seen.

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64 Pre-Processing

Two types of replication will be made. The material surrounding one slot
will be created by mirroring around 10 degrees. Two further copies will be
made by rotating with a 20 degree displacement.

Modify region Select the region just drawn.


by picking Select the Local coordinates and replica-
tions tab.
Set the Number of rotated copies to 3 and
the Angle between rotated copies to 20
degrees. Click on the Yes button in Reflected
copies and set the Angle of mirror plane to
10 degrees.

Any modifications made to the replications affect the original region 1.


Similarly, any changes made to the original region 1 will affect the replica-
tions.

Drawing the Conductor Regions


Three conductors will be defined, all of which will carry different currents.
The conductors will be given a material label of 1 with a permeability of 1.
In the second part of this example, the motor will be analysed in the
OPERA-2d/RM solver with the stator driven by an external circuit. This
requires that the conductor is also given a Conductor number, which is used
to define the circuit. The first conductor region is drawn by selecting old

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Pre-Processing 65

points from region 1 (including its replications). The others are produced
by using COPY.

Region prop- Set the Material label to 1, the Permeability to 1 and the Conductor
erties for a number to 1.
new region

Pick an exist- Click near the corner of region 1 at 4.3,


ing corner 1.2. A red cross is displayed over the exist-
ing corner.

Continue to pick existing corners of region 1


near:
4.4, 0.8
4.5, 0.3
2.7, 0.2
2.7, 0.35
2.6, 0.6
2.6, 0.75

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66 Pre-Processing

Close polygon

The number of subdivisions along one of the sides will be changed in


region 2, to improve the mesh.

Modify side by Pick the side of region 2 near 2.7, 0.45 and
picking complete the dialog as shown.

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Pre-Processing 67

Since region 2 has now been drawn, it’s area is known and can be used to
define a current density equivalent to a total current of 600 Ampere-turns.

Modify region Click inside region 2. Modify the Current or charge density to 600/
by picking area, then click on OK.

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68 Pre-Processing

The second and third conductors may now be created by copying region 2.

Make copies Select that the First region or group to 2


of regions and the Last region to 2. Set the Rotation
angle to 20 and click on Copy

Set the Rotation angle to 40 and click on


Copy again followed by Cancel

The new regions currently have the same material properties as region 2.
The current density and conductor number for both need to be modified.

Modify region Select region 3. Set the Current or charge density to 0 and the Conductor
by picking number to 2.

Click on OK.
Similarly, select region 4. Set the Current or charge density to -600/
area and the Conductor number to 3.

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Pre-Processing 69

Drawing the Rotor


The permanent magnet in the rotor will be drawn using the background
grid. When regions 1 and 2 were created the region was drawn and then
edge discretisation was modified to obtain a good mesh. For the permanent
magnet, the element size is chosen prior to drawing.

Cursor grid Click on Cartesian grid and set the Step in


X and Y to 0.1. Click on OK and clear the
message box warning that the grid spacing is
too small.

Region prop- The easy direction of a permanent magnet material is defined by its Material
erties for a angle - the angle made with the x-axis in a counter-clockwise direction. In this
new region motor, the magnet is magnetized in the +Y direction. Set the Material label
to 6, the Permeability to 1.1, the Material or phase angle to 90 and the
Conductor number to 0, followed by OK.

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70 Pre-Processing

Side properties The elements on each side of the magnet will be 0.1 cm long. Set the Element
size to 0.1.

Zoom in (rub- Use the rubber box zoom to make the region
ber box) where the rotor will be drawn fill the display.
The grid should now be shown at 0.1 cm inter-
vals.

Create new Click near the grid point at 2.2, 0.5. Note
corner at cur- that the bottom left corner now presents the
sor or grid coordinate of the nearest grid point, not the
point actual cursor position.

A red cross will appear.

Continue to select grid points near


2.2, 0.8
0.7, 0.8
0.7, 0.5

Close polygon

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Pre-Processing 71

The second region of the rotor is the rotor core which is a soft magnetic
material. This region will be drawn using several different methods.

Region prop- Set the Material label to 4 and the Permeability to 2500. Because this is
erties for a a soft material it is unimportant what value the Material or phase angle is.
new region

Side properties The elements on the first side of the rotor core will be 0.05 cm long. Set the
Element size to 0.05 and click on OK.
Construction Draw two Arc construction lines at radii 2.45
lines and 0.8 cm. between 0 and 60 degrees,
entered on the origin.

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72 Pre-Processing

Two further straight construction lines are also


needed. The existing geometry will be used to
define these. Click on the Define with cursor
tab. Click on Straight line pick 2 points
and click near the two points at the top of the
magnet region - (0.7, 0.8) and (2.2, 0.8).

Click on Straight line pick 2 points


again and click near the two points at the right
side of the magnet - (2.2, 0.8) and (2.2, 0.5),
followed by Cancel.

Pick at nearest Click near the intersections at 2.45, 0.0


construction and 2.4, 0.3
intersection

Side properties The elements on the second and third sides of the rotor core will be 0.15 cm
long. Set the Element size to 0.15 and click on OK.

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Pre-Processing 73

Pick at nearest Click near the intersection at 2.2,0.3


construction
intersection

Pick an exist- Click near the lower right corner of the magnet
ing corner at (2.2, 0.5), followed by the other 3 corners of
region 5 in a clockwise order.

Pick at nearest Click near the intersection at 2.3,0.8


construction
intersection

Side properties The size of the elements will be changed back to 0.05 cm and the curvature of
the next edge given. Set the Element size to 0.05, click on the Curvature
button and enter -1/2.45 in the Curvature box. Click on OK.

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74 Pre-Processing

Click near the intersection at 1.2,2.1

The next edge will form part of a periodic (symmetry) boundary and must
match with its paired edge. To match, it is important that the edges have the
same number of elements on both edges of the pair. Rather than using an
element size, the next edge will have the number of elements along it spec-
ified.

Side properties Click on the Set subdivision by number button, set the Number of elements
to 15 and click on the Straight button, followed by OK. It is not necessary to
set the Symmetry boundary condition as this will be set when the Rotating
machine air gap is defined.

Click near the intersection at 0.4,0.7

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Pre-Processing 75

Draw curved The curved edge is drawn by specifying its


sides around a centre and then the end of the line. Click near
centre the construction line intersection at (0, 0) fol-
lowed by the intersection at (0.8,0).

Draw straight
sides

Close polygon

The next section to be created is the stainless steel shaft. Since a magneto-
static solution is required and the shaft is non-magnetic, it may be repre-
sented as an air region.

Region prop- Set the Material label to 0 and the Permea-


erties for a bility to 1 followed by OK.
new region

Pick an exist- Click near the existing points at 0.8, 0 and


ing corner 0.4, 0.7

Side properties Set the Number of elements to 5.

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76 Pre-Processing

Pick at nearest Click near the intersection at 0, 0


construction
intersection

Close polygon

Cursor grid Turn the cursor grid off by clicking on the No


grid button followed by OK.

Refresh The mesh is displayed as it has not been


switched off.

There are several ways to improve the mesh in the magnet. Examples
include:-
• Increasing the number of elements on the edges of the region. This may
be inefficient in this case as the element sizes in neighbouring elements
will increase.

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Pre-Processing 77

• Subdividing the region into two or more regions. This requires modify-
ing the region geometry or deleting the region to allow two or more
regions to be drawn.
• Changing the shape code of the region (this is only possible within
quadrilateral regions).

In this case, it will be changed from a polygon shaped region (the default)
to a shape H region.

Modify -> Change Region Shape Code


Set the First region or group and the Last region to 5 and click
on the Regular quad (H) button, followed by OK.

Refresh using

The machine air gap


The final regions to be created are in the air gap between the rotor and the
stator. The air gap will be constructed from three regions - 2 polygons and
a Rotating machine air gap region. The Rotating machine air gap region
is specified by giving the radius of a circular arc that lies between the inner
radius of a region on the stator side and the outer radius of a region on a
rotor. The regions on the rotor and stator either side of the air gap should
have circular boundaries of the faces which will touch the gap region.

The air gap region was originally developed for the OPERA-2d/RM anal-
ysis. In this program, the rotor regions rotate by an angle corresponding to
their angular speed and the transient time-step. At each new position of the
rotor the mesh in the air gap reforms to make a contiguous mesh. However,
using the air gap region also has two distinct advantages for other OPERA-
2d analysis programs used to model electrical machines.
• The rotor and stator regions can be moved relative to each other by any
arbitrary angle and the mesh easily reforms
• Periodicity boundary conditions are correctly imposed irrespective of
the shape of the model

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78 Pre-Processing

Building the Two regions with properties of air must be constructed, one on the rotor
other air gap side and one on the stator side. The outer radius of the rotor side region will
regions be 2.47 cm and the inner radius of the rotor side region will be 2.48 cm.

Zoom in (rub- Use the rubber box zoom to display the air gap
ber box) as large as possible.

Enter corner Enter the first point on the rotor side air gap
co-ordinates region in polar coordinates. Select the Polar
tab. Set Absolute values Radius to 2.47
and Theta to 60, followed by Corner and Can-
cel.

Side properties Click on the Specify subdivision by size button and set the Element size
to 0.05. Click on the Curvature button and set the Curvature value to 1/
2.47, followed by OK.

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Pre-Processing 79

Enter corner Click on the Relative to previous point


co-ordinates button. Set the Relative values Theta to
−60, followed by Corner and Cancel.

Pick an exist- The remaining points in the region already


ing corner exist at the rotor surface. Click near the exist-
ing points as follows:
2.45,0.0
2.4, 0.3
2.2, 0.3
2.2, 0.5
2.2, 0.8
2.3, 0.8
1.2, 2.1
Draw straight
sides

Close polygon

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80 Pre-Processing

The stator side air gap polygon is created in a similar way

Pick an exist- The first points in the region already exist at


ing corner the stator surface. Click near the existing
points as follows:
1.25, 2.2
1.5, 2.0
1.65, 2.1
1.8, 2.0
1.7, 1.85
1.9, 1.6
2.1, 1.3
2.3, 1.4
2.4, 1.25
2.2, 1.15
2.35, 0.85
2.45, 0.5
2.6, 0.6
2.7, 0.3
2.5, 0.3
2.5, 0.0
Enter corner In Polar coordinates, set the Relative to pre-
co-ordinates vious point tab and set Radius to -0.02 and
the Theta to 0. Click on Corner followed by
Cancel.

Side properties Click on the Curvature button and set the value of the Curvature to -1/
2.48. Click on OK.

Enter corner In Polar coordinates, set the Relative to pre-


co-ordinates vious point tab and set Radius to 0 and the
Theta to 60. Click on Corner followed by
Cancel.

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Pre-Processing 81

Draw straight
sides

Close polygon

Rotating The air gap is completed by specifying the radius and symmetry for the
machine air gap OPERA-2d/RM gap. The radius must be a value that lies between 2.47 cm
and 2.48 cm as these were the radii of the curved surfaces of the other air
regions in the gap. The symmetry value has two roles - it specifies how
many rotational copies of an equivalent geometry there are in the complete
machine and how the fields are reflected in these copies. The model con-
sists of a 60 degree wedge (1-pole pitch) of the motor i.e. 6 copies of the
geometry make up the complete motor. The polarity of the magnets and sta-
tor circuits is arranged to produce alternate North-South poles i.e. the
model has negative symmetry. This means that the magnitude of the values
of magnetic vector potential on the boundary of the model along the X-axis
will be the same as on the boundary at 60 degrees but the opposite sign.
When the mesh is generated, the appropriate symmetry boundary condi-
tions will be applied.

Model -> Air Gaps -> Rotating Machine Air Gap


Set the Mid gap radius to 2.475 and the Machine symmetry to -6. Click
on Include air gap.

There will be no change to the geometry but the information box on the right
side of the screen will now read 9 regions (+ Gap)

Magnetic material characteristics


The geometry is now complete. The boundary conditions will be specified
after the mesh has been created and BH curves must be associated with
each magnetic material.

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82 Pre-Processing

Vector Fields supplies a library of standard BH curves with OPERA-2d. In


this problem, two of the standard BH curves (unisil23m3.bh and
ndfebo1t.bh) will be used. The unisil23m3.bh curve is a laminate machine
steel characteristic that will be assigned to the rotor and stator (material
labels 4 and 5). The ndfebo1t.bh curve is a typical neodymium iron boron
magnet material characteristic and will be assigned to the permanent mag-
net (material label 6).

Both curves will be loaded from the directory, <Install Dir>/bh. BH curves
are a table of points with values of flux density against values of field
strength. A valid curve must contain at least 5 points, so before any curves
have been specified, the dialog says that the curve is currently invalid.

BH data Highlight Material 4 and click on the Iso-


tropic button, followed by Edit points.

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Pre-Processing 83

The BH curve editor dialog now appears.


Using the browser available on the button
beside the Load button, select the
unisil23m3.bh curve from the <Install Dir>/
bh directory. Click on Load.

The values of B and H are loaded from the file


into the dialog to allow further editing if
required.

Click on Cancel and repeat the identical proc-


ess for Material 5 by loading the
unisil23m3.bh file again.

Click on Cancel again. For Material 6, load


the ndfebo1t.bh curve from the <Install Dir>/
bh directory.
Click on Cancel after loading the curve.

Click on Quit to exit BH data definition

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84 Pre-Processing

Mesh generation
The data is now complete and the mesh can be generated. Meshing per-
forms several check functions to ensure that the data to be submitted to the
analysis modules is correct.

Generate mesh Click on OK

The mesh is generated. The timer bar reports progress. The graphics dis-
play is a line drawing of the model. The outer boundaries of the model will
be drawn in the highlight colour (default is orange) with the interior model
drawn in white.

Any orange lines in the interior of a magnetic model indicate the mesh is
not continuous. These errors must be corrected before submitting the
model for analysis.
The display also shows the boundary conditions that are imposed on the
model. The rotating machine air gap region has imposed the symmetry
boundary conditions on the two radial boundaries of the model.

The information box that is also displayed should indicate 0 errors and 0
warnings. Any errors reported must be corrected, while warnings may
need to be corrected. Clear this box by clicking on Close.

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Pre-Processing 85

The completed mesh, including the rotating machine air gap, can now be
viewed.

Refresh
and zoom
to bounding
box

Analysis Data
The final data that must be specified before the analysis can be run is the
analysis data. The first analysis of this model is a statics (ST) analysis. Data
specifically needed by the ST module includes:
• Linear or nonlinear material properties
• Number of iterations and convergence tolerance for nonlinear analysis
• Type of nonlinear iteration (modified Newton-Raphson or simple
update)

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86 Pre-Processing

Model -> Analysis Options -> Static Analysis (ST)


Click on the Nonlinear material analysis button. The Tolerance in non-
linear analysis, Number of nonlinear iterations and type of nonlinear
iterations can now be modified. Modify the Number of nonlinear itera-
tions to 30. Click on OK.

Close the information box. The model must now be saved for analysis.

Save Set the File name to pmm (or use the browser) and click on Save and analyse
now. This will also start the analysis automatically.

OPERA-2d then reports on the progress of the solution, and when com-
pleted, will close the window automatically.

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Post-Processing 87

Post-Processing

Setting the Pre and Post-Processor Environment


The result file (pmm.st) will have been automatically loaded into the Pre
and Post-Processor, so post-processing can continue immediately.

The units system in use at the time the pmm.op2 file was written will still
be set. The CGS electromagnetic units (gauss for flux density, oersted for
field strength, siemen/cm for conductivity etc.) are commonly used but it
is probably more convenient to modify the units of energy, power and force
to the SI system.

Set units Click on the Mechanical Properties tab. Select the newton button in Force,
joule in Energy, watt in Power and kilogram in Mass. Click on OK.

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88 Post-Processing

For post-processing, it is not normally necessary to display region num-


bers, points, construction lines etc.

Set view Set the Right and Top to 5. Click on Options


for Post-processing followed by OK.

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Post-Processing 89

Line Contours of Vector Potential


One of the easiest things to check is the flux pattern. The static analysis is
solved in terms of vector potential and equipotential line contours, in XY
symmetry, are equivalent to lines of magnetic flux.

Contour map Click on Draw contours to accept the default style and component for contour
plotting.

When the first post-processing command is performed, the RMS error in


the model is calculated. This is displayed at the bottom right of the display.

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90 Post-Processing

The plot should be checked to see if the flux pattern agrees with the
expected magnetic performance of the motor. If errors appear to be present
then the model should be modified to correct the error and the analysis re-
run.

Zone Contours of Flux Density Magnitude


In addition to the magnetic lines of flux, the magnetic flux density is a good
indication of magnetic performance. The contours may be shown in a
number of different styles, for example, filled zones. This displays zones or
bands on the model geometry. Each colour band represents a range of val-
ues.

Contour map Click on the Coloured zones button and set


the Expression to Bmod (using the expression
list menu activated by the right arrow next to
the Expression box if desired). Click on
Refresh picture and draw contours to
accept.

The contour map does not show many levels within the range of flux den-
sity magnitudes (about 0 to 30 kGauss). Also, the range represented by
each colour is not easy to compute. Both these can be improved so that each
colour will now exactly represent a 1 kGauss band.

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Post-Processing 91

Contour map Click on the Automatic range button (to dese-


lect this option), then set the Maximum value to
32000 and the Number of contours to 32.
Click on Refresh picture and draw con-
tours to accept.

Line Integral
To calculate the total force and torque on a body, in this case the torque on
the rotor, an integration surface around the body is defined. Working in two
dimensional space, OPERA-2d calculates the total force and torque on a
body by summing the results of a series of line integrals encircling the
body. For the case of XY symmetry, the calculation is based on a unit length
distance in the third dimension. The line integrals must enclose the body on
which the force and torque are to be calculated in a counter-clockwise
direction. The torque is evaluated with respect to an action point. In this
model, the x and y forces and the anti-clockwise torque for one pole of the
rotor are evaluated around the (default) action point (0,0).

Line integrals can be performed in two ways - using a fixed step between
each evaluation point or adaptively by ensuring that the error at each step
is below a user specified tolerance. In this example, the second method is
used with the relative error of the integral at each step set at 0.01%. The
evaluation points used in the integral are displayed on the screen.

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92 Post-Processing

Field integrals Set the Starting angle to 0, the Final angle to 60 and the Radius to
around a circu- 2.475. Set the Number of steps or relative error to 1e-4 and click on
lar arc OK.

An information box opens showing the results of the line integral. The val-
ues of force and torque computed are per cm. length in the Z-direction.
Note that the line integral also integrates the Expression in the dialog.

Clear the box by clicking on Close.

The torque due to the one pole of the motor modelled may be found by:-
• The product of the torque given in the message box (system variable
TORQUE) and axial length (L) of the motor (since torque is calculated
as per unit length) i.e.

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Post-Processing 93

torque from one pole = TORQUE*L


• The total motor torque may be determined from the ratio of the number
of poles of the motor to the number of poles in the model (p). The total
motor torque is the product of the torque from one pole and the ratio i.e.

Total motor torque = torque from one pole*p = TORQUE*L*p

In this example, the motor has six poles (one was modelled) and is 15.3 cm
long. Thus the total torque equation would be
Total motor torque = TORQUE*15.3*6

The built in calculator in OPERA-2d may be used to perform this calcula-


tion.

User variable Set the Name to #tt and the Value to torque*15.3*6 (no spaces). Click
calculator on Set constant.

An information box reports that the total torque for the motor is about 1198
N-cm.

Clear the information box by selecting OK.

The variable name can be up to 16 characters long, but the first character
must be the # symbol. The expression uses a FORTRAN-like syntax.

The constant can be used in further expressions. For example, assuming


that the machine is rotating at 1200 rpm (the synchronous speed for a 60

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94 Post-Processing

Hz, 6-pole motor), the mechanical output power can be computed from the
product of the total torque and the angular frequency (in radians/second).

User variable Set the Name to #power and the Value to #tt/100*1200/60*2*pi (no
calculator spaces). The division by 100 converts the torque to N-m, so that the answer is
in watts. Click on Set constant.

This concludes the magnetostatic analysis of the six pole permanent mag-
net motor example. In another worked example in the OPERA-2d User
Guide, the same motor is also modelled dynamically using the OPERA-2d/
RM analysis software.

File -> Exit

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 5
Eddy Current Example: AC and
Transient

AC Analysis Case 1

In this chapter the disc example discussed in Getting Started [page 17] will
be used again and analysed with the AC and the TR solvers. Two AC cases
will be discussed, one without and one with eddy currents, and also a tran-
sient case. The forces on the disc will be calculated. The forces can be com-
pared with the results of the ST solver as well.

The file of the model created previously will be used. For convenience the
file disc.op2 is available in the folder <Install Dir>/examples/2d.

Launch the OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor.

Open Set the File name to disc.st (or use the


browser) and click on OK.

Then refresh

For the first AC case the frequency is set to 100 Hz. If the “Getting Started”
example has been done, a file called disc.mesh has been created automati-

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96 AC Analysis Case 1

cally in the working directory. In this case the mesh does not need to be cre-
ated again. Otherwise the mesh has to be generated as follows.

Generate mesh Click on OK

Close the information box that appears

The new analysis can then be prepared. It will be an analysis with linear
material properties and a frequency of 100 Hz.

Model -> Analysis Options -> Steady-State AC Analysis (AC)


Ensure the default setting of Linear analysis is selected and Adaptive
refinement is not selected. Click on the Frequency case list tab, followed
by Change, enter a new frequency of 100, and press the Replace button. This
will replace the default value of 50 Hz. Close the sub-menu with OK.

Close the dialog by selecting OK and Close the information box that appears.

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AC Analysis Case 1 97

The model must now be stored for and the analysis started.

Save Set the File name to disc_ac100_nocond.op2 (or use the browser) and
click on Save and analyse now.

Close the information box that appears.

Post-Process Case 1
When the analysis is completed, the results in file disc_ac100_nocond.ac,
which was created above.will already be loaded.

This is now a steady state cosine solution with a frequency of 100 Hz. The
results can be obtained at any angle around the AC cycle. For example the

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98 AC Analysis Case 1

magnetic flux density can be evaluated at Angle = 45 degrees similar to


the post-processing done with the ST example.

Contour map Click on the Coloured zones button and set


the Expression to Bmod.

Under Coloured zone options, set Auto-


matic range, and Number of contours to
100.

Under the Regions tab, remove the option


Exclude no materials. This allows a material
number 0 to be set for Exclude material
option.

Under AC Time options, Set the Angle to be 45


degrees.

Click on Draw contours to accept.

Force Calculation
To calculate the total force on a body, in this case the force on the disc
(region 1), an integration surface around the body is defined. Working in
two dimensional space, OPERA-2d calculates the total force on a body by
performing a series of line integrals encircling the body. The line integrals
must be in an anti-clockwise direction.

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AC Analysis Case 1 99

For force calculations in an AC solution time averaged values should be


used.

In this example, the first line would be from r = 0 to r = 10.5 at z = 6.5.

Field integrals On the X or R directed tab, define a line starting at r = 0 to r = 10.5 at z = 6.5.
along a line Set the number of steps to 1000 with a curvature of 0. Leave the Field com-
ponent Expression to be Bmod. Set the AC time to Time average. For the
Accumulator option (at the bottom of the dialog) set Zero then add. Click
on OK to accept.

A message box pops up and displays the integral of the z-component of the
Maxwell stress for the line defined above.

To find the total force, two more line integrals must be performed and the
results (integral of z-component of Maxwell Stress) must be added
together. The addition can be automatically performed by making use of
the Accumulator feature in the dialog which adds the results to a total after

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100 AC Analysis Case 1

each line integral is completed. The second line integral would be from
z = 6.5 to z = 8.5 at r = 10.5.

Field integrals On the Y or Z directed tab, define a line starting at z = 6.5 to z = 8.5 at
along a line r = 10.5. For the Accumulator option set Add. Click on OK to accept.

The third line integral would be from r = 10.5 to r = 0 at z = 8.5. Note that
the direction is important: the disc has to be surrounded anti-clockwise.

Field integrals On the X or R directed tab, define a line


along a line starting at r = 10.5 to r = 0 at z = 8.5. Click on
OK to accept.

The screenshot shows the integration path in


air surrounding the disc.

The integral of Maxwell stress is shown each time the line integral is used
as well as the accumulated integrals when the accumulator is used. It is not
necessary to integrate along the Z-axis since the three integrals describe a
cylinder that completely surrounds the plunger.

The total force on the plunger in the AC solution is Fz = -3.595 N (an


enlargement of the Information box is shown below).

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AC Analysis Case 1 101

Comparison The total force on the disc can also be calculated for the ST solution in Get-
ting Started [page 17]. The same steps have to be followed as explained
above. The total force on the disc for the static case is Fz = -7.1895 N. This
is twice the value of the AC solution. The reason for this is that the peak
current in the AC solution is the same as the value used in the ST solution.
1
The RMS value of the current is therefore ------- of the value in the static case,
2
and for a linear problem the force is proportional to the square of the cur-
rent.

Tip For a different model, for example if the disc is touching the surface of the
iron, the integration path has to be defined right on the interface between
the disc and the iron. In this case a message box will appear with a warning
that the “integration path is not all in air”. The program correctly performs
the integration by evaluating the Maxwell stresses as if the line is a vanish-
ingly narrow cut in the material. It is recommended that line integrals be
performed in air regions where possible, for improved accuracy.

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102 AC Analysis Case 2

AC Analysis Case 2

The second case features an electrical conductivity in the disc. The other
material remains unchanged. The induced eddy currents in the disc are
opposite to the primary field and therefore weaken it. It is to be expected
that the total force on the disc will be smaller.

With the file disc_ac100_nocond.ac still loaded the second case can be pre-
pared. The material properties of the disc (region 1) are changed from
material label 3 (default colour dark blue) to material label 9 (default colour
khaki). This makes it easier to recognise the model with the conducting
disc.

Modify region Pick the disc region with the mouse (see right).
by picking Change the Material label from 3 to 9. Change
the Conductivity from 0 to 6 E+06.
Click on OK to accept.

6
With a conductivity of 6 ⋅ 10 S ⁄ m , a permeability of 100 and a frequency
of 100 Hz there is a skin depth of 0.205 cm. The equation for the skin-depth
δ is:
1
δ = ---------------------------------------- (5.1)
π ⋅ f ⋅ µ0 ⋅ µ ⋅ σ

In order to model eddy currents and skin effect it is recommended to use 3


elements for the first skin depth, 2 elements for the second, and 1 element
for the third skin depth.

For the disc example as discussed above the mesh has to be refined to meet
these requirements. Region 1 (the disc) will be changed from a “polygon

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


AC Analysis Case 2 103

shape region” to a “regular quad shape H region”. Note: this can only be
done if the region is bounded by 4 sides.

Modify -> Change Region Shape Code


Set the First region to 1 and also the Last region to 1. Change the Shape
code to Regular quad (H). Close the menu with OK.

Refresh Refresh and display the mesh in order to see


the regular mesh in the disc region.

The mesh in the background region is not


Display mesh
needed at this stage, as further modifications
will be made.

There is now a regular mesh in region 1. One further modification will be


made to “grade” the mesh towards the lower surface of the disc.

Modify side by Click at (0.1, 7.5) and set the Number of ele-
picking ments to 8 and the Bias to 0.9. Close the
menu with OK.

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104 AC Analysis Case 2

Refresh The side at (9.9, 7.5) can be modified in the


same way; here with a bias of 0.1 (also 8 ele-
ments).
Generate mesh Close the information box.

Refresh Refresh and display the final mesh.

The case 2 model featuring the conducting disc will be solved with the
same analysis options (linear solution with 100 Hz). Therefore no further
options will have to be set before saving the model.

Save Set the File name to


disc_ac100_withcond.op2 (or use the
browser) and click on Save and analyse now.

Post-Process Case 2
The file disc_ac100_withcond.ac, which was created above, will be auto-
matically loaded.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


AC Analysis Case 2 105

The induced eddy currents in the disc can now be displayed.

Contour map Set the Expression to be J.

Under the Style options, select Coloured


Zones button.

Under Coloured zone options, set Auto-


matic range and set the number of contours to
100.

On the Regions tab, untick the Include all


materials option and set the Materials to
include box to 9.

Set the AC time to Amplitude.

Close the menu with the Draw contours but-


ton.

The total force on the disc is evaluated in the same way as before in case 1,
using time average values.

The total force on the disc for the second case is Fz = -3.02 N. The value is
smaller compared to the first case due to the eddy currents.

This finishes the AC example. The current session should be left open with
the model loaded ready to run the TR analysis.

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106 TR Analysis

TR Analysis

A transient analysis is performed in this section. The solver includes sev-


eral different drive functions (DC, RAMP, EXPONENTIAL, SINE,
COSINE, and TimeTable). In this example the drive used will be
COSINE with a frequency of 100 Hz. This keeps the example simple and
allows a comparison with the results of the AC analysis.

Region 1 will be given an additional conductor number first. On setting the


analysis options, this number will be assigned to a cosine drive function.
The instructions in this section continue from the previous AC section.
With the model still loaded similar to Figure 4, on page 22 the TR analysis
can be prepared.

Modify region Pick the coil region with the mouse (see right).
by picking Change the Conductor number from 0 to 1.

The modify operation has deleted the mesh. Therefore the mesh should be
generated again, before the analysis options will be set.

Generate mesh

Refresh Refresh and display the final mesh.

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TR Analysis 107

It is recommended to run the TR analysis for a few AC cycles until the ini-
tial transients have decayed, and then compare the results with the previous
AC results. In this case 4 AC cycles are set up.

Model -> Analysis Options -> Transient Time Varying Analysis (TR)
Ensure the default setting of Linear material
analysis is selected.

In the Time stepping tab, ensure the Adaptive


step option is set.

In the Output times tab, select Change, and


enter the times as follows: 0, 0.005, 0.01,
0.015, 0.02, 0.025, 0.03, 0.035, 0.04 (selecting
Add after each value is input). Select OK to exit
input of output times.
On the Drive tab, select Change and then select
the conductor number 1 and assign a Cosine
drive with a Frequency of 100 and a Phase of
0. Close by selecting OK.

Close the Transient analysis option dialog by


selecting OK, and closing the popup informa-
tion window.

Having closed the “Transient analysis” window, the model can be saved
and then solved.

Save Set the File name to disc_tr.op2 (or use


the browser) and click Save and analyse
now.

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108 TR Analysis

The analysis set up in this example calculates 4 AC cycles, i.e. 40 ms. It is


recommended to do further tests with different parameters; for example run
it for 20 AC cycles, or tighten the “Tolerance for adaptive time stepping”.

Post-Process the TR model


The model disc_tr.tr contains 9 “cases”, each case representing an output
time defined above. By default the first case is loaded, containing the out-
put time t = 0.

Open Set the File name to disc_tr.tr (or use


the browser) and set Number to be 5 (this will
load the 5th case stored in the database). Select
OK.
Refresh

Case 5 holds the solution at t = 20 ms. For a cosine with a frequency of


100 Hz this is the peak value after 2 AC cycles. Having loaded Case 5, the
solution can be examined - for example the magnetic flux lines can be dis-
played. Case 5 of the TR model corresponds to the AC solution (previously
run) with the AC Time set to ANGLE=0.

To load another case, a complete case list can be seen with

File -> Read Another Case...

Tip If a comparison of the AC and the TR model shows up any unexpected


results, it is recommended to improve the quality of the mesh first. The disc
model is a very basic example of a mesh, with an RMS error of more than
10%.

To end the current session now and close the Pre and Post-Processor:

File -> Exit

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 6
Dynamic Analysis of a PM Motor

Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

In A Permanent Magnet Motor Example [page 51], a 6-pole permanent


magnet motor is examined using magnetostatic analysis (ST) module. This
same motor is now examined dynamically using the rotating machines
analysis (RM) software.

The magnetostatic analysis of the motor assumed that when operating at


synchronous speed the flux pattern in the motor would be “frozen” in a
coordinate system rotating synchronously with the rotor. This is a com-
monly used approximation for synchronous machines and allows rapid vir-
tual prototyping at the design stage. Effects such as slotting and armature
reaction mmf harmonics are ignored.

When a final design has been obtained, it is often necessary to examine the
motor’s performance dynamically. The OPERA-2d/RM analysis has been
designed for this. A time-stepping solution to the transient electromagnetic
equation is obtained allowing the rotor to rotate by the appropriate angle at
each time step. For more information see the OPERA-2d Reference Man-
ual.

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110 Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

Loading the static analysis model


Open If the user has built the model in chapter 9, read in the file pmm.op2. If not, the
pmm.op2 file can be found in the <Install Dir>/examples/2d directory. Click
on OK.

Set units The pmm.op2 model was constructed in CGS units. For this example, it is bet-
ter to use the more familiar SI units for mechanical properties. Click on the
Mechanical properties tab. Select the newton button in Force, joule in
Energy, watt in Power and kilogram in Mass. Click on OK.

Zoom bound-
ing box

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Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis 111

External circuits
The magnetostatic model used defined current sources in the stator slots to
provide the armature mmf in the model. In the RM model, the armature
windings will be connected to a 3-phase power supply using external cir-
cuits. OPERA-2d/RM will determine the currents in the windings by solv-
ing the circuit equations in conjunction with the electromagnetic field
equations. The first task is to remove the defined current sources from the
stator winding regions.

Modify -> Modify Region Parameters


Set the First region or group to 2, the Last region to 4 and the Current
or charge density to 0. Click on Modify. Close the information box that
appears (only if a mesh file has been read) and click on Cancel.

External circuits are created by connecting power supplies and passive


external components (such as resistors and inductors) to the conductors in
the model. When the stator windings were created, each region was also

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


112 Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

given a conductor number. To make it easy to define the circuits, these can
be displayed instead of the region numbers.

Set view Click on the Region labels tab and the Con-
ductor numbers button (coordinate limits
were set when zooming to the bounding box
earlier so do not require changing), followed
by OK.

Three circuits are to be defined for this model (representing the three
phases). The coils will be considered to be filaments i.e. there are sufficient
turns in each coil that the distribution of current in each turn can be consid-
ered uniform and eddy current effects can be ignored. In a Cartesian coor-
dinate model, the length of the circuit in the Z-direction must be given (in
this case, the same length as the motor = 15.3 cm) and the connections of
the conductors making up the circuit to other conductors in the images
implied by the boundary conditions. In this motor, we shall assume that
there is only one “parallel” path in each phase i.e. each phase has a conduc-
tor connected in series in all the images. The values of the passive compo-
nents and voltage supply external to the model are also given as global
parameters for the circuit.

When these global parameters for the circuit have been defined, the user
also specifies the characteristics of each conductor making up the circuit.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis 113

These are the number of turns, the resistance / unit length of the wire and
the direction (go or return).

Model -> External Circuits -> Create


Set the Symmetry to 6, the Length to 15.3, the Peak voltage to
110*sqrt(2), the Resistance to 1e-6 and the Inductance to 1e-6.
Click on Create new circuit.

Set the Conductor number to 1. Set the Number of turns to 5, the Resistance
per unit length to 2e-3 and click on the Go button.

Click on Add followed by Cancel. An information box appears saying that the
first circuit has been stored. Clear this box to define the second circuit.
The global parameters for all 3 circuits are identical - so the user may click on
Create new circuit immediately. Note that the expression 110*sqrt(2)
has been evaluated.
Using the pull down button on the right of the Conductor number box, select
2. Click on the Return button and set the Number of turns to 5 and the
Resistance per unit length to 2e-3. Click on Add followed by Cancel.

Click on Create new circuit for the 3rd circuit

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114 Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

Conductor number 3 is a Go conductor. Complete the other boxes as for cir-


cuits 1 and 2. Click on Add followed by Cancel.
Cancel from the External circuit parameters box as well.

The definition of the circuits can be checked.

List

Any errors can be corrected using


Model -> External Circuits -> Edit.

Rotating Machine Analysis Data


The remaining task to complete preprocessing for the OPERA-2d/RM
analysis is to specify the analysis specific data. The RM analysis options
allow the transient parameters to be set (time stepping, output times, drive
functions etc.) and specification of the mechanical interaction (moment of
inertia, load torque etc.). It also allows the results that are logged at every

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis 115

time step to be specified. These can include mechanical properties, such as


angle and speed, and the instantaneous value of current in the circuits

Model -> Analysis Options -> Rotating Machine (RM)


Set the Number of nonlinear iterations to 10. Adaptive time stepping will
be used in this analysis with the default parameter values.

Click on the Output times tab. Click on Change to specify the times when a
complete solution of the model is to be output to the solution file.

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116 Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

The motor will be close to synchronism after about 0.1 seconds. Several other
output times will also be specified. This allows the analysis to be restarted
from any of these times if, for example, a different mechanical load was
required after a certain time. Set the New output time to 0.005. Click on
Add. Repeat for times 0.01, 0.02, 0.05 and 0.1. Click on OK.

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Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis 117

Click on the Drive tab. The three circuits will be specified as cosine drives at
60 Hz. with different phase angles. Click on Change to set these.

The phase angle of circuit 1 is 150 degrees i.e. the voltage applied to the circuit
will reach its peak positive value at ωt = 150° . Click on Circuit 1 and the
Cosine Drive type button. Set the Frequency to 60 and the Phase angle to
150. Click on Apply to update the definition of the Function for Circuit 1.

Circuits 2 and 3 are similarly defined except that their phase angles are -90
and 30 degrees respectively.

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118 Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

Click on Cancel when all 3 drives have been set.

Click on the Logging tab. The currents in the 3 circuits will be monitored dur-
ing the transient, as well as the electromagnetic torque, the speed of the rotor
and its angular position. Click on Change to add these system variables to the
logged values.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis 119

The name of the log file will be derived from the name of the analysis data
.op2 filename. Click on the From data file name button. In the Component
fields 2 through 7, enter i1, i2, i3, rmangle, rmtorque and rmspeed.
Click on OK.

The final analysis options to be specified are the rotational properties.


OPERA-2d/RM supports three types of rotation:
• Fixed speed
• User specified variable speed
• Mechanical rigid body rotational dynamics

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120 Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis

Within the last category, two methods can be used to define the rigid body
dynamics equations. Using the user specified moment of inertia, the angu-
lar acceleration of the rotor is evaluated by the program from the sum of the
computed electromagnetic torque and the applied load, friction torque and
variable speed torque. Alternatively, the user can create a command input
(.comi) file which computes a user defined constant called #ACCEL using
any available system variable such as RMTORQUE, RMSPEED etc. The
latter option allows sophisticated control of the machine such as speed gov-
ernors or time varying load torque. In this example, however, the simple
torque / angular acceleration equation will be used.

The motor will be started without any applied load. Only a friction load
torque will be specified. The friction load always acts in the opposite direc-
tion to the rotation. Note that the torque values specified are total values for
the motor.

Click on the Rotation tab. Click on the Mechanic coupling button. Set the
Magnetic length of the rotor to 15.3 (cm), the Moment of rotor iner-
tia to 1 (kg cm2) and the Frictional torque to 200 (N-cm). Click on OK.

The analysis data is now complete. The data file can be saved and the anal-
ysis executed.

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Introduction to Rotating Machine Analysis 121

Save Set the File name to pmm rotating (or use the browser). Click on OK.

Close the information box.


Model -> Start Analysis

The file name should already be in the dialog. Click on OK to start the analysis.
The Pre and Post-Processor can still be used while the analysis proceeds.

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122 Analysis

Analysis

The transient RM analysis will start. As the voltages in some of the circuits
will be non-zero at time t = 0, the program solves an initial DC nonlinear
problem using a current in each circuit computed purely from the total cir-
cuit resistance and the instantaneous value of the applied voltage.

The analysis then continues to solve the transient electromagnetic field


equations moving the rotor by an appropriate amount for the computed
acceleration at each time step. The analysis will start with the minimum
time step that the model can support. The time-step will then be adjusted
adaptively to ensure:
• the computed error for the time-step is below the user specified toler-
ance (0.1%)
• nonlinear convergence is obtained within 10 iterations
• the maximum allowable time-step for stability is not exceeded

At any time during the analysis, the log file which is monitoring the cur-
rents in the circuits and the mechanical properties can be examined. The log
file is a text file with columns of numbers showing the instantaneous values
of the monitored expressions. It can be copied into a spreadsheet or docu-
ment. It can also be examined using the graph drawing facility in OPERA-
2d/PP. The columns of the file are addressed by system variables COL1,
COL2 etc. (up to COL7 in this case). The default is to draw COL2 against
COL1, which in this case will correspond to drawing the current in circuit
1 (i1) against the transient time (ttime).

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Analysis 123

File -> Graph Data in Text File


Set the File name to pmm rotating.log
(or use the browser). Click on OK.

The graph shows the current in circuit 1 up to about the first 2 msec. of the
transient. The GRAPH command loads all columns from the log file when
it is executed. Any other expression involving the COLn system variables
can also be plotted by executing another Graph data in text file
instruction. However, the .log file must be re-read if the variables are to be
updated to the transient time which the analysis has reached.

Note that RMANGLE (column 5) and RMSPEED (column 7) are in radi-


ans and radians / second respectively. RMTORQUE is a value per unit
length i.e. N-cm / cm length in this case.

Figure 8 shows the currents in the 3 circuits for the duration of the analysis.
The waveforms over the last cycle or so are becoming almost identical in
each phase indicating that the transient effects from starting are decaying
and the motor is approaching synchronous operation.

This is further demonstrated by plotting the angular speed (in RPM) and the
angle of rotation (in revolutions) against time, as shown in figures 9 and 10
respectively. The rotor is settling to its synchronous speed (-1200 RPM)
and the angle of rotation is tending to increase (in a negative direction) lin-
early with time. If the motor had attained synchronism instantly, it would

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


124 Analysis

have complete 2 complete revolutions in the first 0.1 seconds but the initial
transients - especially the small excursion in the opposite direction at the
beginning of the transient - mean that it has only completed about 1.8 rev-
olutions. l

Figure 8 Currents in circuits during transient

Figure 9 Angular speed during transient

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Analysis 125

Figure 10 Angle during transient

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


126 Post-Processing

Post-Processing

OPERA-2d/RM solutions can be post-processed in the same way as other


OPERA-2d analyses. The .rm solution file contains solutions from all the
output times requested by the user once the analysis is complete. These
solutions are termed cases. A case list can be obtained showing how the
case number relates to the output time.

Open Set the File name to pmm rotating.rm (or


use the browser). Click on OK.

Set view Click on Options for Post-processing fol-


lowed by Quit.

The graphics display shows the displaced position of the original rotor pole
at this time during the transient. Note also that the speed (in RPM) is dis-
played in the information box.

Flux plots

Contour map Click on Levels and values tab. Automatic


range and set the Number of contours to 10.

Click on the Style tab. Click on the Single


colour lines button and using the expression
list menu set the Expression to POT. Click on
Draw contours

Note how the periodicity boundary conditions have also been enforced azi-
muthally in the air gap so that contours leaving the stator side at the gap re-

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Post-Processing 127

appear at the rotor side. In fact, the rotor side contours are the negative of
the stator side because of the negative symmetry condition.

To obtain results from other cases, a case list is generated.

File -> Read Another Case


Click on Case 3: Time=0.02 followed by OK.

Zoom out (*2) Click on Draw contours

Contour map

Note that the rotor and stator are now completely detached from each other
but the rotating machine gap region still enforces the periodicity.

Currents in circuits
The pmm rotating.res file created during the OPERA-2d/RM analysis con-
tains the currents in the circuits at the output times. The values for the

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


128 Post-Processing

loaded case can also be obtained in the Pre and Post-Processor by listing
the circuits.

List

Close the information box.

The program also translates the currents into current density values in the
regions making up the circuits.

Contour map Click on the Coloured zones button and using


the expression list set the Expression to J.
Click on Draw contours.

Although the current in circuits 2 and 3 are of opposite sign, the current
density is the same sign because the conductor in circuit 2 is a Return
while circuit 3 is a Go.

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Post-Processing 129

This completes the dynamic analysis of the permanent magnet motor


example.

File -> Exit

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130 Post-Processing

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 7
Stress Analysis Notes and Examples

A review of stress analysis

Stress
Stress is force per unit area. There are three different forms of stress. In
each of the following cases we assume unit thickness normal to the paper.

F
α
W F F
Y
L δ L δ
W
X
(A) Tension (B) Compression (C) Shear
Figure 11 Definitions of stress

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (unit: force per unit area)


G = shear modulus (unit: force per unit area)

(a) Tension
f
Tensile stress (force per unit area) σ x = ----
w
σx
Strain (dimensionless) ε x = ------
E

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132 A review of stress analysis

Extension δ=Lεx
By convention tensile stress is positive.

(b) Compression
f
Compressive stress (force per unit area) σ x = ----
w
σx
Strain (dimensionless) ε x = ------
E
Compression δ=Lεx
By convention compressive stress is negative.

(c) Shear
f
Shear stress (force per unit area) σ xy = ----
w
σ xy
Shear strain (radians) α = --------
G
In a right-handed axis system, positive shear is defined by the right-
hand rule, i.e. α is positive anti-clockwise measured from the undis-
placed shape. The shear in the diagram is negative.

Plane stress and Plane stress may be seen by considering Figure 11 (a) for tension.
plane strain
problems If the rectangle represents a thin sheet of isotropic material which is not
prevented from contracting in the direction normal to the paper when it is
stretched, then a state of plane stress exists.

If the thickness were infinite in the direction normal to the paper, then each
plane parallel to the paper would be constrained to remain plane, and a state
of plane strain would exist. Stresses would be developed in the direction
normal to the paper, their magnitudes being determined by the Poisson’s
ratio of the material.

In practice plane stress and plane strain rarely exist in isolation and the sit-
uation will be somewhere between the two extremes.

Note:
• Plane strain will usually result in higher calculated stresses.
• Plane stress will usually result in higher calculated displacements.

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A review of stress analysis 133

Poisson’s ratio Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio between transverse strain and longi-
tudinal strain when plane stress exists:

δ2/2

W L δ1

δ2/2
Figure 12 Definition of Poisson’s ratio

δ1 δ2
From Figure 12, it may be seen that ε 1 = ----- and ε 2 = ----- . This gives
L W
ε2
Poisson’s ratio as ν = -----
ε1

Axisymmetry In axisymmetric problems the stresses are known as


• radial σr
• axial σz
• rz shear σrz

Figure 13 The axisymmetric case

There is an additional type of stress which is either tensile or compressive:–


• circumferential stress σc

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134 A review of stress analysis

Assuming the rz plane lies in the surface of the paper, then circumferential
stress and strain are normal to the paper.

Circumferential stress is very important in pressure vessels, since it is usu-


ally twice the axial stress, and is likely to be the reason for failure (though
not always the cause of failure, which might be embrittlement of the mate-
rial and consequent crack development).

Most magnet problems will be either plane strain or axisymmetric (axisym-


metry may be considered as a special case of plane strain).

Finite Element Computation

The Finite As for electromagnetic analysis, the structural analysis in OPERA-2d is


Element Method carried out by discretising the regions of a 2D model into triangular ele-
ments.

Each node is said to possess two degrees of freedom. Conventionally these


are in the x and y directions. A model with 1000 nodes will therefore have
2000 degrees of freedom (that is, 2000 independent directions in which
movement may take place when the model is subjected to stresses and
strains.

Corresponding to each degree of freedom, it is possible to formulate an


equation which relates the force imposed on that degree of freedom to the
set of all the displacements imposed on all the degrees of freedom of the
whole model. The set of equations for all the degrees of freedom may be
written in matrix form:
Kδ = f (7.2)

where

K – the global stiffness matrix


δ – the global vector of displacements
f – the global vector of applied forces on the degrees of freedom at the
nodes.

The applied forces may be specified, together with any known fixed dis-
placements.

The global stiffness matrix and vector of forces are then formed.

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A review of stress analysis 135

The equation is solved to obtain the global vector of displacements. Using


this solution vector, the stresses in the materials are computed. This is
known as the stiffness method.

Modelling

Stand alone Using the stress analysis as a stand alone module allows the mesh devel-
analysis oped to be refined where the gradients of the stress (and displacement) are
expected to be large.

Coupled If electromagnetic results are to be coupled to the stress and thermal anal-
problems ysis modules, it is necessary to transfer information such as Lorentz forces
and Joule heating from electromagnetic solution to the structural and/or
thermal model. In these cases the mesh developed for the electromagnetic
analysis is used for the other two analyses.

The electromagnetic mesh may have been refined in order to obtain accu-
rate estimates of magnetic fields. This may not be adequate in regions
where high stresses prevail, such as holes or notches which may not be
highly discretised for the electromagnetic solution. A compromise is usu-
ally needed.

Saint-Venant’s Principle applies in stress analysis:


“The strains produced in a body by the application, to a small part
of its surface, of a system of forces statically equivalent to zero
force and zero couple, are of negligible magnitude at distances
which are large compared with the linear dimensions of that part of
the surface.”

This means that the effects of the way in which a force or constraint is
applied tend to be localised. It is this principle which allows a force to be
applied as a point load, for example, since in theory a point load would
inflict an infinite stress at the point of application (in practice it is impossi-
ble to apply a force at a point).

Finite Element The finite elements used are triangles, with linear or quadratic shape func-
Mesh tions as for the electromagnetic analysis.

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136 A review of stress analysis

• A linear shape function assumes that, given the nodal displacements of


an element, the displacement at any point in the element may be
expressed as a linear function of the nodal displacements
• A quadratic shape function uses a quadratic function of the nodal dis-
placements.

Elements with large aspect ratios are to be avoided. The automatic mesh
generator attempts to form elements with small aspect ratios.

Aspect ratios greater than 10 should be used with care. Check the solution
carefully to see whether it is a realistic result.

The problems caused by high aspect ratios are that the elements may be
incapable of correctly representing local changes in strain and stress. Also
an ill-conditioned set of equations may result. When solved these will give
a completely incorrect set of displacements.

Example Consider a region of a model when subjected to bending stresses.

This simple beam is being bent by moments applied to its ends, and which
is subdivided into a single layer of triangular elements as shown in
Figure 14.

compression
strain

tension

Figure 14 A simple beam

The strain in such a beam varies linearly across the depth of the beam, as
shown in the right hand diagram of Figure 14. A linear triangular element
is only capable of representing a constant rate of strain within it (which is
why it is often called a constant strain element)

It cannot represent the variation of strain across the beam. Ten or more lay-
ers of elements may be needed in such cases.

However, a single layer of quadratic elements would suffice, because the


quadratic variation is able to represent linearly varying strain within itself
(which is why it is called a linear strain element).

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A review of stress analysis 137

Material Properties
The material type determines how much information must be provided to
the Pre and Post-Processor.

Isotropic The properties are the same in all 3 orthogonal directions.


materials • Stress Analysis:
One value of Young’s modulus E and one value of Poisson’s Ratio
define the material.
The thermal expansion integral (if needed) will be the same in both
directions in the plane
There is a single value of shear modulus G. Young’s modulus, shear
stress and Poisson’s ratio are related so only two of these need be sup-
plied usually E and ν (the program checks for consistency).

Anisotropic Materials may have different properties in three orthogonal directions (the
materials principal axes, set at some angle to the x, y and z axes of the problem).

Such materials are characterised by


Eii Young’s modulus in principal direction i
νij Poisson’s ratio
Gij In-plane shear modulus
αi Expansion integral in principal direction i

Eii is Young’s modulus in a plane defined by the i axis.

νij is defined as the ratio of strains in a plane ij under plane stress (ratio
strain in direction j to strain in direction i for stress in direction i).

The following types of material may be defined in the Pre and Post-Proc-
essor.

Orthotropic, Plane stress: specify (E11,E22,ν12,G12)


Orthotropic, Plane strain: specify (E11,E22,E33,ν21,ν31,ν32,G12)
Transversely isotropic, plane stress: specify (E11,E22,ν12,ν21,G)
Transversely isotropic, plane strain: specify (E11,E22,ν12,ν21,G)
Axisymetrically stratified: specify (E11,E22,ν12,ν21,G)
(in all cases plane 1-2 coincides with plane x-y - see Figure 15):

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138 A review of stress analysis

Stata normal to 1-2 and x-y plane


Transversely Isotropic

Strata normal to 1-2 and r-z plane


Axi-Symmetrically Stratified
Figure 15 Planar materials

Material properties can vary quite widely depending on the history of the
material. When a metal ingot is cast, its Young’s modulus and yield
strength are usually quite low; they improve dramatically when the mate-
rial is worked (for example, rolled or drawn). Values quoted in material
standards are usually minima for material which has been subjected to nor-
mal working.

Constraints
Sufficient constraints must be applied to the model if a valid solution is to
be obtained from a structural analysis. In 2D only 3 degrees of freedom are
possible for a rigid body: translation in x and y directions, and rotation
about the z axis; therefore the minimum number of degrees of freedom
requiring constraint is three. However, these must be chosen such that the
translations and rotation are prevented. A 2D model with 1000 nodes will

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A review of stress analysis 139

have, after minimal constraint has been applied, 1997 degrees of freedom
and will give rise to a set of 1997 simultaneous equations.

It does not matter if a model is over-constrained, providing this is what is


required in the problem. What constitutes sufficient constraint is that trans-
lation and rotation of the model as a whole (known as free body movement)
must be prevented.

You are not limited to specifying zero displacements at constraints. Speci-


fying non-zero values allow you to compute the effects of initial strains
which may be built into your model; such strains might be caused during
assembly of the final components, for example.

It is possible to apply skewed constraint: a node, or set of nodes, may be


constrained to move along a straight line at a specified angle to the x axis.

Pressures
To specify pressures (which are normal to surfaces), the method used by
OPERA-2d is general.

The surface traction is specified. These are the components in x and y (or r
and z) directions of forces per unit area of surface. The force may be at any
angle (even parallel) to a surface.

The expression analysis capabilities of OPERA-2d make this method much


more versatile than is usually the case. For example, to apply pressure to
the inside of a hollow sphere, the user defines the LOAD as follows:
r direction: p*r/sqrt(r**2+z**2)
z direction: p*z/sqrt(r**2+z**2)

and when the radial displacement is required to be plotted, COMPONENT


is set to
sqrt(dispr**2+dispz**2)

Thermal Expansion
It is possible to specify a thermal expansion integral for a material. This is
the positive value given by:
T2
∫T1 α dT (7.3)

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140 A review of stress analysis

where α is the expansion coefficient, and the material is heated from T1 to


T2.

A negative value represents thermal contraction due to cooling. Changes in


dimensions and stresses due to constraint will be computed.

For large changes of temperature, material properties such as Young’s mod-


ulus may vary. In the case of some polymers and elastomers, the thermal
expansion coefficient may be affected by stress.

The thermal expansion integral may be used as a means of specifying initial


strains.

Failure Theories
There is no one theory which may be used to predict failure of a stressed
component. The choice of theory will depend not only on the type of mate-
rial, but on the way in which it is used, the nature of the loading etc. Mate-
rials which are subjected to cyclic stresses (and electromagnets may be in
this class) may fail due to fatigue; this type of failure is extremely complex
and may require a great deal of information about the material and the
stresses, temperatures and even environment to which the component is
subjected (for example, the presence of alkali or acid or even just air may
affect the stress and/or time at which failure occurs). Particularly in brittle
materials (or materials made brittle locally by temperature or fatigue) fail-
ure may start at a notch or crack. For steady stresses the common theories
are:
• maximum stress failure occurs when the maximum stress (usually ten-
sile) in the material reaches a limiting value.
• maximum strain failure occurs when the maximum strain reaches a lim-
iting value.
• maximum shear failure occurs when the maximum shear stress reaches
a limiting value.
• strain energy failure occurs when the strain energy reaches the strain
energy at failure in a tensile test.
• shear strain energy (or Von Mises theory) failure occurs when the shear
strain energy reaches a limiting value determined by a tensile test.

The limiting value may sometimes be taken as the stress (or strain energy)
when the material fails completely in a tensile test, but it is probably more

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A review of stress analysis 141

useful to use the value at yield (which is when the material ceases to be
elastic, and some deformation is permanent).

Note that elastic behaviour may be linear, or nonlinear; a material such as


glass will (under normal conditions of loading) exhibit linear elasticity all
the way up to breaking stress, whereas rubber and plastics will be almost
entirely nonlinear. Metal such as steel remain reasonably linear until the
yield point is approached. Since in general material is used at stresses well
below yield, it is usually assumed to have linear elasticity.

Whichever stress is used as the limiting stress, it is necessary to apply a


safety factor. The actual stress (or strain energy) in the material is not
allowed to exceed the limiting value divided by this factor. Typical safety
factors are:
• For ductile materials at room temperature 3 to 4 on the breaking stress,
1.5 to 2 on the yield stress
• For brittle materials such as glass, a much larger factor may be used,
such as 10 or 20.

The stresses computed by OPERA-2d may not be the maximum. The max-
imum stress will be the larger of the two principal stresses, which are
obtained from the x and y stresses by:

2 2
σ x + σy σ x – σ y 2
p = ------------------ ± ----------------------- + ρ xy (7.4)
2 4

The maximum shear stress is half the difference of these two principal
stresses.
In axisymmetric problems the circumferential stress is the third principal
stress, and is likely to be greater than that calculated above.

Much of the above assumes (tacitly) that materials fail in tension. This is
not always the case, since high compressive stresses lead to high shear
stresses which may cause failure. This may be the mode of failure for a
short column.

However, a long column or strut will fail due to instability (i.e. applying an
axial load to a thin wooden or metal strip, when the load is increased the
strip will suddenly bow).

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142 A review of stress analysis

The Nature of Failure


Failure will not occur at some random position in a material. It will begin
to occur at some point where the stress is made higher by the presence of a
stress concentrator. This may be a sharp re-entrant corner, a hole or perhaps
a crack, scratch or imperfection introduced either during manufacture, or
during service.

The designer avoids sharp re-entrant corners by introducing fillets into the
design. However there may be little control over scratches and surface
imperfections. The reason that these imperfections have little effect is that
in ductile materials (most metals) a high local stress causes local yielding,
and this local yielding relieves the high stress. Because it is tensile stress
that causes failure in this way, highly stressed components are often sub-
jected to surface treatments such as polishing, rolling or shot-preening,
which by reducing scratches and introducing compressive surface stresses,
offset the tensile stresses at imperfections.

Certain common treatments such as metal plating cause surface embrittle-


ment which may cause subsequent failure, and appropriate relieving heat
treatment may be essential.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Example - A Simple Beam 143

Example - A Simple Beam

This example of a simple beam will illustrate the use of the Pre and Post-
Processor with the stress analysis module. Methods of building the model,
solving and post-processing are given including:
• Mechanical material properties
• Constraint conditions
• Load conditions
• Tables for pre and post-processing
• Display of deformation

The beam is assumed to be infinitely long in the third (z) direction e.g. a
shelf or platform, fixed at the y axis and loaded at the far end. The model
is made up of a single region (see Figure 16).

Figure 16 The complete model

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


144 Example - A Simple Beam

Pre-processing

Setting the Pre Launch OPERA-2d and enter the Pre and Post-Processor in the normal
and Post- way. In this example the default SI units will be used.
Processor
Environment

Entering the The material definition for the beam is as shown below:
polygon region

Select the Select Polygon option, and set the Material label to 3.
Region Prop-
erties button

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Example - A Simple Beam 145

Create the region by specifying a series of XY coordinates, as follows:

Select the Pol- Enter the X and Y coordinates 0 and 7 respectively:


ygon Coordi-
nates button

Having entered the coordinates, click on Corner.

Continue to enter region vertices with coordinates as follows.


X Y
10 7
10 8
5 8
5 8.5

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146 Example - A Simple Beam

Enter the last vertex of the polygon and subsequently close the polygon as
instructed below:

Enter the X and Y coordinates 0 and 8.5 respec-


tively:

Click on Corner to enter the coordinates, fol-


lowed by Close Polygon. Hit Cancel
to exit the Dialog.

Enter the subdivision data one by one as shown below. The user can select
the appropriate subdivision or click on Other to enter this manually.

Modify -> Modify Side Subdivision by Picking


Set the subdivision for the first edge to be 50,
and the Bias to Uniform.

Having entered the appropriate subdivision for a particular side, hit Pick
to select the side, based on the information given in the Table below. Hav-

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Example - A Simple Beam 147

ing entered the data for all sides, select Quit. The subdivision of each
side is shown below:

Table 1: Region Side Subdivisions

Vertex 1 Vertex 2 Subdivision

(0,7) (10,7) 50
(10,7) (10,8) 3
(10,8) (5,8) 16
(5,8) (5,8.5) 3
(5,8.5) (0,8.5) 16
(0,8.5) (0,7) 5

Generate the finite element mesh by clicking on the Generate mesh button,
, and note that there is a warning relating to potential settings.

Entering the It is necessary to define the mechanical material data constants for the
mechanical beam. To do this select
material data

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Materials


Select Material number 3 and select Edit:

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148 Example - A Simple Beam

When Edit is selected, the Stress and Thermal Material Properties


dialog appears and should be completed as shown below:

Enter values for Young’s modulus (2.1e11) and Poisson’s ratio (0.29).

Now select OK.

A message box appears informing the user that material data has been
checked successfully. The Shear Modulus is automatically calculated and
now appears in the box. Select Cancel twice to exit all dialog boxes.

Refresh the screen by selecting the Refresh button.

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Example - A Simple Beam 149

Entering the To constrain the problem select


mechanical
boundary
conditions

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Boundary Conditions


Select the Load option, and set X and Y force
components to be 0 and 50.

Now select Pick Side and mouse click at posi-


tion (9.9, 7.5)

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150 Example - A Simple Beam

In a similar manner, fix the position of the beam at X=0 as follows:

Check the Constrained in both box with 0


movement in X and Y.
Select Pick Side and mouse click at position
(0.0, 7.75)

Close the dialog by clicking on Cancel.

Completing the The Stress Analysis data must now be prepared. .


Pre-processing

Model -> Analysis Options -> Stress Analysis (SA)


Select the Strain option.

Save Set the File name to beam (or use the


browser). Click on Save and analyse now.

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Example - A Simple Beam 151

Post-Processing

Loading the Read in the solution file beam.sa. You will notice that the solution tables
results into the available are also read in automatically. A message box is displayed which
Pre and Post- informs the user of the new variable names included in the solution file.
Processor
Set the viewing options as follows:

Select the Set Click on the Region Style tab and select No
View button filling, material outlines:

Select the OK button.

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152 Example - A Simple Beam

Displaying the The deformation due to loading may be viewed as a deformed mesh.
results as a
deformed mesh

Select the Con- Select No contours.


tour map but- Under the Other options tab, select Displace
ton nodes and set the Displacement in X to be
DISPX*1e6, and Displacement in Y to be
DISPY*1e6:

Select Refresh picture and draw


contours

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Example - A Simple Beam 153

Displaying the To examine the stresses in the beam select:


stress
components

Click on the Under Style tab select Coloured zones option.


the Contour Set component to SIGMAX then select Draw Contours.
map button

The result is shown in Figure 17

Figure 17 Display of Stress - X component

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154 Example - A Simple Beam

The Y component can be shown in a similar fashion, by selecting compo-


nent SIGMAY.

Figure 18 Display of stress - Y components

Other components may be examined in a similar way with or without the


deformed mesh options set.

Leaving the Pre To leave the Pre and Post-Processor select:


and Post- File -> Exit
Processor

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 8
Thermal Analysis Notes and Examples

Thermal Analysis

There are two thermal analysis modules available: steady-state and tran-
sient.

The steady-state thermal analysis module solves the thermal diffusion


equation in a finite element model of thermally conducting media. The
solution to the analysis is the steady-state temperature distribution through-
out the model.

The equation solved is


∇ ⋅ k ∇T = – Q (8.5)

where T is the temperature, k is the thermal conductivity and Q represents


the heat source density.

The transient thermal analysis module will start from a specified tempera-
ture distribution and will model the change in temperature with time as a
heat source is switched on. The output from the transient analysis at differ-
ent times can be stored and studied within the post-processor.

The equation solved is


dT
– ∇ ⋅ k ∇T + ρC ------ = Q (8.6)
dt

where in addition to the steady-state terms, C is the thermal heat capacity


and ρ is the density.

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156 Thermal Analysis

Modelling
Once the geometry of the model has been specified, there are areas where
additional information may be needed.
• Material properties
The thermal conductivity needs to be given for each material included
in the model. The thermal conductivity may be anisotropic and oriented
in any direction if required. For transient analysis problems, the heat
capacity and density must also be given. Any air regions (material 0)
within the thermal model are ignored by the analysis and the tempera-
ture within them will be undefined.
• Boundary conditions
The default boundary condition is a thermal insulation boundary, imply-
ing that no heat will pass through the surface. The thermal insulation
boundary condition will be imposed on all interfaces adjoining air
regions, such that no heat passes from one material, through the air, to
another material. Two other boundary conditions are available: fixed
temperature condition, and heat transfer conditions. The heat transfer
condition allows a heat flow dependent upon heat transfer coefficient
and temperature difference with an ambient temperature, combined
with a fixed heat flow through the boundary. The boundary conditions
do not allow true modelling of losses through convection or radiation.
• Heat source density
This is given in a table of values at the centroid of each element within
the model. This allows a variation of heat source density to be input, e.g.
calculated from the eddy current and iron losses in an electromagnetic
simulation.
• Initial temperature distribution
This is only needed by the transient module, and is given in a table of
values at the nodes of the finite element mesh. This can be generated
from a previous steady-state or transient analysis, where a change in the
heat sources is being modelled.

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Example - A Simple Heat Bath 157

Example - A Simple Heat Bath

This example of a simple Heat Bath will illustrate the use of the Pre and
Post-Processor with the steady-state thermal analysis module. Methods of
building the model, solving and post-processing are given including:
• Thermal material properties
• Fixed temperature conditions
• Thermal flow conditions
• Display of temperature distribution

The bath is assumed to be infinitely long in the third (z) direction. The ther-
mal analysis is driven by a fixed temperature at the right hand end. The
model is made up of two regions as shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19 The complete model

Pre-processing

Setting the Pre Launch the Pre and Post-Processor in the normal way. In this example the
and Post- default SI units will be used.
Processor
Environment

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158 Example - A Simple Heat Bath

Entering The material definition for the bath is shown below for the two regions of
polygon region 1 the model. Region 1 is defined as follows:

Select the Select the Polygon option, and set the material label to 3.
Region Prop-
erties button

Click on OK to confirm.

Create the region by specifying a series of XY coordinates, and the corre-


sponding number of elements per side.

Draw -> Next Corner in Polygon -> Corner and Side Properties
Fill in the cartesian coordinates X and Y (0,7):

Click on Corner to enter the vertex.

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Example - A Simple Heat Bath 159

For subsequent vertices, the coordinates are entered together with the side sub-
divisions.
The next vertex will be at (10,7), and the number of elements set to 50. Click
on Corner to enter the new vertex.

The region vertices and number of elements on the associated side to be


entered are as follows:

Table 2: Region Vertices and Subdivision

Vertex Number of elements


(10,9) 8
(9,9) 8
(9,8) 3
(0,8) 30

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160 Example - A Simple Heat Bath

After entering the last vertex of the polygon, set the subdivision for the
final polygon edge as follows:

Set number of elements to 8, followed by Close


polygon. Click Cancel to close the dialog.

Entering Region 2 is defined as Material 5 with default material properties. The


polygon region 2 regions should have vertices and subdivisions to match region 1.

Select the Select the Polygon option, and set the material
Region Prop- label to 5.
erties button Click on OK to confirm.

Using the pick an existing corner button, ,click near vertices

(9,9)

(9,8)

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Example - A Simple Heat Bath 161

(0,8)

Following this, define a new vertex and close the polygon as instructed
below:

Draw -> Next Corner in Polygon -> Corner and Side Properties
Enter the new vertex coordinates (0,9) and set
the number of elements to be 5:

Select Corner.
Finally, Close polygon with 20 subdivi-
sions.

Generate the finite element mesh in the normal way, and note that there are
warnings relating to potential settings and BH data.

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162 Example - A Simple Heat Bath

Entering the It is necessary to define the thermal material constants for the bath. To do
thermal material this select
data

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Materials


Set Material number 3 and select Edit.

The Stress and Thermal Material Properties dialog appears and should be
completed as shown below:

Select the Thermal option, and set Thermal conductivity values k11 and k22
to be 63, followed by OK.

Hit Cancel having confirmed that the material was successfully checked.
Repeat the procedure for Material number 5, assigning a Thermal Conduc-
tivity of 400 W/m/K for both x and y components (k11 and k22).

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Example - A Simple Heat Bath 163

Entering the A fixed temperature boundary condition may then be entered as follows:
Thermal
boundary
conditions

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Boundary Conditions


Select the Thermal tab and complete the parameter box with the fixed temper-
ature value of 500:

Now select Pick Side and mouse click at (5.0, 7.1) and (9.9, 8.0) to pick
the bottom and right hand side of the bath.

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164 Example - A Simple Heat Bath

Select Heat transfer and complete the parameter boxes with heat flux (50),
heat transfer coefficient (1) and temperature (120) values and apply to side at
(5.0, 8.9) - top face of the melt.

Repeat the procedure to apply the following Heat Transfer


Heat Flux = 0
Heat transfer coefficient = 0.01
Temperature = 150
to side (9.5, 8.9) - top face of the bath.

Close the Dialog Box by clicking on Cancel.

Completing the The Thermal Analysis data can now be prepared and analysed. .
Pre-processing

Model -> Analysis Options -> Thermal Analysis (TH)


Save Set the File name to bath (or use the
browser). Click on Save and analyse now.

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Example - A Simple Heat Bath 165

Examining the results


To view the temperature distribution, set the component to be TEMP and use
a coloured zone contour plot (set the number of contours to 100).

The result is shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20 Displaying the temperature distribution

Leaving the Pre Exit the program by selecting


and Post- File -> Exit
Processor

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166 Example - A Simple Heat Bath

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 9
Coupled Analysis: Static Fields and
Stress, AC Fields and Transient Thermal

Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

OPERA-2d can calculate mechanical stresses created by electromagnetic


forces, and temperature distributions caused by electromagnetic heating.
The Pre and Post-Processor’s TABLE command provides the method of
taking information from one analysis and using this data as input to a sub-
sequent analysis. Tables may be exported, imported and processed using
different models, thus making it possible to use a different mesh for each
analysis.

In this chapter the disc example discussed in Getting Started [page 17] is
used again. Two examples of coupled analyses are shown:
• mechanical stresses caused by electromagnetic forces
This example uses the same finite element mesh for both types of anal-
ysis. The results from an electromagnetic analysis are used to calculate
a table of body forces; the material properties and boundary conditions
for a stress calculation are then defined with the same finite element
mesh.
• temperature distribution caused by joule heating
This example shows how a different mesh can be used for each analysis.
The TABLE EXPORT command is used to create a file containing the
positions where the heat sources are required, this file is then PROC-
ESSed using the electromagnetic solution to calculate the joule heat-
ing. The heat source table is then IMPORTed into the thermal model.

The model created previously will be used. For convenience the file
disc.op2 should be copied from the folder <Install Dir>/examples/2d.

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168 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Coupled Electromagnetic and Stress analysis

Calculating the Launch the OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor and open the model.
electromagnetic
solution

Open Set the File name to disc.op2 (or use the


browser) and click on OK.

Switch to Quadratic elements to improve the accuracy of the magnetic field


results

Options -> Solution Type


Select Quadratic in the Element type panel
and click on OK

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 169

The mesh will now need to be generated

Generate mesh Click on OK

and the modified model saved for Static analysis

Save Enter the filename disc_for_forces.op2 and


click on Save and analyse now to save and
run the analysis.

Calculating the The magnetostatic solution can then be used to calculate the body forces
electromagnetic acting on the plate.
body forces

Refresh

OPERA-2d Tables are used to transfer body force data to the stress analysis
module. In this example the ferromagnetic plate above the E-core will be
treated as a diaphragm restrained on its outer circular edge, it will therefore
be bent downwards towards the E-core by the electromagnetic forces.

The Stress analysis module looks for body force information in tables that
must be called XLOAD and YLOAD for XY symmetry models; or RLOAD and
ZLOAD for axisymmetric models. The Tables menu contains options to
Create Standard Tables of loads (Lorentz forces, J × B ) and Maxwell
Stress for the complete model. However in this example the dialog is used
to illustrate the parameters used in creating the tables.

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170 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

This example uses the same mesh for both the magnetostatic and stress cal-
culations. OPERA-2d tables of radial and axial body forces are calculated
from the magnetostatic solution, and the additional material and boundary
condition data is added for the stress simulation. The stresses are only
required for the plate, therefore the tables only need to be created for region
1.

Tables -> Create or Overwrite a Table


Select X or R component of Maxwell Stress
Enter RLOAD for the Table Name
Define this as table number 1
Select both the First region (1) and Last region (1)
Define the units as FORCU/LENGU**3

Press Create Table to calculate the table.


Close the information panel that pops up to confirm creation of the table.

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 171

Tables -> Create or Overwrite a Table ... continued


A second table containing the ZLOADs should now be created.
Select Y or Z component of Maxwell Stress
Enter ZLOAD for the Table Name
Define this as table number 2

Press Create Table to calculate the table.


Close the information panel that pops up to confirm creation of the table.
Finally press Cancel to exit the Table dialog

A maximum of 10 tables are available.

The units defined for tables should correspond to the units of the OPERA-
2d variables used to calculate the values in a table (i.e. if the expression is
J**2/SIGMA the units should be DENSU**2/CONDU).

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172 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Defining the To calculate mechanical stresses the physical properties of the plate mate-
data for stress rial must be defined (note that the material is defined as Axisymmetric, and
analysis. that the in-plane and circumferential data could be different).

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Materials


Complete the following data in the dialog, Material Number 3 then select
Edit.

Check the Axisymmetric properties button


Complete the following data for the IRON material
Youngs Modulus E1 & E2 set to 2e11
Poisson’s ratio Nu1 and Nu2 set to 0.29
Shear Modulus G set to 2e11/(2*(1+.29))

Select OK to confirm that realistic values have been entered, then Cancel to
return to the material dialog and Cancel again to exit.

The plate is to be fixed around its circumferential periphery, constraint


boundary conditions therefore need to be applied to its outer edge.

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Boundary Conditions

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 173

Under the Stress tab, select Constrained in


both and define zero R and Z displacements.

Apply the constraint to the outer edge of the


plate, by selecting Pick side, and clicking
near (9.9, 7.5).

Select Cancel in the dialog to exit

Saving the model The model can now be saved for stress calculation and the mechanical
and calculating stresses calculated
mechanical
stresses.

Model -> Analysis Options -> Stress Analysis (SA)


Check the Axisymmetric option

and then select OK to exit

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174 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Save Enter the filename disc_for_stress.op2, high-


light the RLOAD and ZLOAD tables by selecting
them (use Shift and mouse clicks) and click on
Save and analyse now.

Displaying the Stress results

Displaying stress When the stress analysis has completed, the file containing the results can
results. be viewed

Refresh

As the file is opened the additional results from the stress calculation are
reported in an information box. Contours of the stress (SIGMAR, SIG-

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 175

MAZ, SIGMARZ and SIGMAC) can be plotted and in addition deformed


structure plots are available.

Contour map Click on the Coloured zones button and set


the Expression to SIGMAZ. Set Number of
contours to 100.

Select the Regions tab and request contours


only in region 1.

Select the Other Options tab select the Dis-


place nodes option and specify the Displace-
ments as DISPR*1e9 and DISPZ*1e9.

Click on Refresh picture and draw con-


tours to accept.

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176 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Coupled Electromagnetic and Thermal analysis

Calculating the In this example the power loss caused by eddy currents will be used as a
Electromagnetic heat source for a transient thermal analysis. Launch the OPERA-2d Pre and
fields Post-Processor and open the model.

Open Set the File name to disc.op2 (or use the


browser) and click on OK.

Select refresh

The plate above the E-core is defined as a solid block of conducting iron in
this example. A steady state AC electromagnetic field analysis is per-
formed to calculate the distribution of power loss in the plate.

Modify region Select the Modify region by Picking tool button and then pick the plate
by picking (region 1).
Specify its Conductivity as 6e6.

and apply the change by selecting OK.

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 177

The mesh may need to be generated (if it was not stored with disc.op2).

Generate mesh Click on OK

The modified model should be set up for Steady state AC analysis

Model -> Analysis Options -> Steady-state AC Analysis


Linear material analysis.
Replace the default frequency with 100 Hz in
the Frequency case list.

and then select OK to exit

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178 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

and then saved

Save Enter the filename disc_for_joule.op2 and


click on Save and analyse now to save and
run.

Creating the Export, processing and import of tables will be used in this example. The
model for model for thermal analysis could therefore be completely different. To
transient thermal show this, erase everything except the plate (region 1) from the electromag-
analysis. netic model (the discretisation could also be changed if desired).

Erase Regions Enter the First region as 2 and the last as *.


Then select Erase regions by number or group

Generate the mesh only in the plate.

Generate mesh Click on OK

Refresh Refreshes the screen

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 179

Specify the thermal material characteristics for the plate.

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Materials


Complete the following data in the dialog
Material Number 3
and select Edit to define the characteristics of material 3

Select Thermal option, and complete the following data:


Thermal Conductivity K11 and K22 set to 0.8
Specific heat capacity C set to 336 J/kg/K
Mass Density Rho set to 8e-3 kg/cm^3

Select OK to confirm that realistic values have been entered, then Cancel to
return to the material dialog and Cancel again to exit.

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180 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Apply boundary conditions, in this example a heat transfer boundary con-


dition is defined on the top and outer edge of the plate,

Modify -> Stress and Thermal Boundary Conditions


Under the thermal tab select Heat Transfer,
and define
Heat flux 0
Heat transfer coefficient 0.00014
Coolant temperature 25 degrees

Then select Pick side, and apply this temper-


ature to the top and outside edge of the plate.
Select Cancel to exit.

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 181

Select the options for transient thermal analysis

Model -> Analysis Options -> Thermal Transient Analysis (THTR)


The default Adaptive time stepping and Accu-
racy of 1e-3 should be used.
Select Output times tab, and set the output
times at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 80 and 100s,
specified by selecting the Change button

and then select OK to exit

Save the thermal transient model.

Save Enter the filename disc_for_heat.op2 and click


on OK.

Creating the The facilities for exporting, processing and importing tables will be used to
Heat source create the heat sources for this transient thermal analysis. The four steps
tables. required to complete this are:
• Export the table of element centroid coordinates from the thermal model
• Create a table of time average power dissipation using the steady state
AC results. Note that calculating the power dissipation as a nodally
averaged table only in lossy materials is the most accurate representa-
tion
• Process the element centroid table, evaluating the time average power
dissipation at each element centroid
• Import the heat source table into the thermal transient model and store
the model with the heat table.
(The initial temperature conditions can also be specified using tables.
The thermal transient analysis program looks for a table called TEMP.)

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182 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Exporting the Export the table of element centroid coordinates from the thermal model
position where
the heat loss is
required

Tables -> Export Tables


The table file disc_element.table should be created, with the Value Type set
to Element

Select Export to save the table, and Cancel to exit.

Calculating the Create a table of time average power dissipation using the steady state AC
power loss results. Note that calculating the power dissipation as a nodally averaged
table only in lossy materials is the most accurate representation.

Open Set the File name to disc_for_joule.ac (or use


the browser) and click on OK.

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 183

Tables -> Create or Overwrite a Table


A table containing the time average power dissipation in the plate is required.
Enter the following data
Value Type select Nodally averaged
Table Name HEAT
Table Number 1
Field component J**2/(2*SIGMA)
AC time select Amplitude
define the First and Last region as 1
Unit DENSU**2/CONDU

Select Create table to create the table, and Cancel to exit.

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184 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

Evaluating the Process the element centroid table, evaluating the time average power dis-
power loss at the sipation at each element centroid
centroids

Tables -> Process Tables


Select the disc_element.table as the input and a new table disc_heat.table as
the output.
Select HEAT as the Table to be processed.

Select Process to read the Input table of points, calculate the heat sources and
output the new table of heat sources. Then select Cancel to exit.

Importing the Import the heat source table into the thermal transient model and store the
heat sources. model with the heat table. l

Open Set the File name to disc_for_heat.op2 (or use


the browser) and click on OK.

Tables -> Import Table


Set the File name to disc_heat.table (or use
the browser) and click on OK.

Select OK to read the table the heat sources.

The initial temperature conditions can also be specified using tables. The
thermal transient analysis program looks for a table called TEMP, if this

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 185

exists it uses the values it contains to define the initial temperature, other-
wise the initial temperature is set to zero.

Tables -> Create or Overwrite a Table


Select Value Type as Nodal
Specify the Table Name as TEMP
And the Table Number as 2
Specify the Field component as 25
define the First and Last region as 1
Define the Unit as 1

Select Create table to create the table, Close the confirmation dialog.
Finally Cancel to exit.

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186 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

The thermal transient model is now complete and should be saved.

Save Enter the filename disc_for_heat.op2, select


the TEMP and HEAT tables (using Shift and
mouse) so that they are saved and click on
Save and analyse now to save and run.

A pop up window will request confirmation


that the existing file is overwritten, confirm by
selecting Yes.

Displaying the Temperature results


When the thermal analysis has completed, the file containing the results
will be opened. This is a transient solution and it will therefore contain a
set of results, one for each output time. Note that the first case (case number
1) is opened. Select Close to close the information box that reports the solu-
tion variables available from this analysis (TEMP, DTDR, DTDZ).

Zoom bound-
ing box

The value of time for this solution is shown in the right hand information
panel, it is also available as the system variable THTRTIME. The temper-
ature distribution in the plate can be displayed as a contour map.

Contour map Click on the Coloured zones button and set


the Expression to TEMP.

Select the Other options tab, and make sure


that the Displace nodes option is not selected.

Click on Draw contours to accept.

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Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal 187

In order to plot the temperature at a point as a function of time a short com-


mand file can be prepared, or entered in the console. Lines beginning with
a “/” are comments.
/ Specify the formats for writing numbers to a file
$FORMAT 1 STRING STRING=’ ’
$FORMAT 2 EXP 13 6
/ Open the file TIMEPROFILE.DAT on stream number 1
$OPEN 1 TIMEPROFILE.DAT OVERWRITE
/ Assign the formats that will be used for writing
$ASSIGN 1 2 1 2
/ Do for all cases stored in the results file
$DO #I 1 8 1
/ read the new case
READ DISC_FOR_HEAT.TH CASE=%INT(#I)
/ Calculate the temperature at (3,7.5)
POINT METH=CART XP=3 YP=7.5 COMP=TEMP
/ Write the time and temperature to file
$WRITE 1 THTRTIME TEMP
$END DO
/ Close the file
$CLOSE 1
/ plot temperature as a function of Y
GRAPH FILE=TIMEPROFILE.DAT XLABEL=TIME YLABEL=TEMP TITLE=Temperature

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188 Electromagnetic analysis coupled to Stress and Thermal

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 10
Space Charge Example

Introduction

Space Charge is an effect created by dense beams of charged particles. A


high current beam from an electron gun exhibits the space charge effect.
This example shows the space charge effect produced by a typical electron
gun.

Space Charge models can include the effects of magnetostatic and electro-
static fields or electrostatic fields alone. This example illustrates electro-
static fields only with potentials assigned on the electrodes. Thus only air
regions are required (with an additional conductor region being added to
terminate the beam). The complete model is shown in Figure 21.

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190 Introduction

Figure 21 The complete space charge model

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OPERA-2d Pre-processor 191

OPERA-2d Pre-processor

Setting the Pre-processor Environment


Launch the Pre and Post-Processor in the normal way. The model will be
drawn with the following settings:
• axi-symmetric coordinates
• Solution type of ELECTRIC field
• SCALAR potential
• SI electric units with lengths in mm

This is carried out as follows:

Option -> Solution Type


Set the options: Electric, Axisymmetry, Lin-
ear and opt for the recommended potential
(scalar).

The change in potential type has invalidated the units of some quantities. A
message box details these quantities and states the units to which they have
been reset.

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192 OPERA-2d Pre-processor

The units are set by

Set units Set length unit to millimetre, and leave the rest as default values.

Click ok.

Set view Resize the view to width 150, height 150.

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OPERA-2d Pre-processor 193

Building the model


The model is created out of three regions:
• The region in front of the emitter (material air)
• The vacuum tube (material air)
• The target (material conductor)

The model geometry is also stored in the file:


<Install Dir>/examples/2d/space.op2.

Region 1

Draw the region A separate region is used near the emitter surface so that the mesh can be
well structured to fit the beam pattern leaving the emitter. This is very
important for the convergence of the solution and the accuracy of the
results obtained. The default material definition is accepted for region 1
since this is a vacuum. The region coordinates, subdivisions and curvature
are listed in the table below. XY coordinate input is suggested in this case.

Draw -> Next Corner in Polygon -> Corner Coordinates


Enter corner Enter first point at (0,0) followed by Corner
coordinates button:

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194 OPERA-2d Pre-processor

Continue the XY input for the following coordinates that make up the
region in front of the emitter.
X Y
0 5
25 8.17542
25 3.17542

After the last point has been created, close the region with the close pol-
ygon button, then Cancel to close the dialog.

Change Next is the subdivisions and curvature of Region 1.


subdivision and
curvatures

Modify side by Pick first side from (0,0) to (0,5), and set
picking Number of elements to 6.

Continue with the other sides (in a clockwise order) setting curvature and
subdivision as follows:
Side Curvature Subdivision
2 -1/100 20
3 0 6
4 1/100 20

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OPERA-2d Pre-processor 195

Region 2
Region 2 is also a vacuum region. It is created in a similar manner, using
Draw -> Next Corner in Polygon -> Corner and Side Properties
with the following coordinates and edge subdivision (number of elements).
The first 3 points listed in the table below could also be selected using
mouse and the Pick Existing corner option. The faces are all
defined in an anti-clockwise sense (refer to Figure 21).
Number of elements
X Y Curvature
on side
0 5
25 8.17542 -1/100 20
25 3.17542 0 6
25 0 0 4
27 0 0 2
27 3.71397 0 6
33 10 0 8
33 25 0 8
43 25 0.178885 8
43 0 0 8
75 0 0 5
75 50 0 8
30 50 0 8
30 60 0.2 8
75 60 0 8
75 80 0 4
35 80 0 8
25 100 0 8
25 150 0 15
0 150 0 10
0 100 0 15
0 60 0 20
0 50 0 5
0 20 0 15
Close Polygon 0 20

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196 OPERA-2d Pre-processor

Region 3
The final region is a conductor region (material 1). It is a feature of the anal-
ysis module that as a particle trajectory enters a material 1 region (conduc-
tor region), the trajectory terminates and this makes analysis more efficient.
The Material type is set prior to drawing the final region as follows:

Region prop- Set the option Polygon and set the Material label to 1.
erties

The region coordinates can then be entered with the following values, using
Draw -> Next Corner in Polygon -> Corner and Side Properties
as before.
X Y Curvature Subdivision
0 150
0 160 0 1
25 160 0 10
25 150 0 1
Close polygon 0 10

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OPERA-2d Pre-processor 197

Modify the Model


The mesh can be viewed superimposed on the model.

Refresh the
display

and display the


mesh

Regions created from the menus are polygons by default. Polygon regions
can have many sides and are appropriate in most cases. However four sided
polygon regions can be converted from polygon shape regions to H or Q
shape regions. The advantage of H or Q shape regions is that they have a
regular mesh.

Regions 1 and 3 are to be converted to shape H regions. This provides a


mesh in region 1 able to model the space charge distribution more accu-
rately. To convert the regions:

Modify -> Change Region Shape Code

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198 OPERA-2d Pre-processor

Select first region and last region to be 1, and option Regular quad (H).

Repeat for region 3.


Refresh the
display

The same procedure was applied to region 3, although the mesh in this
region is unimportant as the beam will terminate as it enters any region that
has material label greater than 0.

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OPERA-2d Pre-processor 199

Boundary Conditions
Once this has been completed, the Boundary Conditions (Potentials) of the
model are to be set.

Zoom in (rub- Zoom in to the lower part of the display by


ber box) holding mouse and dragging. To return to pre-
vious size use .

Set Boundary Set the option Fixed potential, and set the
condition Potential value to 0.

Select Pick button.

This assigns 0 potential to an edge. Select the appropriate edges by mouse


clicking at the following coordinates (refer to Figure 22):
X Y Potential
12 1 0
25.1 1 0
26.0 1 0
26.9 1 0
30 8 0
32 20 0
38 30 0
44 15 0

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200 OPERA-2d Pre-processor

Figure 22 Zero potential boundary conditions set

The same is done to apply other potential values to other edges. Zoom out
to the previous size, and assign the following potentials (refer to Figure 23):
X Y Potential
55 49 50000
24 55 50000
55 61 50000
55 79 100000
30 90 100000
24 120 100000

Select Cancel to close the boundary condition dialog when completed.

Create the Mesh


The final step before saving the model is generating the mesh.

After the program finishes meshing the model, the outline of the model is
drawn on the screen. A text box appears which displays the results of the
mesh generation. The user should scroll to the bottom of the text box and

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OPERA-2d Pre-processor 201

Figure 23 Final potential boundary conditions set

Generate mesh

verify that there are no errors and/or warnings. Any errors or warnings will
need to be corrected before running the model.

The analysis data may be set up by selecting

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202 OPERA-2d Pre-processor

Model -> Analysis Options -> Space Charge Analysis (SP)

with all default settings.

The model now needs to be saved using . Save as space.op2:

The space charge example model has now been created.

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Creating the Emitter Data 203

Creating the Emitter Data

Before running the analysis module, the user needs to provide the program
with information which describes the emitter. This is accomplished by
defining the emitter parameters in the pre-processor using the model geom-
etry. The definition must be saved with the same filename as the model, but
with the extension .emit. (in this case space.emit)

The emitter file is created using the following sequence:

Space charge Highlight Emitter 1 (created by selecting the Create emitter button) and set
emitters Number of charges to −1, Max ray spacing to 2, Temperature to 1273, Work
function to 1.82, and Emission constant 350.
Select Set emitter parameters to save these settings.
Select Create
emitter but-
ton.

Select Seg- Select Pick segment to add button.


ments tab Mouse click at coordinate (12,1) to assign
emitter to a segment.

Green arrows will be displayed on the line segment showing the directions
of emission. In this case in the -Y direction. This is wrong for this case, so

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204 Creating the Emitter Data

must be reversed.

Highlight Segment 1, and select Reverse


emission direction

Select Trajec- Set values Maximum trajectory step length to 2, Absolute tolerance to
tory parame- 0.01, and Normal sampling distance to 0.1, then select Set Global param-
ters tab eters button.

Select Read Set the Store in file File name to be Space,


and Store and select Store button.
emitter
files tab

A summary of the parameters set above for this emitter can be seen by
selecting List emitter data, and is as follows:

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Creating the Emitter Data 205

Close the information dialog by selecting Close, and then close the Emitter
dialog by selecting Cancel.

The accuracy of the solution is dependent on the mesh and the emitter
matching correctly. Calculation of the currents generated in each beam is
dependent upon the space charge calculated near the surface of the emitter.
Hence the SHAPE H region was used to generate a uniform mesh over this
area with the number of elements matching the number of beams being
emitted from the emitter surface.

Now that the space.op2 and the space.emit files exist, the model can be
solved with the Space Charge analysis module.

Space Charge Analysis


The model is solved using the Space Charge analysis module, SP.

Model -> Start Analysis

The user should enter the filename space when prompted and Accept the
defaults for the other prompts.

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206 Post-Processing

Post-Processing

Read the model into the post-processor. The file to be read in is space.sp.
In addition to the solution file, the user should note that the table RHO con-
taining the space charge distribution is automatically read in. (If the mesh
has not been saved, it will be necessary to remesh the model.).

Open file Give filename space.sp

Set view Set the view dimensions to 150 in both direc-


tions, followed by OK.
Select Options for post-processing button.

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Post-Processing 207

The potential distribution can be seen by displaying contours with the com-
ponent set to POT.

Contour map Set Field component to POT, and select the Coloured zones option.
Set Number of contours to 100, then Draw contours.

The results are shown in Figure 24.

There are several ways of displaying the tracks calculated by the space
charge analysis program. This includes a display of the tracks over the
geometry, while another is to display a three angle projection.

The charge distribution can be seen by plotting contours with the compo-
nent set to RHO. The results are shown in Figure 12.4.

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208 Post-Processing

Figure 24 Electric potential distribution displayed on the model

Trajectories -> Display Particle Trajectories


Enter the filename space_1.tracks followed by Display.

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Post-Processing 209

Figure 25 Electric potential distribution and particle trajectories

Figure 26 Charge Density displayed on the model

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210 Post-Processing

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Chapter 11
Application Notes

Introduction

This chapter contains a set of Application Notes which are provided to help
users with specific types of applications of OPERA-2d. The examples
given do not contain complete instructions but should be used in conjunc-
tion with other sections of the User Guide and the OPERA-2d Reference
Manual to obtain details of the commands.

The application notes are:


• Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions [page 213]
• Inductance Calculations in OPERA-2d [page 216]
• Power and Energy Calculation in AC Solutions [page 219]
• Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions [page 221]
• Complex Material Properties [page 227]
• Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem [page 231]
• Use of Command Scripts to Calculate Fourier Series [page 237]
• External Circuits in OPERA-2d [page 239]
• Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet [page 257]
• Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” [page 270]
• Linear Motion Models [page 284]
• Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors [page 293]
• Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors [page 300]

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


212 Introduction

• Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM [page 309]


• Stress Analysis Solver Validation [page 317]
• Current Diffusion from a Superconductor [page 161]
• Particle Trajectory Intersections in OPERA-2d [page 326]
• Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D [page 328]
• Importing DXF Files [page 332]

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions 213

Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions

Cartesian Problems
In a model with XY symmetry, the cross section of a long device is ana-
lysed. There will be X and Y components of flux density and Z directed
currents.

Consider two points in the cross section. The flux per unit length linking
lines parallel to the Z direction, through the two points, is simply given by
the difference in the vector potential (Az) between the points.

For a line in the x-direction the flux linked in the x-z plane is given by:
z= 1 x = b
φ = ∫z = 0 ∫x = a B y d x d z (11.7)

Since curl(A)=B, and since only Az exists in the 2D analysis, then


dA z
B y = – -------- , the flux linkage per unit length is:
dx
x=b dA z
φ = –∫ dx
x=a dx (11.8)
= ( Az ( a ) – Az ( b ) )

If a coil is made up of a number of filaments and has a turns density of n,


then the mean flux linkage is given by:

Φ = ∫ nφ dx dy (11.9)
coil area

For a coil with uniform turns density, in terms of the vector potential Az,
the mean flux linkage is:
1 1
Φ = ------------------------
coil area a ∫ Az ( a ) dx dy – ------------------------
coil area b
- ∫ A z ( b ) dx dy (11.10)
coil area a coil area b

The OPERA-2d commands to do this would be:


RECO XMIN=1 XMAX=-1 MATE=ALL NOT=ANY REG1=1 *
INTA REG1=condb REG2=condb COMP=POT

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214 Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions

$CONS #POTB INTEGRAL/AREA


INTA REG1=conda REG2=conda COMP=POT
$CONS #POTA INTEGRAL/AREA
$CONS #FLUX #POTA-#POTB

where conda and condb are the region numbers of the conductors to be
inserted as appropriate.

Axi-symmetric Problems
For an axisymmetric problem, solved in 2-dimensions, the flux linking a
loop radius a is:
θ = 2π r = a
φ = ∫θ = 0 ∫r = 0 Bz r dr dθ
(11.11)
a
= 2π ∫ B z r dr
0

a
Since curl(A)=B, and only Aθ is present (i.e. ∫0 B z r d r = rA θ ), then:

φ = 2πr A θ ( a ) (11.12)

If a coil is made up of a number of filaments and has a turn density of n,


then the mean flux linkage is given by:

Φ = ∫ nφ dr dz (11.13)
coil area

For a coil with uniform turns density, in terms of the vector potential Aθ,
the mean flux linkage is:
1
Φ = --------------------
coil area ∫ 2πrA θ dr dz (11.14)
coil area

The OPERA-2d commands to do this would be:


1. With an axisymmetric solution, where the solution type is vector
potential (i.e. Aθ)
INTA REG1=cond REG2=cond COMP=2*PI*R*POT
$CONS #POTV INTEGRAL/AREA

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Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions 215

With an axisymmetric solution where the solution type is modified


rA (i.e. r*Aθ)
INTA REG1=cond REG2=cond COMP=2*PI*POT
$CONS #POTM INTEGRAL/AREA

Where cond is the region number of the conductor.

Note that the solution type modified rA gives the best results for all types
of axisymmetric geometry.

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216 Inductance Calculations in OPERA-2d

Inductance Calculations in OPERA-2d

In general, with nonlinear materials where permeability is a function of


field strength, the inductance of a device will also be a nonlinear function
of excitation. The flux linking a single coil carrying a current I becomes:

1 I
Φ ( I ) = ---- ∫ L ( i ) di (11.15)
N i=0

(neglecting hysteresis effects), where Φ is the flux linking the coil, L is the
inductance, and N is the number of turns in the coil.

Single Coil Problems - Linear Materials


In problems where there is only one coil, and no permanent magnets or
external driving fields exist, inductance can be calculated from the stored
energy in the problem. The energy is calculated using the area integral over
all regions in the model, using the command: INTA REG1=1 REG2=*.

The inductance is computed using the expression (where E is the energy


and i is the current in the coil):
1 2
E = --- Li (11.16)
2

Multiple Coils – Linear Materials


Multiple coils make inductance calculations using energy much harder.
Instead, another method of calculating inductance uses the flux linking the
coils (see for example Flux Linkage Calculations in 2D Solutions
[page 213]).

The simplest method of calculating the flux is to calculate the difference in


magnetic vector potential between one point in the “GO” section, and one
in the “RETURN” section of the coil.

A better method would be to generate an average vector potential over both


sections of the coil, using the area integral with component set to POT, and
dividing by the area of the region. The flux would then be the difference
between these values in the two sections.

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Inductance Calculations in OPERA-2d 217

Using the flux, Φ, and the current in the coil, I, the self inductance can be
calculated as:

L = -------- (11.17)
I

A similar equation can be used for the mutual inductance, using the flux
linking one coil due to the flux generated by the current in another. This is
calculated using:
Ni Φi
M ij = ------------ (11.18)
Ij

Using the solution to the model with one coil switched on will allow you to
find the self inductance of the coil, and the mutual inductance of other coils
with respect to that coil.

Multiple Coils – Nonlinear Materials


If you wish to use nonlinear properties it is necessary to have a solution
with all coils at normal operating conditions. This gives the equation for the
flux linking coil 1 as:
N 1 Φ 1 = L 1 I 1 + M 12 I 2 + M 13 I 3 + … + M 1n I n (11.19)

for a model with n-coils. Similar equations can be generated for Φ2 etc.
Note that all the inductances will be functions of the currents.

The model must then be altered so that the current in any one of the coils is
changed by a small amount (∆I), saving the model, and generating a new
solution file (using restart run to speed matters up).

The small change should not greatly affect the field, but a small change of
∆ΦI will occur for each coil. For example, for a change of ∆I1:

N 1 ( Φ 1 + ∆Φ 1 ) = L 1 ( I 1 + ∆I 1 ) + M 12 I 2 + M 13 I 3 + … + M 1n I n
N 2 ( Φ 2 + ∆Φ 2 ) = L 2 I 2 + M 21 ( I 1 + ∆I 1 ) + M 23 I 3 + … + M 2n I n (11.20)

Hence taking the difference between equation 11.20a and equation 11.19,
we can calculate L1:

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218 Inductance Calculations in OPERA-2d

N 1 ∆Φ 1
L 1 = ----------------- (11.21)
∆I 1

Equation 11.20b and equation 11.19 will give M21, and so forth. Modifying
I2 would allow similar calculations for L2 etc. Therefore, finding the self
and mutual inductance for all n coils requires n models to be solved.

This method can also be used if other energy sources are present, e.g. per-
manent magnets or external driving fields, as it works on the basis of a
change in field.

A change in energy calculation is possible but would require more solu-


tions to be calculated, as only one piece of information is found from each
model.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Power and Energy Calculation in AC Solutions 219

Power and Energy Calculation in AC Solutions

Power Calculations
If a current and voltage waveforms vary as:
i = I cos ( ω t )
(11.22)
v = V cos ( ω t – φ )

then the power in the system is given by:


P ( ω t ) = vi = VI cos ( ω t ) cos ( ω t – φ )
VI
= ------ [ cos ( φ ) – cos ( 2 ω t – φ ) ]
2
VI
= A – ------ cos ( 2 ω t – φ ) (11.23)
2
VI VI
= A – ------ cos ( φ ) cos ( 2 ω t ) – ------ sin ( φ ) sin ( 2 ω t )
2 2
= A + B cos ( 2 ω t ) + C sin ( 2 ω t )

where

VI
A = ------ cos ( φ )
2
VI
B = – ------ cos ( φ ) (11.24)
2
VI
C = – ------ sin ( φ )
2

Hence when ωt=0, ωt=π/4, and ωt=π/2:


P(0) = A + B
π
P  --- = A + C
 4 (11.25)
π
P  --- = A – B
 2

The time average power is given by:

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220 Power and Energy Calculation in AC Solutions

π
P ( 0 ) + P  ---
 2 VI
P tav = ------------------------------- = A = ------ cos ( φ ) (11.26)
2 2

Energy Calculations
Since nonlinear materials are not modelled, in a magnetic circuit, B and H
are sinusoidal. Replacing the i and v with B and H, the same arguments fol-
low, such that the time average energy density is given by:

π
E ( 0 ) + E  ---
 2 B⋅H
E tav = ------------------------------- = A = ------------- cos ( φ ) (11.27)
2 2

General
P is the system variable POWER, and E is the system variable ENERGY,
set after the INTA command, and ωt is set by the TIME parameter (in
degrees). Further notes are available under the relevant commands in the
Reference Manual.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions 221

Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions

In OPERA-2d only a part of a given geometry has to be modelled if sym-


metry can be exploited. Figure 27 shows an example with a simple C-core
magnet. The x-axis represents the symmetry plane with a boundary condi-
tion that the magnetic field is normal (Bt = 0).

9
10.0 UNITS
Length : cm
Y [cm] Flux density : T
9.0 Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
-1
Conductivity : S m
8.0 Source density: A m-2
Power :W
Force :N
Energy :J
7.0 Mass : kg

6.0
7

5.0
PROBLEM DATA
4.0 C_Magnet.st
Linear elements
XY symmetry
Vector potential
3.0 Magnetic fields
6 Static solution
Scale factor = 1.0
2.0 1585 elements
834 nodes
5 10 regions
2 1 3
1.0
4
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0
X [cm]
C_Magnet_pic1.ps

OPERA-2d
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Figure 27 Flux lines in a C-core magnet; only 1/2 of the magnet is modelled

Nodal Fields
By default the magnetic field can be evaluated only in meshed regions. If
the field is requested outside the mesh an error message Point outside
mesh is displayed. Figure 28 shows the meshed regions.

The field in the lower half of the magnet (y < 0) can be evaluated after ena-
bling the field symmetry options. Field symmetry is set using:
Options -> Field Options

For the example above, the dialog should be used to set the reflection of the
field in the X-axis such that only the normal component exists, as shown in
Figure 29.

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222 Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions

20.0 UNITS
Length : cm
Y [cm] Flux density : T
18.0 Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
Conductivity : S m-1
-2
16.0 Source density: A m
Power :W
Force :N
Energy :J
14.0 Mass : kg

12.0

10.0 9

PROBLEM DATA
8.0 C_Magnet.st
Linear elements
XY symmetry
Vector potential
6.0 7 Magnetic fields
Static solution
Scale factor = 1.0
4.0 1585 elements
10 8 834 nodes
10 regions
6
2.0
2 1 3 5
4
0.0 -4.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 14.0 18.0
X [cm]
04/Mar/2003 13:44:54 Page 50
C_Magnet_pic2.ps

OPERA-2d
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Figure 28 Meshed regions in the model of the C-core magnet

Figure 29 Dialog for setting field symmetry

For further information see the SET command in the OPERA-2d Refer-
ence Manual.

It should be noted that the lower half of the magnet is not displayed on the
screen after the field symmetry options have been enabled. A consequence
is that only the POINT command and all line commands (i.e. LINE, CIR-
CLE, INTLINE, INTCIRCLE, HARMONICS) can access the lower half

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions 223

of the magnet. The commands such as CONTOUR or INTAREA are not


able to access the lower half.

The TABLE command can also be used to recover values in the symmetric
images. However only system variables (e.g. POT, HX, EZ etc.) correctly
apply the sign changes implied by the field reflection (for example in the
C-core magnet the correct symmetry is Hx(y)=-Hx(-y)). User defined tables
evaluated from expressions involving system variables, or imported with
the solution, will not include the necessary sign changes. The magnetiza-
tion vector tables MAGBX and MAGBY (or MAGBY and MAGBZ) com-
puted by the DM analysis will not have the correct symmetry sign.
Therefore using reflections in the DM analysis should be avoided.

Integral Fields
The integral field option can be enabled using:
Options -> Field Options

and clicking on the Integral fields button, as shown in Figure 30.. Note

Figure 30 Dialog for setting integral fields

that the Total field option has also been selected meaning that the field
will be computed from the integration of the magnetization and coil cur-
rents.

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224 Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions

This is equivalent to the command SET INTEGRAL=YES. The magnetic


field can now be evaluated anywhere in space, for example at x = 5 and
y = 18 in Figure 28.

In order to obtain the correct integral fields it is very important that the field
symmetry options have been enabled as discussed in the previous section.

Example
The following two figures show a line plot of the magnetic flux density in
the air gap of the C-core magnet. The line is at y < 0, shown in Figure 31.
Figure 32 then shows the magnetic flux density both with nodal fields
(default) and with integral fields. The variation of the fields is similar, but
there is an offset in the nodal values due to truncating the mesh at the outer
boundary. To reduce this difference, the outer boundary should be moved
further away.

6.5 UNITS
Length : cm
Y [cm] 6.0 Flux density : T
7 Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
5.5 Conductivity : S m
-1

Source density: A m-2


5.0 Power :W
Force :N
Energy :J
4.5 Mass : kg

4.0

3.5

3.0
PROBLEM DATA
C_Magnet.st
2.5 6 Linear elements
XY symmetry
Vector potential
2.0 Magnetic fields
Static solution
1.5 5 Scale factor = 1.0
2 1 3 1585 elements
834 nodes
1.0 10 regions

0.5 4

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
X [cm]
Component: BMOD 04/Mar/2003 18:34:17 Page 67
C_Magnet_pic3.ps
0.0399234 0.216808 0.393692
OPERA-2d
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Figure 31 Magnetic flux density in the iron and line at x = 6.5

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions 225

0.09 UNITS
Length : cm
Flux density : T
0.08 Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
Conductivity : S m-1
0.07 Source density: A m
-2

Power :W
Force :N
0.06 Energy :J
Mass : kg

0.05

0.04

PROBLEM DATA
0.03 C_Magnet.st
Linear elements
XY symmetry
0.02 Vector potential
Magnetic fields
Static solution
0.01 Scale factor = 1.0
1585 elements
834 nodes
0.0 10 regions
X coord 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
Y coord -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 1.1921E-08 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Values of BMOD: Fields from Mesh


Values of BMOD: Integral Fields
C_Magnet_pic4.ps

OPERA-2d
Pre and Post-Processor 8.830

Figure 32 Magnetic flux density in the air gap at x = 6.5

Discussion

Nodal Nodal interpolation is used to compute the field at any specific point of
interpolation interest by interpolation of the potential (and resulting fields) at the mesh
nodes surrounding the specific point. Therefore, the result obtained
depends not only on the overall quality of the solution, but also on the qual-
ity of the solution locally - i.e. in the area of interest. The quality of the
solution, in turn, depends on the mesh quality.

Integral fields Integral fields will evaluate the field at the specific point of interest by inte-
grating the magnetization in magnetic materials, the current densities in the
conductors and the eddy currents in conducting materials. This is a very
complicated task, so if the fields are required at a set of points (say fields
on a surface), this could be very time consuming.

This method can be more accurate as, although it depends on the overall
quality of the solution, it does not depend on the quality of the solution
locally - it is therefore more likely to obtain a smoother field distribution
from an integral field computation. Integral fields can be inaccurate in
cases when there are large cancellations between the source and magneti-

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


226 Field Recovery Outside Meshed Regions

zation contributions or fields are being recovered too close to a source of


magnetization or induced currents.

Integral fields are not only useful for computing fields inside the mesh in
regions where the mesh quality is poor, but can also be employed for the
computation of the fields at any point outside the finite element mesh.

Nodal vs. In some cases the two different methods (Nodal and Integral) may give dif-
Integral Fields ferent results, depending on the actual mesh. Nodal Fields can be used
effectively to compute fields in areas of interest provided these areas are
sufficiently well meshed (a natural requirement anyway). Integral fields are
very useful for computing fields at a distance where the mesh is often less
well defined.

Integral fields inside a mesh work fine in air and in source conductors,
however they give completely wrong answers in all magnetized materials
such as iron. Therefore integral fields inside a mesh should only be used if
the region of interest is at a sufficient distance from magnetized materials.

In order to understand this phenomenon a bit better, it is recommended to


use the C-core example as shown in Figure 27, and display the field on a
line extending from (x = -1, y = 3) to (x = 12, y = 3) and comparing the
nodal and the integral field options.

In order to get correct answers using integral fields in the post-processor it


is necessary to ensure that any symmetry used is then activated in the post-
processor.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Complex Material Properties 227

Complex Material Properties

Introduction
A simple model of hysteresis can be represented by a complex material per-
meability. This note reviews the approximation and shows how the losses
can be calculated.

Complex permeability model


The steady state solution program (OPERA-2d/AC) uses a complex substi-
tution to model time harmonic fields. This implies the following form for
the magnetic flux density:
i ( ωt + ϕ )
B ( t ) = B 0 ⋅ cos ( ωt + ϕ ) = Re ( B 0 ⋅ e ) (11.28)

An elliptical B-H curve can be represented by a phase change α between


the field intensity and the flux density:
i ( ωt + ϕ )
H ( t ) = --- ⋅ B 0 ⋅ cos ( ωt + ϕ + α ) = Re  --- ⋅ B ⋅ e
1 1
(11.29)
µ  µ̃ 0 

– iα
with µ̃ = µ ⋅ e . (11.30)

The equation of the ellipse in the B-H plane is:


2 2 2 2 2 2
B – 2µ cos ( α ) BH + µ H = µ sin ( α ) H 0 (11.31)

or

H = ---  B cos ( α ) ± µ H 0 – B sin ( α )


1 2 2 2
(11.32)
µ  

For example a material with a relative permeability of 100 and a phase


angle of 20 degrees (µr = 100 e–j (π / 9)) gives a B-H curve as shown in Fig-
ure 33.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


228 Complex Material Properties

UNITS
B Length :m
Flux density : T
Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
8.0 Conductivity : S m-1
Source density : A m-2
Power :W
6.0 Force :N
Energy :J
4.0 Mass : kg

2.0

0.0

-2.0 PROBLEM DATA


Linear elements
XY symmetry
-4.0 Vector potential
Magnetic fields
-6.0 No mesh
0 regions
-8.0

-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Complex hysteresis loop H

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Figure 33 Typical hysteresis loop

Hysteresis losses
The consequence of using a complex permeability as above is that there is
a phase shift between B and H.
H = H 0 ⋅ cos ( ωt + ϕ ) (11.33)

B = µH 0 ⋅ cos ( ωt + ϕ – α ) (11.34)

The hysteresis energy loss per cycle is given by the area of the ellipse:

W = π ⋅ sin α ⋅ ∫ µH 0 dΩ
2
(11.35)

so that the average hysteresis power loss per cycle is:


ω
P = ---- ⋅ ∫ µH 0 sin α dΩ
2
(11.36)
2

In OPERA-2d the average hysteresis power loss (equation 11.36) is added


automatically into the time-average values of POWER and the formula for
time-average ENERGY1 when results containing complex permeability
from OPERA-2d/AC are processed.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Complex Material Properties 229

Restrictions of the model


The introduction of complex permeability corresponds to a simple model
for hysteresis. Although it is straightforward to replace the real permeabil-
ity by a complex value in the linear steady state AC equations, the model
is then restricted to steady state AC applications. The minor loops in this
model will be concentric similar ellipses, so there will be no harmonic dis-
tortion implied in the analysis.

Accessing Complex Permeability in OPERA-2d


There are two steps that must be taken to use complex permeability in the
OPERA-2d/AC solver. The first step is that the phase angle of the material
must be defined. This is achieved in the BHDATA command where the
PHASE parameter specifies the phase angle in degrees:
MODEL -> BH Data -> Complex phase lag

The second step is to specify that complex material properties are used in
the AC analysis. Complex permeability can be enabled by setting the
appropriate option on the AC analysis options menu which is presented
when Steady state harmonic (AC) is chosen using:
MODEL ↓
Analysis Options → Steady State AC

In keyboard mode the same is achieved using the SOLVE command with
the sub-command: DATA +CMU

Complex permeability in nonlinear problems


When complex permeability is used in nonlinear materials the choice of
phase angle can become difficult. As shown in Figure 34, choosing a single
phase angle that is applied over the whole B-H curve can give very differ-
ent sized hysteresis loops. In fact the hysteresis losses (and hence loop size)
for a material operating at a peak flux density of 20 kGauss and at 25
kGauss should have been nearly identical.

To obtain a more accurate solution it is better to use several different phase


angles for different operating regimes on the curve. This can be achieved
as follows.
1. Run the model nonlinearly without complex permeability.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


230 Complex Material Properties

UNITS
B Length : cm
Flux density : gauss
Field strength : oersted
Potential : gauss-cm
20000.0 Conductivity : S cm-1
Source density : A cm-2
-1
Power : erg s
Force : dyne
Energy : erg
10000.0 Mass :g

0.0

PROBLEM DATA
hist_test4.ac
Linear elements
-10000.0 XY symmetry
Vector potential
Magnetic fields
Cmplx mu ac solution
Frequency = 50.0 Hz
-20000.0 832 elements
467 nodes
4 regions
-4000.0 -2000.0 0.0 1000.0 2000.0 3000.0 40
BH Curve H
Phase angle 20 degrees at 20 kGauss
Phase angle 20 degrees at 25 kGauss
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Figure 34 Using different phase angles for different parts of the BH curve

2. Determine the variation of peak flux density in the magnetic materi-


als and discretise into a number of ranges. The shape of the B-H
curve will dictate this discretisation but it is unlikely that all ranges
will be equal. For example, the ranges (0 – 0.5), (0.5 – 1.0), (1.0 –
1.2), (1.2 – 1.3), (1.3 – 1.35) and (1.35 – 1.4) Tesla may be suitable
for a material that is not very saturated.
3. Re-assign the materials in the model so that a different material
number is used for the parts of the model that fall into each range of
flux density.
4. Run the new model nonlinearly with complex permeability using the
same B-H curve for all materials but assigning a different phase
angle for each material number.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem 231

Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem

Figure 35 below illustrates the layout of the Medium Voltage Cable Termi-
nation. The following components can be identified:
• Aluminium conductor
• Insulation of the cable
• Semiconductor of the cable
• Zero volt conductor
• Stress control
• Insulation sleeve
• 2 Sheds

Sheds are insulating truncated cones placed around the termination prima-
rily to increase the length of the creep path for fields that track down the
side of the termination due to dirt, moisture etc.

Figure 36 below shows how the same device of Figure 35 appears in the
Pre and Post-Processor. Note that the cross-section of the sheds in the
radial-axial plane is actually very thin, such that they appear almost as a
line in Figure 36. This is, of course, made worse by the poor aspect ratio of
the picture.

The live aluminium conductor is not modelled in OPERA-2d. This is


because the voltage distribution inside the conductor will not vary. Instead,
a 22 kV voltage boundary condition is applied at the interface between the
aluminium conductor and the cable insulation. The zero voltage conductor
is also not included in the model, as shown in Figure 36. A 0 V boundary
condition is applied around the periphery of this conductor. Figure 37 illus-
trates the model outline with all boundary conditions imposed.

All other materials are included in the model, and their permittivity and
conductivity is specified under the material (region) properties menu. Fig-
ure 38 shows the material properties assignment for the semiconductor of
the cable.

When solving for devices with conducting and dielectric properties, a wide
variation in conductivities in the materials may exist. For example, in the
present device, the semiconductor of the cable has a conductivity of 1 S/m
whereas the stress control has a conductivity of 1E-06 S/m. The conductiv-
ity of the aluminium is 2E7 S/m. OPERA-2d/LD can solve for a relatively

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


232 Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem

Figure 35 A Cable Termination Design (Courtesy of Tesi Srl)

Figure 36 Model of the cable termination with two sheds

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem 233

Figure 37 Boundary conditions imposed on the cable termination model

Figure 38 Assigning material properties for the semiconductor of the cable

wide range of conductivities, provided that this range is restricted to within


approximately 106 to 1. Beyond this range, the solution accuracy will begin
to be affected, depending on the device geometry. It is therefore advisable
that high conductivity materials are not included in the model, and their
effect represented by a voltage boundary condition, as demonstrated for the
22kV and 0kV conductors in the present example.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


234 Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem

Choice of Solver
Having created the geometry in OPERA-2d pre-processor and assigned the
correct material properties and boundary conditions, the user can proceed
with the selection of solver. A static, steady-state a.c. or transient analysis
can be performed, and the appropriate solver is selected via the menu route:
Model -> Analysis Options -> Static
Steady State AC
Transient Time Varying

Within each of above analysis options the user must enable the Lossy Die-
lectric option, as shown in Figure 39.

Figure 39 Enabling the LD option under the static analysis options

Field Solutions
Figures 40 & 41 show representative field solutions, depicting the electric
potential in the cable termination, obtained using the OPERA-2d Electro-
statics solver (which solves only for dielectric, non-conducting materials)
and the OPERA-2d LD Electrostatics + Current Flow solver respectively.

The conductivity of the materials surrounding the live conductor cause a


significant re-distribution of the potential around the termination. The insu-
lation of the cable is only slightly conducting and therefore, moving radi-
ally out towards the 0kV conductor, a significant voltage drop is recorded

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem 235

Figure 40 Contours of electric potential in region of termination

Figure 41 Contours of electric potential in region of termination


(using OPERA-2d / LD Electrostatics + Current flow)

in this material. However, this is only true along the length of the more con-
ducting stress control material. The 0kV conductor is sandwiched between
relatively high conductivity materials (the stress control and semiconductor
of the cable) across which little potential is dropped. The combination of
the above effects means that the conductivity of the stress control material
has a significant impact on the voltage stresses around that area. The cor-
rect choice of stress control conductivity leads to effective control of the
field distribution in the termination.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


236 Setting up a Lossy Dielectric Problem

Reference
1. 'A transient formulation for the design of electric insulating/conducting
components: EU Project ADETEC', P. Alotto et al.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Use of Command Scripts to Calculate Fourier Series 237

Use of Command Scripts to Calculate Fourier Series

It is possible to generate command scripts that will generate the different


components of a Fourier series. These commands scripts make use of the
$ commands specified within the Reference manuals and are applicable to
both 2D and 3D solutions.

The following is an example.comi file that calculates the Fourier compo-


nents of potential where the full period has been modelled. The commands
are those for OPERA-2d but can be easily transferred to 3D by using the
LINE command followed by a PLOT command within the main $ DO
loop.
/ Set the number of Fourier components
$CONS #n 8
/ Set the line for the integral – for a straight line
$CONS #x1 0
$CONS #y1 0
$CONS #x2 10
$CONS #y2 0
/ Assume the line of integration covers
/ one whole period.
/ If the line only covers half a period –
/ set #symm to 2 and remove the odd or even
/ component from the fourier series (see later)
$CONS #symm 1
/ Get the length of the line and the fractional
/ distance along the line
/ If working on e.g. an arc section,
/ #T should be the total Angle subtended by the arc,
/ #X the fractional distance around this arc
$CONS #T SQRT((#x2-#x1)**2+(#y2-#y1)**2)
$PARA #X SQRT((x-#x1)**2+(y-#y1)**2)/(#T*#symm)
/ Set the function to be analysed
$PARA #Fx POT
/ Set the component that will be integrated for each
/ component
/ Temporarily set #i
$CONS #i 0
$PARA #Cosi Cos(2*PI*#I*#x)
$PARA #Sini Sin(2*PI*#I*#x)
/ Loop through each component
$DO #I 0 #n
/ Get the Cos Fourier components of the function #Fx
/ Not necessary if the function is Odd
INTL #x1 #y1 #x2 #y2 ERRO=128 COMP=(2/#T)*#Fx*#Cosi
$CONS #A%int(#I) INTEGRAL
/ Get the Sin Fourier components of the function #Fy
/ Not necessary if the function is Even
INTL #x1 #y1 #x2 #y2 ERRO=128 COMP=(2/#T)*#Fx*#Sini
$CONS #B%int(#I) INTEGRAL
$END DO
/ If #Fx is an Even function

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


238 Use of Command Scripts to Calculate Fourier Series

$CONS #A0 #A0/2

The results of this analysis will be the components of the Fourier series
described by
F ( x ) = a 0 + a 1 cos ( 2 π xt ) + a 2 cos ( 4 π xt ) + …
(11.37)
+ b 1 sin ( 2 π xt ) + b 2 sin ( 4 π xt ) + …

or using the notation of the.comi file:


F(x) = #A0 + #A1*Cos(2*PI*#x/#T) + #A2*Cos(4*PI*#x/#T) + ...
... + #B1*Sin(2*PI*#x/#T) + #B2*Sin(4*PI*#x/#T) + ...

The.comi file above is a general purpose command file and must be modi-
fied for use in the correct context. If only part of the model has been created
within the software, the commands above must be changed to reflect the
partial nature of the results of the integral command, i.e.
F(x) is an Odd Function: An = 0
F(x) is an Even Function: Bn = 0
Only 1/4 period: Even harmonics e.g. A2, A4, B2, B4 are zero.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


External Circuits in OPERA-2d 239

External Circuits in OPERA-2d

Introduction
Many electromagnetic devices are operated while connected to a voltage
driven electric circuit. For dc operation it is usually quite simple to deter-
mine the current that will be carried by the coils, as this will only depend
on the resistance of the winding and any external resistive circuit elements.
However, under time varying conditions, the inductance of the coil and
external circuit may also be significant and can be time dependent due to
magnetic saturation and eddy currents. Consequently, the current in the coil
will not be known. To allow problems of this nature to be solved OPERA-
2d supports external voltage driven circuits in the AC, TR, RM, LM and
DM solvers.

A simple external circuit


Figure 42 shows the circuit diagram for the simplest combined external cir-
cuit and finite element problem that can be solved in OPERA-2d.

Figure 42 Simple external circuit

The voltage supply, V, is connected to the circuit in the OPERA-2d model


via a series external resistance, REXT, and inductance, LEXT. A series
capacitance, CEXT, may also be included in the circuit. Specifying zero
capacitance implies that no capacitor exists rather than an open circuit. The
circuit (or winding) in the OPERA-2d model is also composed of a series
resistance, RFE, and inductance, LFE. In the simplest case, the circuit is

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


240 External Circuits in OPERA-2d

considered as being constructed from filamentary wires such that skin and
proximity effects in the turns are ignored. Windings, where these effects are
important, are discussed later in this document. Consequently, RFE has two
components – RDC, the DC resistance of the winding, and REC, the equiv-
alent resistance of the eddy current circuits in the problem referred to the
series circuit. The user specifies the values for V, REXT, LEXT and RDC,
while the program computes the values of LFE and REC.

Circuit With a “GO” Conductor


Figure 43 shows the XY cross-section for a simple example of the “GO”
conductor of a multi-turn coil above a conducting plate. The boundary con-
dition at X = 0 of tangential flux, implies that the “RETURN” conductor
of the coil and the return path for the eddy currents are in the symmetric
image. If this coil is connected to a step function voltage, the current in the
coil will not rise immediately to its DC value due to the inductance of the
winding and the eddy currents induced in the plate. The rise time can be
determined using an external circuit with the transient (TR) solver.

10.0 UNITS
Length : mm
Y [mm] Flux density : T
9.0 Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
Conductivity : S m-1
Source density : A m-2
8.0 Power :W
Force :N
Energy :J
7.0 Mass : kg

6.0

5.0
PROBLEM DATA
circ_1.tr
4.0 Linear elements
XY symmetry
Vector potential
3.0 Magnetic fields
Transient solution
Time = 0.0001 s
2.0 1043 elements
555 nodes
4 regions
1.0

0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0
X [mm]
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Figure 43 Coil above a conducting plate

The model is created as for a normal current driven problem with two
exceptions: the current density in the coil is assigned to zero, and the coil
region is assigned a conductor number through the tool button.

For this model, the coil region is assigned conductor number 1. After mesh
generation, the user defines the external circuit through the

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


External Circuits in OPERA-2d 241

Model -> External Circuits -> Create

menu. In the first dialog, global parameters for the circuit are specified.
Element Value Explanation
Circuit type Filamentary Skin and proximity effects are not
included
Symmetry 2 Circuit currents return outside the
model
Length (XY only) 50 The coil is 50 mm long in the Z
direction
Peak voltage 1.5 Voltage applied to circuit, V
Phase angle 0 Used in AC solutions only
Resistance 0.02 Value of REXT in Ω
Inductance 0 Value of LEXT in Henrys
Capacitance 0 Value of CEXT in Farads (0 = no
capacitance)
Initial voltage 0 Voltage on capacitance at time = 0
sec. for TR/RM/LM/DM solutions
(in Volts)

After completion of the dialog and clicking on the Create circuit button,
a second dialog allows the user to specify the elements (conductor num-
bers) that build up the circuit. In this model, only one conductor is speci-
fied.
Item Value Explanation
Conductor number 1 The next series element to be
included in the circuit
Sense of conductor GO The current will flow into the plane
of the model
Number of turns 150 The number of series turns in this
conductor
Resistance/unit length 0.0012 Resistance of the wire used to con-
struct the coil (=1.2 mΩ/mm)

The circuit is terminated by quitting from the dialog.

OPERA-2d has a number of facilities to enable the user to visualise the cir-
cuit and list its parameters. Functions are also available to make correc-
tions. In order to label the regions that belong to a circuit, the user can Set
view and select Circuit number under the Region labels tab.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


242 External Circuits in OPERA-2d

When the screen is refreshed, only regions which form part of a circuit will
be labelled with their corresponding circuit number. To list the circuit, the
user can select the List external circuits tool button.

Figure 44 shows the resulting OPERA-2d display, following the above


described commands.

Figure 44 Listing Circuit data

When the circuit has been entered correctly, the .op2 file for the transient
analysis is created specifying a step function drive for circuit 1.

Figure 45 shows the exponential rise of the current in the winding, dis-
played using the File -> Graph Data in Text File facility. Note that it
approaches its dc value, V / (REXT + RDC) = 83.2 mA.

Circuits with “GO” and “RETURN” conductors


In a model where there is no symmetry, it is necessary to include both the
“GO” and “RETURN” conductors in the circuit. Figure 46 shows a mod-
ification to the above problem with the coil positioned asymmetrically
above the plate.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


External Circuits in OPERA-2d 243

Figure 45 Transient rise of current in coil from step voltage input

UNITS
Length : mm
Flux density : T
Field strength : A m-1
Potential : Wb m-1
Conductivity : S m-1
Source density : A m-2
Power :W
Force :N
Energy :J
Mass : kg

PROBLEM DATA
circ_5.tr
Linear elements
XY symmetry
Vector potential
Magnetic fields
Transient solution
Time = 0.0001 s
2806 elements
1450 nodes
5 regions

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Figure 46 Asymmetric model

The “GO” part of the circuit is assigned conductor number 1 and the
“RETURN” conductor number 2. The external circuit is defined similarly
as for the symmetric case except that “Symmetry” is assigned to “1”, since

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


244 External Circuits in OPERA-2d

no currents return outside the model, and a second element must now be
added to the circuit.
Item Value Explanation
Conductor number 2 The next element to be included in the
circuit.
Sense of conductor RETURN The current will flow out of the plane
of the model
Number of turns 150 The number of series turns in this
conductor
Resistance/unit length 0.0012 Resistance of the wire used to con-
struct the coil (=1.2 mΩ/mm)

Using “GO” and “RETURN” conductors in this way, a complex winding


(for example, a distributed phase winding in an electrical machine) can be
built up from a number of elements. Parallel conductors can also be
included by assigning the same conductor number to different regions of
the model.

Eddy Current conductors in external circuits


The previous examples used filamentary conductors – skin and proximity
effects in the turns were ignored and the current density in each turn of the
coil is assumed to be uniform. Some coils and circuits are constructed from
more substantial pieces of conducting material where these effects may
become important – for example in large electrical machines or resistive
accelerator magnets. Even windings that can be considered filamentary
under “normal” operation can exhibit these effects if operated at very high
frequency or with very fast transients. Consequently, it can be important to
include these effects in the voltage driven circuit. This modifies the simple
circuit defined above such that RDC, which can be computed from the user
defined circuit parameters, is replaced by REM, the “dynamic resistance”
which is computed from the finite element solution and includes the redis-
tribution of the current within the conductor.

Setting up a problem with bulk conductors is similar to filamentary conduc-


tors. Each region (or regions) representing the GO or RETURN conductor
of each turn is assigned a separate conductor number. Hence, in the above
example, the conductors have been numbered 1 through 8. The conductiv-
ity of each region is also specified, as this will be used to determine the skin
and proximity effects. When the circuit is defined, the global parameter for
Circuit type is set to “Eddy Current”. The elements of the circuit are
again defined using the conductor numbers and “GO” or “RETURN”, but

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


External Circuits in OPERA-2d 245

the number of turns and resistance/unit length are not requested. It is


assumed that the conductor represents a single turn and the resistance,
REM, is determined within the finite element solution from the conductivity
of the material and its volume. Figure 47 shows the problem set up, includ-
ing the display of the circuit conductor labels. This was achieved by select-
ing Conductor Numbers under the Region labels tab in Set view

Figure 47 Conductor Label display

The circuit number to which each conductor belongs is shown in Figure 48.
Note that the +/- sign preceding the circuit number refers to a “GO” or
“RETURN” conductor respectively.

Figure 49 shows the asymmetric plate problem now driven from a four turn
coil with each turn having a 0.4 x 0.4 mm cross-section. In this example,
the voltage source is an AC supply at 10 kHz. As the skin depth of copper
at this frequency is about 0.7 mm, some redistribution of the current in the
coil is seen, shown by the coloured contours in the turns. Consequently,
REM≠RDC and can be evaluated from the power dissipation and current in
the conductor.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


246 External Circuits in OPERA-2d

Figure 48 Circuit number display (including Go and RETURN)

Figure 49 Asymmetric coil with bulk conductors

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Shared Filamentary Conductors in OPERA-2d 247

Shared Filamentary Conductors in OPERA-2d

Introduction
Shared filamentary conductors can be defined in OPERA-2d, to allow for
modelling of interconnected and polyphase circuits. This note describes
how to set up such circuits and post-process the results to extract the
required parameters for each circuit.

Simple Model Example


The simplest example of an inter-connected circuit consists of two voltage
sources, two external resistors and a shared resistor, configured as shown
in Figure 50. This simple circuit may be set up in OPERA-2d in order to
check the functionality of the shared filamentary feature within external
circuits.

Figure 50 Circuit Diagram for Simple Model Example

OPERA results may be checked against an analytic solution, evaluated


using the “Mesh Current Method”. In the OPERA model, the lumped com-
ponent parameters within the EXTERNAL CIRCUITS menus are used to
represent the circuit 1 Ohm, 2 Ohm and 6 Ohm resistances, while minimis-
ing the resistive and inductive terms of the (mandatory) OPERA conduc-
tors that complete each circuit. The OPERA model used for the simulation
is shown in Figure 51, with the OPERA conductors set in air and the
number of turns set to 1, hence minimising the coil inductance. Coil resist-
ance per unit length was also set to 1E-06 Ohms.

Two voltage driven circuits were defined across the shared, lumped 2 Ohm
component. The first circuit is defined with a phase angle of 0, and a second
circuit with a phase angle 90 (by definition - see Figure 50). The circuits

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


248 Shared Filamentary Conductors in OPERA-2d

Figure 51 A simple model with 2 conductors

were arranged such that the GO conductor in one loop also featured as a
GO conductor in the other. The dialog of Figure 52, which is accessed via:

Model → External circuits → Create...

shows the definition of circuit 2:

Figure 52 Dialog for creating a circuit loop 2

In order to specify a shared circuit component, one of the two circuits needs
to be edited by selecting:

Model → External circuits → Edit...


to reveal the dialog of Figure 53.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Shared Filamentary Conductors in OPERA-2d 249

Circuit 2 (or Circuit 1) is selected followed by the Edit Circuit Com-


ponents button. Pressing the Shared Components button brings up the dia-
log box shown in Figure 54.

Figure 53 Dialog box for “Shared Components”

Figure 54 Adding Shared Components

The Update button confirms the user entry. It is only necessary to define the
resistor in one loop, as the second will be updated automatically. A full
description of the resulting external circuits definition is listed in Figure 55,
together with the resulting current values, i1 and i2.

Kirchoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops
in any closed path in a circuit is zero. Considering the paths taken by i1
and i2, and ignoring the minimal OPERA conductor resistance and
inductance, a system of 2 equations is formulated as follows:

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250 Shared Filamentary Conductors in OPERA-2d

Figure 55 Circuits “Information” dialog box from simple_example.ac

100 = 3 2 i 1 (11.38)
– 100j 2 8 i2

Multiplying both sides by the inverse of the 2x2 matrix above results in the
following:

i 1 = 0.4 – 0.1 100 = 40 + 10j (11.39)


i2 – 0.1 0.15 – 100j – 10 – 15j

OPERA-2d/AC solves for the current in each loop, returning values at AC


times of 0 and -90. These correspond to the real and imaginary parts to the
current phasor respectively. The OPERA results agree with the analytic
computation presented above.

N.B. Applying Kirchoff’s 2nd Current Law to either node implies that the
current through the shared resistor is:
i PHA SE = i 1 + i 2 (11.40)

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


3-phase Systems 251

3-phase Systems

A common use for the shared filamentary conductors feature is to define a


3-phase system. In this note, an OPERA-2d model of a simple 3-phase gen-
erator is used to illustrate the star supply-to-star load connection case (star
connected power supply feeding a star connected load). In the 3-phase gen-
erator system, the supply comes from the generator armature circuit, dis-
tributed around the stator.

When setting up the model, attention must be given to the setup of GO and
RETURN conductors, in order to imply the correct circuit orientation
(local current directions) and thus drive the model correctly. Two current
loops are required (and hence two circuits), and both must be oriented such
that the current travels in the same direction across any conductor shared
by both circuits. Figure 56 shows the connections of a 3-phase winding
(with phases A, B and C) around the stator while Figure 57 shows the sim-
ple 3-phase generator geometry with the conductor numbers marked
around the stator.

Figure 56 Two current loops in a star-star 3-phase system

Phases A and C are wound in a clockwise sense, while B is wound in a


counter clockwise sense. The winding arrows of coils in Figure 56 are
drawn so as to reflect this. The tails of all phases are connected to the star
point. The tops of all phases are connected to the 3-phase star connected
load to complete the circuit.

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252 3-phase Systems

Figure 57 Simple generator model depicting conductor numbers

The diagram above shows phase C to be common to both circuits. The ori-
entation of both circuits must be such that currents i1 and i2 both have
the same direction along Phase C. In order to satisfy this constraint conduc-
tors 3 and 4 are set to be GO in circuit 1, with 6 and 1 being RETURN con-
ductors. In circuit 2, conductors 2 and 3 need to be GO, with 5 and 6
specified as RETURN. Since Phase C is the common phase, values for
resistance, inductance and capacitance across conductors 3 and 6 should be
entered as shared components, with all other impedances defined in the
corresponding circuit in the usual way.

The circuit listing is shown in Figure 58 below.

Using Kirchoff’s 2nd law, the currents in the 3 phases can be extracted from
the OPERA model using the relationships below:

iA = i1
iB = i2
iC = i1 + i2 (11.41)

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3-phase Systems 253

Figure 58 Circuit properties dialog for a 3-phase system

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254 Delta Connected Loads

Delta Connected Loads

The user may define a Delta connected load without using shared conduc-
tors. The three current loops shown in Figure 59 can be described by three
independent OPERA circuits.

Figure 59 Circuit diagram of a delta connected load

Consider a simple example shown in Figure 60 - a 3-phase circuit with the


phases decoupled from one another, by setting them far apart in air and
specifying a negligible resistance per unit length.

Figure 60 Simple 3-phase model to represent a delta load feed

Three independent loops (no shared components) can be defined, as listed


in Figure 61, together with the resulting currents i1, i2 and i3 returned
by OPERA.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Delta Connected Loads 255

Figure 61 Circuits “Information” dialog box for a delta connection

Kirchoff’s 2nd voltage law states that the sum of all potential changes
equals zero:

i 1   1 + j  2π – ---  
1
  π  
100
i 2  2 + j  π – --- 
2
100 ( cos ( – 120° ) + j sin ( – 120° ) ) = (11.42)
  π 
100 ( cos ( – 240° ) + j sin ( – 240° ) )
π 4
i 3  3 + j  --- – --- 
  2 π 

i1 2.734 – 16.307j
∴ i 2 = – 30.846 – 4.667j (11.43)
i3 – 13.669 – 30.223j

The result is in agreement with the OPERA values listed in Figure 61.

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


256 Delta Connected Loads

Subsequently, applying Kirchoff’s 2nd current law can be used to obtain


the phase currents:
i A = i 1 – i 3 = – 16.403 + 46.530j
i B = i 2 – i 1 = 33.580 – 11.639j
i C = i 3 – i 2 = – 17.177 – 34.891j (11.44)

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 257

Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

The OPERA-2d/DM solver has been developed to model the magnetiza-


tion process. The work was performed in conjunction with Magnequench
Inc., who provided the practical verification of its accuracy and made sug-
gestions on the physical processes that must be modelled. The program
allows the user to specify the virgin magnetization curve and a family of
demagnetization characteristics for the material that is to be magnetized.
During the magnetization process, the program evaluates the maximum
value of magnetization achieved by each element in the material that is
being magnetized. It also records the direction of this magnetization.

The derived magnet characteristics can subsequently be used in different a


model structure that employs the magnet (known as the “application
model”), to be solved in the ST/RM/LM/TR solvers. In subsequent analy-
ses, the analysis programs will interpolate from the demagnetization char-
acteristics based on the peak magnetization achieved by the element. In
terms of the way permanent magnets are normally specified in OPERA-2d,
the program is providing a different 2nd quadrant BH curve for each ele-
ment and also a different orientation angle, PHASE.

Example Problem
Figure 62 shows the field solution from an OPERA-2d/ST model of a typ-
ical loudspeaker. The model is axisymmetric and the permanent magnet
(the blue material) is consequently a ring. Ideally the permanent magnet is
magnetized perfectly in the axial (Z) direction. This application note shows
how the OPERA-2d/DM solver can be used to create the true magnetiza-
tion distribution.

Figure 63 shows the magnetization fixture that is used to magnetize the per-
manent magnet ring. Again this is an axisymmetric model. The solenoid
coil (in red) is connected to a 1 mF capacitor at 1.8 kV which discharges
through the coil. As current starts to flow in the coil magnetic flux is
induced in the magnetic circuit (in green) and through the permanent mag-
net. However, since both the magnetic circuit and the magnet are electri-
cally conducting the OPERA-2d/DM solver must solve the transient field
equations as eddy currents will try to prevent the flux being induced. Note
that the magnet is placed asymmetrically between the poles of the fixture.

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258 Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

Figure 62 Loudspeaker field solution in OPERA-2d/ST

Figure 63 Magnetization fixture

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Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 259

Setting Up the DM Model

Materials The BH characteristic for the magnetic circuit is a normal soft magnetic
material requiring no special treatment. The BH curve for the permanent
magnet material is the virgin curve for the material shown in Figure 64 and
a set of polynomial expression that specify the demagnetization character-
istics as shown in Figure 65. The polynomial expressions are created and

Figure 64 Virgin BH curve for magnet material

edited by selecting Demagnetization on the BH curve editing menu. The


demagnetization curve obtained from a polynomial expression can be dis-
played by highlighting one of the expressions and clicking on Plot, as
shown in Figure 66.

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260 Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

Figure 65 Demagnetization polynomial expressions.

Figure 66 Display of demagnetization polynomial curve

Circuit The solenoid coil has been labelled as conductor number 1. The capacitor
is connected to the coil by specifying a circuit in the Model menu. Clicking
on External circuits gives a dialog box to specify the external compo-
nents of the circuit as shown in Figure 67

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 261

Figure 67 Specifying the capacitor and initial voltage

After accepting the completed dialog the conductors making up the circuit
are selected, shown in Figure 68.

Figure 68 Specifying the solenoid coil as part of the circuit

OPERA-2d/DM Selecting a Demagnetization transient (DM) analysis produces a dialog


Analysis Data box similar to the dialog for the Transient analysis (TR), as shown in
Figure 69. There are two items on the dialog that are particular to the
OPERA-2d/DM solver. The B field switching tolerance allows the
user to specify the minimum amount by which the magnitude of the flux
density in an element must reduce before the OPERA-2d/DM solver con-
siders that the maximum magnetization of the element has been achieved
and the demagnetization characteristics should now be used. The tolerance
prevents the analysis switching to the demagnetization characteristics due
to small reductions in the magnetization caused by the user defined toler-
ance for the nonlinear convergence. A typical value is about 1 mT.

The second item of importance is the Demagnetization algorithm. The


user is presented with a choice for how the magnetization direction may be
modified after the maximum magnetization has been achieved. The pro-
gram may assume that:
• the magnetization direction remains the same as it was at the maximum
magnetization (No rotation)

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262 Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

• the magnetization resulting from the flux density at the particular instant
in time during the demagnetization process may rotate with the direc-
tion of the flux density in the element (Rotate with B)
• the magnetization resulting from the field strength at the particular
instant in time during the demagnetization process may rotate with the
direction of the magnetic field strength in the element (Rotate with H)

The rotation can be important if the design of the magnetizing fixture


causes the field strength or flux density direction in the magnet to rotate
considerably during the demagnetization process.

Figure 69 OPERA-2d/DM Analysis Options

In the Demagnetization analysis dialog box, open the Drive tab and set
the circuit 1 drive function to DC.

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Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 263

OPERA-2d/DM Analysis
The OPERA-2d/DM analysis proceeds similarly to an OPERA-2d/TR
analysis. Results are stored at each Output time specified by the user and
a .log file may monitor the current in the circuit or any other user defined
time dependent parameters. Figure 70 shows the value of the current in the
solenoid coil as the capacitor discharges.

Figure 70 Coil current v time during magnetization process

Figures 71, 72 and 73 show the flux pattern at different times during the
magnetization process. The contour intervals are the same in all plots and
the effect of the eddy currents during the process can be seen.

At every time-step during the magnetization process, OPERA-2d/DM is


also updating two tables of values MAGBR and MAGBZ storing the maximum
magnitude of the r and z components of flux density respectively in each
element during the transient. The names of the tables are MAGBX and MAGBY
if the model has XY symmetry.

Figures 74 and 75 show the distribution of the magnitude


(SQRT(MAGBR**2+MAGBZ**2)) and direction of the maximum flux
density in the magnet at 10 and 30 ms respectively. Note that the contour
ranges in the two figures are different.

If the user were to plot the values of MAGBR and MAGBZ later in the magneti-
zation process, the pattern would be very similar to Figure 75. The current
in coil reaches a peak close to 30 ms, and apart from some eddy current
effects, the elements in the magnet will not experience higher fields during
the magnetization process.

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264 Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

Figure 71 Flux pattern at 10 ms

Figure 72 Flux pattern at 30 ms

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Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 265

Figure 73 Flux pattern at 70 ms

Figure 74 Maximum values of flux density in magnet at 10 ms

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266 Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

Figure 75 Maximum values of flux density in magnet at 30 ms

Using the magnetization distribution in another


model
The magnetization distribution calculated by OPERA-2d/DM can be
imported to other models containing the magnet. Multiple copies of the
magnet can be introduced including changes in polarisation direction if
required.

The transfer of the data is achieved using tables.


1. Firstly a table file of point coordinates at the element centroid of the
magnet is created. These are the magnet elements in the application
model (in this case the loudspeaker model) to which the distribution
is to be imported. This can include translations and rotations of coor-
dinate system that will bring the magnets in the two models into
coincidence.
2. Next the final case in the OPERA-2d/DM solution is loaded and the
first table file processed to produce a second table file that includes
the original centroid positions and the values of MAGBR and MAGBZ at
those points, as calculated by OPERA-2d/DM. The meshes in the
two models do not need to be identical.
3. Finally, the second table file is imported back to the application
model.

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Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 267

Creating a Table The table of element centroids in the loudspeaker model is generated after
of Element the model has been created and meshed but before it is solved. Under the
Centroids Tables menu, select the option Export a table. The dialog box shown in
Figure 76 allows the user to specify which regions the table of centroids are
to be evaluated and the name of the table file. Figures 62 and 63 show that
the magnet is in a different position axially in the two models. The dialog
box also allows the user to specify a translation and/or rotation that will
bring the centroid coordinates within the magnet in the OPERA-2d/DM
model.

Figure 76 Exporting element centroids from the loudspeaker model

Processing the The final case in the solution to the OPERA-2d/DM file is loaded and
Table Process a table is selected from the Tables menu. As shown in Figure
77 the user selects the name of the new table file and the additional tables
to be exported at the centroid coordinates (MAGBR and MAGBZ). Further trans-
formations can be made during the processing - for example, if the magnet
were moved to a new position in the fixture but the original element cen-
troid table file was still used.

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268 Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet

Figure 77 Producing the table file of MAGBR and MAGBZ

Importing the Return to the unsolved loudspeaker model and from the Tables menu
Table select Import a table. When the first table file is imported either Over-
Write or Add can be chosen. However if several copies of the magnet
existed in the application model it is important to use Add to build up the
table of the magnetization in all the copies of the magnet during later
imports. Before running the analysis it is recommended that the user checks
that the tables have been successfully imported as shown in Figure 78

Figure 78 Magnetization distribution in loudspeaker model

Note that the coarser discretisation of the magnet in the loudspeaker has
slightly reduced the range of plotted contours. The evaluation points from
the element centroids have not included values from the elements near the

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Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet 269

top left and bottom right corners of the magnet where the highest and low-
est values were calculated by OPERA-2d/DM (see Figure 75).

The static OPERA-2d/ST analysis can now be run. The only limitation
compared to a normal ST solution is that mesh adaption is not allowed.

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270 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

Modelling the Magnetization Process in Hard


Magnetic Materials
A facility to model the magnetization of permanent magnets has been
included in the OPERA-2d Finite Element Analysis package. A transient,
nonlinear, eddy current simulation of the magnetization fixture can be per-
formed in OPERA-2d/DM. This is fully described in the application note
entitled Using OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet [page 257]. The BH
model of the permanent magnet material is based on measured characteris-
tics of the permanent magnet. During nonlinear analysis, OPERA-2d/DM
can use a virgin BH curve, shown in figure 79, for material magnetization
and then secondary, temperature dependent 'de-magnetization' BH curves
as the field decreases.

Figure 79 Virgin and demagnetization curves

The magnetization distribution evaluated in OPERA-2d/DM can be trans-


ferred to an OPERA-2d 'application model' for the static and dynamic elec-
tromagnetic analysis of the device in which the magnetized section(s) are
employed.

Figure 80 shows one such case, where the magnetization of 2 ring magnet
sections in a Permanent Magnet Direct Current (PMDC) motor was pre-
dicted using OPERA-2d/DM and the model was subsequently solved using
OPERA-2d/ST to model the field distribution, with the magnet rings now
surface-mounted on the PMDC stator back-iron.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 271

Figure 80 Flux distribution in the 'application device' (PMDC machine) predicted


in OPERA-2d/ST, having first evaluated the PM magnetization using OPERA-2d/
DM.

Modelling the De-magnetization of Permanent


Magnet Materials 'in service'
The de-magnetization model can also account for demagnetization of the
magnetized segments 'in service'. In the PMDC motor, torque will be pro-
duced if the armature conductors in the rotor slots are excited with direct
current. It is of interest to the designer to predict at which armature excita-
tion levels the magnet begins to get damaged.

The extended model starts as before with a virgin BH curve and sets of tem-
perature dependent demagnetization curves, as shown in figure 81. Addi-
tional data defining the recoil behaviour of the material is also now being
provided and the necessary field history of the material is stored so that de-
magnetization in the application device, e.g. the PMDC electrical machine,
can be modelled.

Implementation
In OPERA-2d the following steps need to be observed.

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272 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

Figure 81 The extended de-magnetization model, including temperature


dependent recoil curves

Virgin BH curve This needs to be defined as a table of values of B versus H

Demagnetization The user may define these as quadratic polynomials, as before (see Using
curves OPERA-2d/DM to Magnetize a Magnet [page 257]). However, quadratic
polynomials cannot accurately represent the demagnetization characteris-
tics of soft, easily demagnetized materials. OPERA-2d allows the user to
define any function to describe this characteristic, in the form of a series of
points. As an example, the user may need to define a variation equivalent to

α + H 
B = α1 H 2 + α 2 H + α 3 + α 4Tan −1  5 
 α6  (11.45)

This can be achieved by defining an OPERA-format TABLE which con-


tains, in discrete format, the variation of the flux density with magnetiza-
tion (and hence H). One such example is shown in Appendix A. The
OPERA Table is read in by issuing the command:

$function filename.table

which reads the text file containing the variation of flux density B with
magnetization, M, at a set of temperatures and remanent flux densities, Br.
The command automatically generates a functional variable, which is the
name of the final column (in this case M_F3BG).

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 273

Recoil BH curve A constant dB/dH needs to be defined (typical values range from 1.01 to
1.05)

Activating the The extended demagnetization model is activated by defining a user varia-
Model ble #RECOILMU equal to the incremental recoil permeability to be used in
materials that have been specified with demagnetization characteristics.
The original demagnetization model will be used if #RECOILMU is not
defined or set to zero. All OPERA-2d solvers activate the model if this var-
iable is stored in the data file.

The PMDC machine of figure 80 was modelled in a series of static solu-


tions with the wound rotor rotated to different positions, and the armature
currents continuously changing according to the function of the commuta-
tor. The motor employed low-cost ferrite permanent magnet rings, the mag-
netization of which was analysed in OPERA-2d/DM, using the methods
described in Section 1. Each static analysis used information on the previ-
ously stored solution, before updating slot currents, advancing the rotor
position and solving the problem again. The command file that was used to
automate this process is listed in Appendix B. Note that slot current infor-
mation at different rotor positions was included in the text file
Currents_Armature.txt which was called at each angular interval within the
main command file.

Simulation results and discussion


Figures 82 and 83 show the rotor at different positions, depicting the cor-
responding field distribution as well as armature currents.

Figure 82 Equipotentials and armature currents at the 9 deg. position

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


274 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

Figure 83 Equipotentials and armature currents at the 27 deg. position

During the simulation, the permanent magnet field is continuously moni-


tored with the magnet operating on a de-magnetization or a recoil BH curve
depending on the level of reverse field induced by the armature currents.

At the end of the pre-defined rotation, the magnetization level reached in


different sections (elements) of the magnet, due to armature excitation
effects, was recorded and compared with the levels prior to armature exci-
tation. Figure 84 confirms that armature reaction resulted in B-field levels
reaching a minimum of 0.15 T, a level which would result in the magnet
operating on recoil curves as the armature excitation varied.

Figure 84 Minimum B-levels reached in the PM sections

The 'irreversible' effects of the armature reaction on the PM magnetization


at higher armature current levels can be quantified by plotting the B-field
just inside the permanent magnet after the end of the simulation (with

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 275

armature currents set back to zero) and comparing these with results before
the onset of rotation (and with no armature excitation). Sections of the per-
manent magnet have been permanently demagnetized by approximately
5%, as shown in figure 85.

Figure 85 B-field inside magnet before and after rotation (no currents)

Sample table containing de-magnetization curves


for a permanent magnet
A file with the following contents was used in a $ FUNCTION command
to define the function M_FB3G(B;BMAX;T).
21 5 3 1
1 B [FLUXU]
2 BMAX [FLUXU]
3 T [1.0]
4 M_FB3G [FLUXU]
0
0 8000 -20 2500
500 8000 -20 2970
1000 8000 -20 3400
1500 8000 -20 3700
2000 8000 -20 3850
2500 8000 -20 3950
3000 8000 -20 3975
3500 8000 -20 4000
4000 8000 -20 4000
4500 8000 -20 4000
5000 8000 -20 4000

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276 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

5500 8000 -20 4000


6000 8000 -20 4000
6500 8000 -20 4000
7000 8000 -20 4000
7500 8000 -20 4000
8000 8000 -20 4000
8500 8000 -20 4000
9000 8000 -20 4000
9500 8000 -20 4000
10000 8000 -20 4000
0 6100 -20 1650
500 6100 -20 2120
1000 6100 -20 2500
1500 6100 -20 2750
2000 6100 -20 2900
2500 6100 -20 3000
3000 6100 -20 3025
3500 6100 -20 3050
4000 6100 -20 3050
4500 6100 -20 3050
5000 6100 -20 3050
5500 6100 -20 3050
6000 6100 -20 3050
6500 6100 -20 3050
7000 6100 -20 3050
7500 6100 -20 3050
8000 6100 -20 3050
8500 6100 -20 3050
9000 6100 -20 3050
9500 6100 -20 3050
10000 6100 -20 3050
0 5000 -20 970
500 5000 -20 1400
1000 5000 -20 1700
1500 5000 -20 1850
2000 5000 -20 1950
2500 5000 -20 1975
3000 5000 -20 2000
3500 5000 -20 2000
4000 5000 -20 2000
4500 5000 -20 2000
5000 5000 -20 2000
5500 5000 -20 2000
6000 5000 -20 2000
6500 5000 -20 2000

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Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 277

7000 5000 -20 2000


7500 5000 -20 2000
8000 5000 -20 2000
8500 5000 -20 2000
9000 5000 -20 2000
9500 5000 -20 2000
10000 5000 -20 2000
0 4000 -20 70
500 4000 -20 500
1000 4000 -20 800
1500 4000 -20 950
2000 4000 -20 1050
2500 4000 -20 1075
3000 4000 -20 1100
3500 4000 -20 1100
4000 4000 -20 1100
4500 4000 -20 1100
5000 4000 -20 1100
5500 4000 -20 1100
6000 4000 -20 1100
6500 4000 -20 1100
7000 4000 -20 1100
7500 4000 -20 1100
8000 4000 -20 1100
8500 4000 -20 1100
9000 4000 -20 1100
9500 4000 -20 1100
10000 4000 -20 1100
0 0 -20 0
500 0 -20 0
1000 0 -20 0
1500 0 -20 0
2000 0 -20 0
2500 0 -20 0
3000 0 -20 0
3500 0 -20 0
4000 0 -20 0
4500 0 -20 0
5000 0 -20 0
5500 0 -20 0
6000 0 -20 0
6500 0 -20 0
7000 0 -20 0
7500 0 -20 0
8000 0 -20 0

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278 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

8500 0 -20 0
9000 0 -20 0
9500 0 -20 0
10000 0 -20 0
0 8000 20 2750
500 8000 20 3220
1000 8000 20 3650
1500 8000 20 3950
2000 8000 20 4100
2500 8000 20 4200
3000 8000 20 4225
3500 8000 20 4250
4000 8000 20 4250
4500 8000 20 4250
5000 8000 20 4250
5500 8000 20 4250
6000 8000 20 4250
6500 8000 20 4250
7000 8000 20 4250
7500 8000 20 4250
8000 8000 20 4250
8500 8000 20 4250
9000 8000 20 4250
9500 8000 20 4250
10000 8000 20 4250
0 6100 20 1900
500 6100 20 2370
1000 6100 20 2750
1500 6100 20 3000
2000 6100 20 3150
2500 6100 20 3250
3000 6100 20 3275
3500 6100 20 3300
4000 6100 20 3300
4500 6100 20 3300
5000 6100 20 3300
5500 6100 20 3300
6000 6100 20 3300
6500 6100 20 3300
7000 6100 20 3300
7500 6100 20 3300
8000 6100 20 3300
8500 6100 20 3300
9000 6100 20 3300
9500 6100 20 3300

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Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 279

10000 6100 20 3300


0 5000 20 1220
500 5000 20 1650
1000 5000 20 1950
1500 5000 20 2100
2000 5000 20 2200
2500 5000 20 2225
3000 5000 20 2250
3500 5000 20 2250
4000 5000 20 2250
4500 5000 20 2250
5000 5000 20 2250
5500 5000 20 2250
6000 5000 20 2250
6500 5000 20 2250
7000 5000 20 2250
7500 5000 20 2250
8000 5000 20 2250
8500 5000 20 2250
9000 5000 20 2250
9500 5000 20 2250
10000 5000 20 2250
0 4000 20 320
500 4000 20 750
1000 4000 20 1050
1500 4000 20 1200
2000 4000 20 1300
2500 4000 20 1325
3000 4000 20 1350
3500 4000 20 1350
4000 4000 20 1350
4500 4000 20 1350
5000 4000 20 1350
5500 4000 20 1350
6000 4000 20 1350
6500 4000 20 1350
7000 4000 20 1350
7500 4000 20 1350
8000 4000 20 1350
8500 4000 20 1350
9000 4000 20 1350
9500 4000 20 1350
10000 4000 20 1350
0 0 20 0
500 0 20 0

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280 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

1000 0 20 0
1500 0 20 0
2000 0 20 0
2500 0 20 0
3000 0 20 0
3500 0 20 0
4000 0 20 0
4500 0 20 0
5000 0 20 0
5500 0 20 0
6000 0 20 0
6500 0 20 0
7000 0 20 0
7500 0 20 0
8000 0 20 0
8500 0 20 0
9000 0 20 0
9500 0 20 0
10000 0 20 0
0 8000 60 2400
500 8000 60 2870
1000 8000 60 3300
1500 8000 60 3600
2000 8000 60 3750
2500 8000 60 3850
3000 8000 60 3875
3500 8000 60 3900
4000 8000 60 3900
4500 8000 60 3900
5000 8000 60 3900
5500 8000 60 3900
6000 8000 60 3900
6500 8000 60 3900
7000 8000 60 3900
7500 8000 60 3900
8000 8000 60 3900
8500 8000 60 3900
9000 8000 60 3900
9500 8000 60 3900
10000 8000 60 3900
0 6100 60 1550
500 6100 60 2020
1000 6100 60 2400
1500 6100 60 2650
2000 6100 60 2800

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 281

2500 6100 60 2900


3000 6100 60 2925
3500 6100 60 2950
4000 6100 60 2950
4500 6100 60 2950
5000 6100 60 2950
5500 6100 60 2950
6000 6100 60 2950
6500 6100 60 2950
7000 6100 60 2950
7500 6100 60 2950
8000 6100 60 2950
8500 6100 60 2950
9000 6100 60 2950
9500 6100 60 2950
10000 6100 60 2950
0 5000 60 870
500 5000 60 1300
1000 5000 60 1600
1500 5000 60 1750
2000 5000 60 1850
2500 5000 60 1875
3000 5000 60 1900
3500 5000 60 1900
4000 5000 60 1900
4500 5000 60 1900
5000 5000 60 1900
5500 5000 60 1900
6000 5000 60 1900
6500 5000 60 1900
7000 5000 60 1900
7500 5000 60 1900
8000 5000 60 1900
8500 5000 60 1900
9000 5000 60 1900
9500 5000 60 1900
10000 5000 60 1900
0 4000 60 -30
500 4000 60 400
1000 4000 60 700
1500 4000 60 850
2000 4000 60 950
2500 4000 60 975
3000 4000 60 1000
3500 4000 60 1000

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282 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service”

4000 4000 60 1000


4500 4000 60 1000
5000 4000 60 1000
5500 4000 60 1000
6000 4000 60 1000
6500 4000 60 1000
7000 4000 60 1000
7500 4000 60 1000
8000 4000 60 1000
8500 4000 60 1000
9000 4000 60 1000
9500 4000 60 1000
10000 4000 60 1000
0 0 60 0
500 0 60 0
1000 0 60 0
1500 0 60 0
2000 0 60 0
2500 0 60 0
3000 0 60 0
3500 0 60 0
4000 0 60 0
4500 0 60 0
5000 0 60 0
5500 0 60 0
6000 0 60 0
6500 0 60 0
7000 0 60 0
7500 0 60 0
8000 0 60 0
8500 0 60 0
9000 0 60 0
9500 0 60 0
10000 0 60 0

Command Script
Command file to automate multiple static solutions, to include demagneti-
zation effects in permanent magnets.
/+++ Open Stream to Write Results In +++/
$OPEN 1 Results.dat write
/+++ Open Stream containing rotor currents +++/
$OPEN 2 Currents_Armature.txt read
/+++ Set Constants +++/

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Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets “In Service” 283

$CONS #ANGLESHIFT 30
$CONS #STEP 3
/+++ Enter Loop to Rotate Rotor and Solve +++/
$DO #R 0 #ANGLESHIFT #STEP
$CONS #T (#ANGLESHIFT/#STEP)*(#R/#ANGLESHIFT)
/+++ Read the file in and advance the rotor angle+++/
$STRING sT %REAL(#t)
$IF #R EQ 0
READ PMDCmotor_ini.OP2
$ELSE
READ RotorAT%int(#T-1).st
MODI REG1=ROTOR XCEN=0 YCEN=0 ANGLE=ANGLE+#STEP
$END IF
$CONST #T &sT&
RECO XMIN=-20 20 -20 20
/+++ Read Generate mesh and set solution type+++/
SET ELEM=QUAD
MESH
RECO LABE=YES MESH=NO CLIN=YES BACK=YES
/+++ Check for existence of tables +++/
$EXIST 'All_tables.table'
$IF fileexists eq 1
$OS del 'All_tables.table'
$END IF
/+++ save magnetizing field tables +++/
EXTRA
EXPORT FILEOUT='All_tables.table' REG1=1 REG2=* SOL3=DEMAGBX
SOL4=DEMAGBY,
SOL1=MAGBX SOL2=MAGBY NODAL=NO TRANSX=0 TRANSY=0 ROTATION=0,
NODEDUMP=NO NELD=NO
QUIT
/+++ Assign Currents (which deletes Tables)+++/
$READ 2 #INDEX #SC0 #SC1 #SC2 #SC3 #SC4 #SC5 #SC6 #SC7 #SC8 #SC9 #SC10
#SC11
$DO #J 0 11
MODIFY REG1=SLOT%int(#J) DENS=((#SC%int(#J))/(21.24*2))*1E5
ERASE=NO
$END DO
/+++ Now re-load Tables +++/
EXTRA
IMPORT FILEIN='All_tables.table' OVERWRITE=YES
QUIT
/+++ Write File and Solve +++
$STRING t1 'RotorAt%INT(#T)'
$STRING t2 '.st'
WRIT FILE='&t1&' SOL1=MAGBX SOL2=MAGBY SOL3=DEMAGBX SOL4=DEMAGBY
$OS operaanl ST '&t1&' FORE
$END DO
$CLOSE 1
$CLOSE 2

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284 Linear Motion Models

Linear Motion Models

Introduction
This application note shows how to use the Linear Motion (LM) solver to
model a moving coil motor from a loudspeaker driver. This application
note will not cover the details of setting up the particular model but is
intended to show the user how to set up this type of Linear Motion problem
so that they can achieve good accurate results efficiently.

Loudspeaker Driver
The example being modelled is a simple ring magnet and iron yoke system
with the coil sitting in the pole gap.

Figure 86 3d display showing 1/4 of the complete model

The yoke is mild steel and the magnet is a NdFeB ring with a vertical mag-
netization. The coil has a defined current density of 10A/m^2.

Electromagnetic Model
As the driver motor is rotationally symmetric about its axis this model can
be defined as a 2D Axi-symmetric model. The model is built up using a
number of regions to define the yoke, the magnet, the coil and the surround-
ing air.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Linear Motion Models 285

It is advisable to use a consistent unit set throughout the definition of the


model and the coupling. As most of the spring coupling data is available in
SI units it is recommended to stick with SI units for the whole model.

Figure 87 Axi symmetric geometry of loudspeaker driver

Once the basic items have been created, as in a static or transient model, the
additional items required to convert this model to a Linear Motion model
are very simple. These are the creation of the group of moving objects (the
coil) and the group where the moving objects are allowed to move (the air
in the pole gap), also called the Fluid Group.

Fluid Group One or more AIR regions are defined in the pole gap, extending above the
yoke and down into the yoke gap, which will allow the coil freedom to
move up and down. These are then formed into a GROUP using the
Region Groups tool button.

The Fluid Group can contain as many regions as required to define the area
where the Moving Group is allowed to move. It should be noted though that
as the Fluid Group is re-meshed at every time step if this area is too large
then this will slow down the analysis.

Moving Group The moving group in this model consists of the coil and a group of air
regions around it to improve accuracy, as is discussed below. Again these
are formed into a named GROUP using the Region Groups tool but-
ton.

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286 Linear Motion Models

As the Moving group and Fluid group are allowed to overlap in this special
situation it can become difficult to see and select the various parts of the
model. It is advisable to define the regions that will be used in the Moving
group after having defined the regions of the Fluid group so that they are
always drawn last and so are always visible.

Alternatively the Local Coordinate System of the Moving group can be


temporarily changed so that these regions can be displaced to an area where
they can be viewed. This can be done from the Modify ->
Modify Region Parameters menu. After the Moving group has been cho-
sen, the local coordinates can be modified under the
Local Coordinates and Reflections tab to temporarily shift the groups
position within the model space.

Figure 88 Region groups for the moving and fluid groups of the model

Once the Fluid and Moving groups have been defined they are assigned
within the model using the LM gap region dialog from the
Model -> Air Gaps -> Linear Machine Air Gap
menu route, as shown in Figure 89, and clicking on the Moving mesh but-
ton.

Figure 89 Dialog for specifying moving and fluid groups

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Linear Motion Models 287

Improving Solution Accuracy


Typically the movement of the coil in the pole gap is determined by the
force the coil produces and this force is computed in the solver using a
Maxwell Stress integral. If the accuracy of the Maxwell Stress integral is
improved then the coil movement will be modelled more accurately.

At each time step a line integral around the outside of the Moving Group is
taken to compute the Maxwell Stress (the force in the z direction in this
example). For models like this with a coil or for models with a moving iron
mass (Solenoid Actuators) the accuracy of the line integral is greatly
increased by moving the line away from the coil or iron.

Where a coil is the moving part the very rapid field changes around the
ends of the coil will be difficult to model, unless a very large number of ele-
ments are used, so by moving the line integral into a region of lower field
gradient a more accurate answer is obtained.

So in this model four additional AIR regions have been defined around the
coil and these are included in the Moving Group. As these four AIR regions
and the Coil have all been defined as quadrilaterals they can be converted
to type H regions (regularly meshed, as can be seen in the figure below) for
a further improvement in the accuracy of the computed field.

Figure 90 Regular meshing of coil and air regions

The other method of improving the accuracy of this calculation is to switch


to using Quadratic elements instead of Linear elements. This will produce
many more nodes, but by careful definition of the model any additional

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


288 Linear Motion Models

computational time can be minimised by only using a dense mesh where


the fields are rapidly changing.

Finally as the moving parts will actually move within the model space dur-
ing the simulation, it is important to ensure that the mesh is consistent
throughout the range of motion. This can be checked by changing the Local
Coordinate System for the moving group and re-meshing to view the mesh
as the moving part is shifted over the range of movement.

Figure 91 Moving region shifted and re-meshed

Creating the Analysis


The analysis is set up in a similar way to a transient solution. In this exam-
ple a fixed time step has been chosen so that the results stored in the log file
can be passed though a Fourier Transform to analyse the spectral content
of the motion distortion. The time step is chosen to capture not only the
drive frequency but also some of the higher harmonics within the motion.
In this example, being driven at between 10Hz and 100Hz, the time step is
chosen to enable the harmonic motion to be observed up to a few kHz, as
shown in Figure 92.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Linear Motion Models 289

Figure 92 Dialog for setting time step

Logging It is not practical to store very many full field solutions at specific time
points as the solution file becomes very large. However it is desirable to be
able to monitor the motion and certain key components linked to the
motion at many more time points during the simulation. Logging is used to
allow both the progress of the analysis to be monitored as the solution is
being run and also so that the motion can be analysed separately from the
full field solutions stored at the output time points.

In this example the output time point (TTIME) is stored as the first column
of data. This is followed by the system variables z-force (lmzforce), z-shift
(lmzshift), z-speed (lmzspeed) and the user defined constant z-acceleration
(#accelz), as shown in Figure 93. If the coil had been driven by a circuit
then the drive voltage (v1) and the circuit current (i1) could also have been
included.

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290 Linear Motion Models

Figure 93 Dialog for log file

Coupling The mechanical coupling of the spring constants, masses and damping is
provided with a Command Input file (*.comi). In the example below these
characteristics have been derived from the Thiele-Small parameters for this
driver plus a set of end stops to limit the motion to within the defined fluid
region.
/ Linear Motion Speaker example
/ Driver parameters which describe the motion
/ All in SI units
/ Total moving mass (Kg)
$constant #Mms 0.050
/ Driver suspension stiffness (m/N)
$constant #Cms 0.0002
/ Losses due to the suspension (N.s/m)
$constant #Rms 2.0
/ Define End stops
$constant #lmminzshift -0.0048
$constant #lmmaxzshift 0.0048
/ Motion from F=ma or a=F/m
$constant #accelz (lmzforce-lmzshift*(1/#Cms)-lmzspeed*#Rms)/#Mms

These end stops are useful for ensuring that the moving parts do not leave
the defined region of motion (which would then halt the analysis).

The Command Input file is created using the OPERA-2d/PP command file
editor or other text editor and then assigned while setting up the analysis
using the Mechanical coupling option under the Command file tab.

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Linear Motion Models 291

Post-processing
As well as the usual range of post-processing facilities available once the
model has been solved such as plotting the fields and flux lines (as shown
below). It is possible to GRAPH the log file results.

Figure 94 Magnetic flux patterns

The GRAPH command is available from the menus under File ->
Graph Data in Text File and allows any file containing columns of text
to be loaded and then to plot any component (column) against any other
component (column).

By plotting column 1 against column 2 the time through the simulation is


plotted against the force in the z direction exerted by the coil in the pole
gap. If another log file for a simulation run at a different frequency is then
loaded in a series of lines can be plotted on the same graph.

Although the simulations were all run in SI units it is possible to use


expressions in the GRAPH command so that the displacement can be plot-
ted in mm by plotting the y-component as being column 3 multiplied by
1000.

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292 Linear Motion Models

Figure 95 Force results against time for three solution frequencies

Figure 96 Displacement results against time for three solution frequencies

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors 293

Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors

Introduction
OPERA-2d and, in particular, the AC and RM solvers have been success-
fully used for the modelling of asynchronous (induction) motors. The AC
solver is capable of accurately modelling the currents induced in the cage
rotor, resulting from the rotating 3-phase magnetic field generated in the
stator. The induction motor performance can be characterised at a range of
rotor speeds and/or stator winding excitation levels. Typical motor per-
formance parameters such as the variation of torque with slip frequency,
induced rotor currents and associated power losses are readily computed in
OPERA-2d AC. In addition, the Rotating Machines (RM) Solver, a tran-
sient eddy current solver, can be used to model the rotational effects, hence
predicting transient effects at start-up and torque ripple (this is discussed
further in Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors [page 300]).

OPERA-2d AC Model Preparation


In induction motors, the relative velocity between the rotor and the field on
the stator is called slip, s, and torque production is heavily dependent on it.
The difference between the rate of rotation of the stator-produced magnetic
field and the rotor is called slip speed and effectively, this can be thought
of as the rotational frequency at which the stator-produced rotating field
cuts the rotor bars. This phenomenon can be successfully modelled in
OPERA-2d, by setting the exciting stator field to rotate at the slip fre-
quency, rather than the true AC frequency.

Current or voltage driven motors can be set up in OPERA-2d. The prepa-


ration of a current driven problem can perhaps require some pre-modelling
calculations on the user’s part. Typically, the user will hold data on the rated
current and winding configuration (star or delta, number of coils per phase,
number of phases in each slot etc.) and must translate that to user-defined
conductor regions of designated current densities. Current excitation is
catered for within the Region Material Properties. Voltage driven coils can
be defined using the External Circuit options.

External Circuit data consists of power supply characteristics (voltage,


phase), a series external lumped resistor, inductor and capacitor (which
may or may not be associated to internal power supply characteristics), the
length of the circuit and the OPERA model conductors (i.e. stator coils)

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294 Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors

which the circuit is connected to. Conductors attached to external circuits


are appropriately labelled using the Circuit Label option. Lumped resist-
ance and inductance values (external to the FEA model) can be included in
the Circuit definition to account for elements not catered for in the two-
dimensional model, such as the stator end winding resistance and leakage
inductance. Rotor bar connections can also be modelled in a similar fash-
ion. Rotor bars shorted by an end ring are assigned the same circuit label
and the connected: program calculates total current option is used.

In the AC code, the use of the slip frequency requires further adjustments
to be made to any external circuits which may be attached to the motor. The
use of the slip frequency to drive the model results in values for variables
such as the back-emf which are reduced by the ratio of slip frequency
(fslip) to synchronous frequency (fsync). This can be remedied by scaling
the length of the circuit (in the External Circuits section). However, the
resistance per unit length must then also be adjusted, such that the true cir-
cuit resistance value is maintained. End region inductance figures will also
need to be adjusted for solutions at different speeds. The following is an
example of such a calculation for a 4-pole, 60 Hz induction motor:
Motor Data
Synchronous speed = 1800 rpm (equivalent to fsync of 60 Hz)
Rotor speed = 1740 rpm
Slip speed = 60 rpm
Slip frequency, fslip = 2 Hz
Data for a solution at starting (fslip=fsync)
R/mm = 1.4815 E-05 Ohms/mm (true value)
Machine length = 95 mm
End winding length = 270 mm
End winding resistance (lumped value) = 0.004 Ohms
Hence, Resistance / turn = (1.4815 E-05 * 2 * 95) + 0.004 = 0.0068 Ohms
Adjusted data for a solution at 1740 rpm
Adjusted machine length = 95 * fsync / fslip = 2850 mm
R/mm = 1.4815 E-05 * fslip / fsync = 0.04938 E-05 Ohms/mm
Hence, Resistance / turn = 0.0068 Ohms
Note: Lumped resistor values need no adjustment.

Figure 97 illustrates the mesh of a 4 pole induction motor. Fine discretisa-


tion is applied to the stator and rotor pole tips as well as the air-gap, where
significant MMF is dropped.

The air-gap of the machine should have at least 3 layers of elements and
should preferably be constructed from H or Q type regions. Figure 98

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors 295

Figure 97 A 4-pole induction motor model

‘homes in’ on the gap region of a 6-pole, deep slot fractional slot winding
induction motor. The aluminium rotor bars are also finely discretised, in
order to correctly capture the induced eddy currents.

Figure 98 Mesh discretisation in the air-gap of a 6-pole machine

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296 Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors

Sample Post-processing facilities for OPERA 2d


AC Solutions
Figure 100 illustrates a plot of vector potential in a 4-pole induction motor,
from which the user can readily identify that the correct 4-pole field has
been set up by the Circuits definition.

The current density in the aluminium slots can also be plotted, and the cur-
rent flowing down each slot can be evaluated by performing a surface inte-
gral of the current density over the selected aluminium regions.

The forces acting on the rotor, as well as torque, can be computed accu-
rately with special built-in functions such as the Maxwell Stress Integral.
Field Integrals Around a Circular Arc computes the X-Y force
components acting on the surface of the rotor, as well as the resulting
torque around the specified pivot point. Completing the dialog as shown in
Figure 99 gives the following output below:

Figure 99 Dialog for integration around a circular arc

Integrating field values.


Integration from 0.0 to 360.0 around (0.0 ,0.0 )
Radius: 59.8 , Number of steps: 5000
Steady State Ac TIME=TAVERAGE
Integration accumulator set to zero.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors 297

per mm
Integral of x-component of Maxwell stress = -6.691E-04 N
Integral of y-component of Maxwell stress = 4.53265E-04 N
Integral of torque around (0.0 ,0.0 ) = 202.9261552 Nmm
Integral of POT

The line integral describes a circle around the rotor, half-way through the
air-gap between the stator and the rotor. The resulting torque figure of 203
Nm/m, which for the present machine of 95 mm translates to 19.285 Nm.
This figure is very close to the machine rated torque of 20.88 Nm. The dis-
crepancy is attributed to end winding inductance effects which cannot be
modelled completely with two-dimensional software.

Figure 100 Vector Potential variation in the 4-pole induction motor

In order to compute the Ohmic loss in the rotor circuits,


Field Integrals Over Regions can be evaluated by completing the
dialog as shown in Figure 101

This gives the following result:


Integration over region 40
Steady State Ac TIME=TAVERAG
Total current (integral J ds) = 0.0
Integral of potential (integral A ds) = 0.0
Stored energy/unit length (integral A.J/2 ds) = 1.13573E-14
Stored energy/unit length (integral B.H/2 ds) = 1.57132E-03
NL Stored energy/unit length (integral H.dB ds) = 0.0
Power/unit length (integral (J**2)/sigma ds) = 1.226669653
Force/unit length (integral JxB ds) =(1.24213E-07,8.17344E-
07)
Integral of J**2/SIGMA = 0.0
OK

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


298 Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors

Figure 101 Dialog for losses in rotor bars

Note that here, the component setting to J**2/SIGMA was left from the
previous contour plot. The program will evaluate the time average value of
J for each element (= 0) before evaluating the expression. The true time
average integral of J**2/SIGMA is one of the pre-set integrations carried
out by the program each time INTA is executed. The software returns a
value of 1.22667 W/mm which, for the present machine length of 95 mm,
translates to 116 W.

Obtaining OPERA 2d/RM Solutions


Transient effects such us the build-up of current in the machine under a
locked rotor can be modelled using the transient solver TR. A current or
voltage waveform can be defined, and the field distribution at different
times examined. The complete motor performance characterisation,
including the effects of rigid body rotation, can be realised by the use of the
Transient Rotating Machines Solver RM. Certain guidelines in the model
preparation are to be observed when the RM solver is to be employed:
1. The RM Code requires an RM Air Gap Region. A single Air Gap
region is defined automatically by the software, following a user
prompt which must include the average radius inside the RM Air
Gap.
2. If model symmetry is exploited, the symmetry number (2 for a 180
degree model, 4 for a 90 degree model, -4 for a 90 degree model with
negative symmetry) is entered in the RM Region Gap data. The soft-
ware will automatically apply the appropriate boundary conditions.
3. When using the RM Code, the true value of frequency of the exciting
stator field must be used. The speed of the rotor can also be entered
as a separate parameter.
4. The use of the true exciting frequency for the stator windings renders
unnecessary any adjustments made to the Circuits definition.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Steady State Modelling of Induction Motors 299

The RM Code is a transient analysis Code. Initial machine transients


brought about when a current surge or a voltage is applied at the terminals
of the motor can therefore be successfully examined. The examination of
the complete machine response as a function of time, up to the steady state
operation requires the running of the motor model under examination for a
sufficient time period, which is time constant dependent. The specification
of many output times has little effect on the computation speed though it
does result in a much larger solution file.

The length of the time step which the software uses between each solutions
is crucial to good convergence and computation times. In general, it is dif-
ficult for the user to assess the correct time step for any model. It is there-
fore considered good practice to choose the ‘adaptive time step’ option,
especially in the early stages of simulation. The software continuously
reports the length of the time steps it is using as it progresses through the
solution, and these can be recorded by the user.

As the software converges on the use of a (relatively) fixed time step, the
user can stop and restart (or run further simulations) using the time step pre-
viously observed. It is important to stop the simulation soon after an ‘output
time’, so that no computing time is wasted.

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300 Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors

Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors

This Application Note introduces the user to the Rotating Machines Pro-
gram (OPERA-2d/RM). OPERA-2d RM is a Transient Eddy Current
Solver, extended to include the effects of rigid body (rotating) motion. The
solver also provides for the use of external circuits and coupling to mechan-
ical equations.

OPERA-2d/RM will be employed for the analysis of an Asynchronous


(Induction) Motor. An induction motor is generally constructed with slot-
ted stator laminations carrying a distributed 3-phase winding and a copper
(or aluminium) cage rotor, consisting of cast bars shorted by end rings.
Torque is produced by the interaction of the induced currents and the stator
field.

OPERA-2d/RM models make use of a Gap Region which must be defined


by the user to separate the stationary from the rotating part of the model.
The Gap Region is a single region, having circular inner and outer radii and
automatically assigned material number 0 (i.e. air with its respective prop-
erties). The user defines a value of radius that lies between the inner and
outer radii of the Gap Region. The program will create the Gap Region by
extending radially inward and outward from the user defined radius until it
finds the regions that define the rotor and stator.

The faces of the regions that define the inner radius of the stator should be
circular, as should those of the outer radius of the rotor. Better results will
be obtained from the RM program by associating a layer of air elements in
the air gap with the rotor and stator regions. The Gap Region then fits
between these two layers and ensures that at least 3 elements are used radi-
ally across the air gap. This is important for the accurate calculation of
torque when coupling to motion.

The figures below show the air gap of a 4-pole induction machine, showing
the separate rotor and stator regions with additional air layers and then the
inclusion of the gap region which was specified at a radius of 0.0727 m.

It is possible to exploit the symmetry of the machine. The user specifies a


symmetry code when defining the gap region. The symmetry code defines
the number of replications of the geometry in 360 degrees, the sign of the
symmetry code defines whether the replications exhibit positive or nega-
tive periodicity. For example, in this 4-pole machine model shown in figure
104, a symmetry code of 2 was used, since the geometry represents 180
degrees of the complete machine and two poles of alternate polarity are

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors 301

Figure 102 Air gap of a 4-pole Induction motor

Figure 103 Inclusion of the Gap Region

modelled. The program automatically applies the correct periodicity


boundary conditions for any position to which the rotor has moved.

The Equations Solved


OPERA-2d/RM solves the vector diffusion equation with the magnetic
vector potential as the unknown variable:

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


302 Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors

Figure 104 Model space with symmetry condition imposed

∂A
∇ ×  --- ∇ × A – H c = J s – σ -------
1
(11.46)
µ  ∂t

in which the current density has been split into the prescribed sources, J s
∂A
and the induced currents, σ ------- . In two dimensions, only the z components
∂t
of A and J s exist. Equation (11.46) can be simplified to:

1 ∂A z
– ∇ ⋅ --- ∇A z – ( ∇ × H c ) z = J s – σ -------- (11.47)
µ ∂t

External circuits
Transient solutions can be excited either by current sources or by voltage
sources connected via external circuits to the model. The voltage driven
option, employed in the modelling of this induction machine, allows a set
of coils to be defined as a circuit which is connected to an external voltage
source in series with an external resistance, capacitance and inductance. A
coil is the set of regions that have the same conductor number N.

The voltage specified should be the phase voltage amplitude. The external
resistance and inductance entries could be used to account for the end
winding resistance and inductance, otherwise not modelled in a two-

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors 303

dimensional finite element program. The following was entered for each
phase of the induction machine:
Element Value Explanation
Circuit type Filamentary Skin and proximity effects are not
included
Symmetry 2 Circuit currents return outside the
model
Length (XY only) 0.15 The coil is 0.15 m long in the Z direc-
tion
Peak voltage 460 Voltage applied to circuit, V
Phase angle 0 Used in AC solutions only
Resistance 0.5 Value of REXT in Ω
Inductance 1.4 E-03 Value of LEXT in Henrys
Capacitance 0 Value of CEXT in Farads (0 = no
capacitance)
Initial voltage 0 Voltage on capacitance at time = 0
sec. for TR/RM solutions (in Volts)

Following this, the program requests the elements (conductor numbers)


that build up the circuit. Each phase was assigned 6 conductors (3 GO and
3 RETURN conductors). A typical entry is listed below:
Item Value Explanation
Conductor number 1 The next series element to be
included in the circuit
Sense of conductor GO The current will flow into the plane
of the model
Number of turns 25 The number of series turns in this
conductor
Resistance/unit length 0.0 Resistance of the wire used to con-
struct the coil (this can be included in
REXT)

OPERA facilitates the display of conductor regions labelled with the circuit
number which they belong to, as shown in figure 105. A positive number
denotes a GO conductor whereas a negative number denotes a RETURN
conductor.

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304 Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors

Figure 105 Induction machine with Circuit Number display

Rotor speed
The simplest assumption in OPERA-2d/RM is that the rotor speed is con-
stant during the duration of the transient analysis. The user specifies the
rotation speed in RPM. Alternatively, the user may specify the speed of the
rotor as a function of time during the duration of the transient analysis.

Rather than using a user-specified fixed or varying speed, OPERA-2d/RM


can compute the speed based on the rigid body dynamics equation
2
d θ
T = J (11.48)
2
dt

where T is the torque, J is the polar moment of inertia and θ the angle. The
torque is the sum of the electromagnetic torque, computed by the program,
and the friction, load and linearly speed-dependent torques, defined by the
user. This (more advanced) option was selected for the RM analysis of this
example induction machine. A command file (*.comi) was prepared, which
included the following:
• Definition of the voltage sources driving the external circuits defined. A
functional 3-phase sinusoidal excitation was defined (#PHASE1,
#PHASE2 and #PHASE3), with a gradual increase of the voltage from
0 to full volts during the first 2 ac cycles.
• Characterisation of the load, increasing as the function of the square of
the speed, from 0 to a maximum of 7000 W.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors 305

• Definition of the motor output torque, as a function of the electromag-


netic torque, the friction torque and the load.

The command file made use of the following system variables (a full list of
the system variables available may be found under the Rotating Machines
solver description in the OPERA 2d User Guide):

TTIME Time during transient (seconds)


RMANGLE Computed rotational position of rotor (radians)
RMSPEED Computed rotational speed (radians/second)
RMTORQUE Computed electromagnetic torque per unit length

For example, in this 4-pole Induction machine, the source voltage gradu-
ally increased in amplitude during the first two cycles, before assuming
the normal sinusoidal variation with time. The .comi file contained the fol-
lowing instructions:
$CONS #FS 50
$CONS #AMPL 1
$CONS #timepoint 0.04
$IF TTIME LE 0.04
$CONS #PHASE1(TTIME*25)*#AMPL*SIN(2*PI*#FS*TTIME)
$ELSE
$CONS #PHASE1 #AMPL*SIN(2*PI*#FS*TTIME)
$END IF

The resulting waveform is shown in figure 106. Note that the time at which
the defined driving function is discontinuous was specified as a constant
with the name #timepoint. This, although not mandatory, helps the
time-stepping process, ensuring that enough sampling points are inserted
around this time. In order to define the variation of the load characteristic
with speed, the following instructions were required:
$CONS #MAXP 7000
$CONS #SPDPWR #MAXP/157/157
$IF RMSPEED GT 0.0
$IF RMSPEED LT 157.0
$CONS #LOADTORQUE #SPDPWR*RMSPEED
$ELSE
$CONS #LOADTORQUE #MAXP/RMSPEED
$END IF
$END IF

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306 Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors

Figure 106 Amplitude modulation of sinusoidal drive

Output log file The transient analysis programs store their results at a set of times defined
by the user. However, it is possible to monitor the progress of the solution
by logging the output from all time steps to a file in the format required by
the GRAPH command. A log file of the Induction motor contained the
time (TTIME), rotation angle (RMANGLE) and speed (RMSPEED), the
torque (RMTORQUE) as well as the currents in the external circuits (I1,
I2 and I3) so that these may be graphed as the solution progresses or during
post-processing (the full list can be found under the SOLVE command in
the 2d Reference Manual).

Preparing an OPERA-2d/RM run


The data required to analyse the model is input using the SOLVE command
(see Reference Manual for details). The following information supplied for
the Induction Motor Analysis deserves a mention:
• Linear or Nonlinear solution
The Nonlinear option was selected and appropriate BH characteristics
were defined for all materials. The aluminium cage was assigned the
air.bh curve. The following parameters were set:
– 50 nonlinear iterations were entered as a limit on the maximum
number per time step.

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Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors 307

– The convergence tolerance to be applied to the relative change in


the solution was 0.001.
• Time Step - Adaptive or Fixed
The time step at which each solution is calculated was fixed to 1.0 E-04.
Note that if adaptive time stepping was chosen, the user could overwrite
the default values of the minimum and maximum step, by specifying the
appropriate parameters in the advanced command file.
$CONS #maxTstep 0.0005
$CONS #minTstep 1e-08
• Output Times
A list of times at which the solution is stored and is available for post-
processing was supplied up to 1 sec. The last output time defines the end
of the run.
• Driving Functions
Circuits 1, 2 & 3 were assigned functional drives #PHASE1, #PHASE2
and #PHASE3, which were defined in full in the advanced command
file.

Post-processing
Figure 107 shows a flux density distribution in the Induction Motor, with
the equipotential lines (which can be thought of as ‘flux lines’) superim-
posed. The plot was taken during the accelerating phase, and therefore
some flux penetration into the rotor body is evident.

Figure 107 Field plot during the accelerating phase

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308 Dynamic Modelling of Induction Motors

During the accelerating phase, significant torque pulsations can be noted.


As the machine reaches steady state operation, the torque settles to a con-
stant value (dictated by the fan characteristic), though some torque ripple
is still present, as shown in Figure 107, which was obtained using the
GRAPH command in OPERA-2d:

Figure 108 Torque and Speed variation with time

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM 309

Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM

Introduction
This note serves to introduce the user to more complex, so called “coupled
problems”, where results from an electromagnetic analysis are coupled to
the stress analysis module.

The model chosen in this instance is a switched reluctance motor. The dou-
bly salient, deeply saturated structure makes electromagnetic finite element
analysis a necessary tool for evaluation of the machine's performance.
Stress analysis performed on switched reluctance machines is important, as
the pulsed nature of torque production induces vibration (and hence acous-
tic noise).

This example illustrates the use of the Pre and Post-Processor with the stat-
ics and stress analysis solvers. The method of transferring electromagnetic
analysis results to the stress solver, as applied to an electric motor, is given.
Initially the electromagnetic problem is solved. The results are read into the
Pre and Post-Processor and examined before being transferred with addi-
tional mechanical information to a data file for input into the stress analysis
solver. The results of this analysis are then examined by further post-
processing.

Solving the Electromagnetic Problem


The model of a simple 2-phase 4-pole switched reluctance motor, designed
for a high speed application, is shown in Figure 109. The back-iron width
is relatively small compared to the stator pole width and this results in
reduced stator stiffness and hence more vibration.

In order to obtain an accurate electromagnetic solution, certain parts of the


mesh must be well refined, especially the air gap and the tips of the stator
and rotor teeth. The mesh in this region is shown in Figure 110.

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310 Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM

Figure 109 A 2-phase switched reluctance motor

Figure 110 Meshing at the pole tips

Examining the The average torque produced by the motor, assuming a constant excitation
solution current (this can only be true at very low speeds) can be computed simply
by evaluating the change in co-energy at the 0o (un-aligned) and 90o
(aligned) rotor positions. In order to obtain the co-energy of the motor at
each position, the area integral command (INTAREA) is used, having set
the component to HDB. The software computes the H.B/2 and H.dB inte-
grals from which the co-energy value can be extracted. The average torque
produced by the motor was estimated to be 0.0525 Nm/mm stack length.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM 311

Figure 111 illustrates the field distribution at the 45o position. This is a high
torque producing position, as the rotor teeth tend to be pulled into align-
ment with the excited stator teeth. The instantaneous torque at this position
is expected to be much higher than the average torque computed earlier.
Instantaneous torque can be readily evaluated be performing an arc integral
(INTCIRCLE) in the middle of the air gap, a command which returns the
X and Y directed Maxwell stress force and the resulting torque about a
specified pivot point. The torque at this position was computed to be 0.139
Nm/mm.

Figure 111 Field pattern in a 2-phase switched reluctance motor

The 45o (overlapping) and 90o (aligned) positions will be examined further
with the stress analysis solver.

Entering the Mechanical Data


In order to mechanically characterise the motor, it was necessary to define
the mechanical material data constants for the three materials, namely the
stator, rotor and coils, using the menu route:
Modify -> Stress/Thermal Materials

A sequence of two dialog boxes was completed. Figure 112 shows the first
which specifies the material number. Clicking on the Edit button produces
a second dialog, shown in Figure 113, specifying the physical properties for
the material. For each new material, the material type, in this case Iso-
tropic, was selected first.

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312 Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM

Figure 112 Stress and thermal materials dialog

Figure 113 Stress materials physical properties

The same properties were assigned to Material Number 4 (Rotor) whereas


Material Number 1 (Coils) was assigned:

Young’s modulus = 120e9


Poisson’s ratio = 0.29

Entering the The definition of appropriate boundary conditions really depends on how
mechanical the motor is fixed to its frame, and therefore many valid combinations of
boundary boundary conditions can exist.
conditions
In this model, the stator was mechanically fixed at 4 points around the outer
edge, behind the centre of each pole. The centre of the shaft was also con-
strained in both X and Y. The condition was applied by selecting
Modify -> Stress and Thermal Boundary Conditions

completing the dialog as shown in Figure 114, selecting Pick node and
clicking on the 5 points described above followed by Quit.

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM 313

Figure 114 Stress analysis boundary conditions

Alternative The geometry of the machine can sometimes be such that the constraint
boundary cannot be expressed simply with movements in X and/or Y, as it could in
conditions (for the present model. In such cases a skew condition could be applied. A skew
reference) condition with a specified angle can be interpreted as a constraint on spec-
ified points lying on this angle, allowing these points to move radially but
not azimuthally. The skew constraint is also an alternative way to constrain
points lying on the X or Y axis. For instance, a Skew defined with Angle =
0 has the same effect as a point that is Constrained in Y (=0) at any point
on the X-axis.

Creating tables The stress analysis module requires data from the electromagnetic solution,
for mechanical relating the loading of the problem to the finite element mesh, to be avail-
analysis able as tables. The integrals of the Maxwell Stress on each element in the
X and Y direction (XLOAD and YLOAD) were created very simply by
Tables -> Create Standard Tables -> X and Y Loads

Having all data in place, the .op2 file must be written to include the geom-
etry, mechanical materials and boundary conditions as well as the Tables of
the Maxwell Stress Integrals. This was done by selecting
Model -> Analysis Options

selecting the Stress Analysis (SA) solver and opting for Stress. The
analysis was, consequently, then made using Plane Stress. This assumes

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314 Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM

that the lamination is a thin sheet which is not prevented from contracting
in the normal - Z - direction. Plane Strain would assume an infinite thick-
ness, where each plane parallel to the paper would be constrained to remain
plane. Essentially, neither of these two cases exist in isolation, so the cal-
culation could be repeated with the alternative choice, and the ‘worst case
scenario’ used for design calculations.

When saving the .op2 file , it is necessary to select the XLOAD and YLOAD
tables to include them in the .op2 file.

Examining the Stress Analysis Results

Displaying the The excited stator teeth act as magnet shoes, pulling the rotor into a posi-
results as a tion of minimum reluctance. As the rotor moves towards alignment, forces
deformed mesh of attraction are acting on the excited stator and rotor teeth. In the aligned
position, the two bodies would still tend to close the gap that separates
them, in an attempt to minimise the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. The
rotor is therefore in tension while the stator is in compression.

The deformation due to loading may be viewed using the deformed mesh
feature. To do this, the regions which need to be examined must be selected,
and the displacement vectors scaled. The following sequence shows the
options selected for the stator deformation plot shown in Figure 115:

• Contour Map
• Set No contours option

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM 315

• Under the Regions tab, select Include all materials, and set Mate-
rials to include to 3.
• Under the Other Options tab

• Followed by Refresh picture and draw contours.

Figure 115 Stator displacement (not to scale)

A similar plot can be obtained for the rotor (refer to Figure 116 below).

A contour plot of the values of displacement can also be plotted. Figure 117
illustrates the values of DISPY in the aligned position, confirming the
trends described earlier: DISPY is negative in the stator (indicating a neg-
ative Y - downward - movement) and positive in the rotor.

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316 Electromagnetic and Stress Analysis of a SRM

45.0 UNITS
Y [mm] Length : mm
Flux density : T
Field strength : A m-1
40.0 Potential : Wb m-1
Conductivity : S m-1
Source density : A mm-2
Power :W
35.0 Force :N
Energy :J
Mass : kg

30.0

25.0
10 PROBLEM DATA
9 SAangl45_new.sa
20.0 8 Quadratic elements
XY symmetry
7 Vector potential
Magnetic fields
6 Static solution
15.0 5 Scale factor = 1.0
4 10560 elements
21217 nodes
132 regions
10.0
3
5
10
-20.0 -10.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
9 X [mm]
Component: DISPY 24/Aug/2000 16:18:52 Page 30
Minimum: -8.0E-11, 22Maximum: 1.0E-10, Interval: 2.0E-11 8
1
OPERA-2d
7 Pre and Post-Processor 7.507

Figure 116 Rotor displacement (not to scale)

Figure 117 Contours of stator and rotor displacement in the aligned position

Conclusion This Application Note has shown how OPERA can be used not only for the
full electromagnetic analysis of a switched reluctance motor, but through
close coupling of the ST and SA solver, also assessing the stiffness of the
motor structure and characterising its deformation behaviour under load.

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Stress Analysis Solver Validation 317

Stress Analysis Solver Validation

Introduction
Many electromagnetic devices introduce significant internal forces in rigid
magnetic or conducting bodies. To determine the effects of these forces
OPERA-2d includes SA, the Stress Analysis Program, which solves for
static stresses and displacements in plane stress, plane strain and axisym-
metry. Forces may be determined from the electromagnetic analysis, but
the module may also be used with user-defined loads. The purpose of this
note is to give guidance on how to obtain the best results with the SA mod-
ule.

The Finite Element Mesh


The Finite Element mesh consists of triangular elements with linear or
quadratic shape functions. A linear shape function assumes that the dis-
placements at any point in the element can be expressed as a linear function
of the nodal displacements. The quadratic shape function uses a quadratic
function interpolation of the nodal displacements at any point in the ele-
ment.

Like all Finite Element programs, the stress analysis solver is sensitive to
the element aspect ratio. The aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the larg-
est to the smallest side of the triangular element. Elements of high aspect
ratios must be avoided. The aspect ratio should ideally be 1, although
aspect ratios up to 10 have been proven to perform well. The problems
caused by higher aspect ratios relate to the elements difficulty to represent
local changes in stress and strain. Ill-conditioned matrices may also result,
which lead to a completely incorrect set of displacements. With quadratic
elements, oscillatory behaviour in the field representation results.

Boundary conditions
External constraints such as zero displacement in X or Y (R or Z in axisym-
metry) or both can be applied to nodes or faces of a region, hence facilitat-
ing the modelling of common stress analysis problems such as a simply
supported beam or a cantilever. In addition, different types of loading can
be assigned to a beam. Point loads are represented as a load applied to a sin-
gle node, while distributed loads are applied by selecting a face of a region.

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318 Stress Analysis Solver Validation

The following section will concentrate on typical stress analysis problems.


Problems for which simple analytical solutions exist have been chosen for
the analysis, to provide a basis for comparison with results from OPERA-
2d models.

Example 1: Simply supported beam with


distributed loading

Theory The simply supported beam is 1m long, 0.1m in thickness and of unit depth.
One end of the beam is fixed with a PIN-type connection and the other end
is fixed with a ROLLER-type connection. A uniform load W/ unit length of
5 N/m is applied along the length of the beam.

The expression for the displacement in the Y-direction is


4 3
ν = ------------  Lx – ----- – ---------
W 3 x L x
(11.49)
12EI  2 2 

where:

E is the Young’s modulus (N/m2)

I is the second moment of mass (m4)


L is the length of the beam (m)
x is the distance from the PIN joint end of the beam to the point of meas-
urement (m)

The maximum displacement will occur at the mid-span and is equal to


4
5 WL –8
ν max = --------- ----------- = 2.6 ×10 m (11.50)
384 EI

The second moment of mass is equal to


3
dh –5 4
I = --------- = 8.33 ×10 m (11.51)
12

where:
d is the depth of the beam (m)
h is the thickness of the beam (m)

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Stress Analysis Solver Validation 319

Model The model has one bottom end node constrained with zero movement in
both X and Y to represent the PIN type connection, while the other bottom
end node is constrained only in Y, hence representing the ROLLER type
connection. A uniform loading was achieved by applying a load of
(0,-5) N/m to the top face of the beam, noting that the negative sign signi-
fies a downward Y-directed force. A discretisation of 100×10 (length x
thickness) subdivisions was chosen, resulting in a fine and regular mesh of
unity element aspect ratio, as shown in Figure 118.

Figure 118 OPERA-2d model of a simply supported beam showing the regular
mesh and boundary conditions applied

Solutions OPERA-2d post-processing facilities include deformed shape plots, based


on the computed values of the displacements in X and Y (DISPX and
DISPY), as illustrated in Figure 119. In this model, the maximum value of
DISPY occurs at mid-span, as expected, and the computed figure of
2.608×10-8m is in excellent agreement with the value obtained using ana-
lytical methods, hence reflecting the quality of the mesh and assignment of
correct boundary conditions. There is therefore no need to further refine the
mesh.

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320 Stress Analysis Solver Validation

Discussion on It is advisable to always construct regular meshes with aspect ratios ranging
Aspect Ratio from 1 to 10, so as to avoid inaccuracies in the solution. The combination
assignment of high aspect ratio geometry and elements, together with the use of quad-
ratic element representation can lead to oscillatory behaviour in field rep-
resentation results. One such example constructed was a simply supported
beam 10 m in length and 0.1 m in thickness, with a discretisation of 10x25,
resulting in a fine mesh along the beam thickness but a crude mesh along
its length.

Figure 119 Simply supported beam deformation under load: Maximum


deformation mid-span is 2.6x10-08m.

In order to examine the Y-directed displacement along this beam, a line


graph extending from (0,0) to (10,0) of component DISPY was drawn, as
shown in Figure 120. The displacement along the beam is seen not to
increase smoothly with distance away from the beam supports as expected,
and the displacement in the centre of the beam is not in agreement with the
analytical predictions.

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Stress Analysis Solver Validation 321

Figure 120 Graph of Y displacement of simply supported beam

Example 2: Cantilever carrying a concentrated


load

Theory The cantilever is 1m long, 0.1m in thickness and of unit depth. A point
force of 5N/m is applied at the centre of the cantilever, i.e. 0.5m away from
the clamped end.

The deflection at the point of application of load, a distance l from the


clamped end, may be expressed as
3
Wl
ν l = --------- (11.52)
3EI

resulting in a figure of 8.33×10-8m in this example. The maximum deflec-


tion for such a beam may be computed using
2
ν max = ---------  L – --- = 2.08 ×10 m
Wl l –7
(11.53)
2EI  3 

noting the variables:

E the Young’s modulus (in N/m2)

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322 Stress Analysis Solver Validation

I the second moment of mass (in m4)


l the distance from the load application point to the clamped side of the
beam
L the length of the beam.

Model The equivalent model is set up in plane symmetry (plane stress) and has one
Preparation side clamped i.e. one face of the beam is constrained with zero movement
in both X and Y. A regular mesh was constructed with 50×25 subdivisions
and a resulting element aspect ratio of 5, as shown in Figure 121. A load of
(0,–5) N/m was applied at the top centre node of the cantilever model. Lin-
ear elements were selected for the analysis.

Figure 121 OPERA-2d model for cantilever with point load.

Solution The deformed cantilever shape predicted by OPERA-2d is shown in


Figure 122 with the maximum displacement occurring at the ‘free’ end of
the cantilever as anticipated, and reaching 2.0×10-7m. The predicted mid-
span displacement is 8.13×10-8m. Both values are in good agreement with
analytical predictions.
The results can be further improved by the use of quadratic element repre-

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Stress Analysis Solver Validation 323

Figure 122 Deformed cantilever with displacement contours.

sentation. The quadratic element solution yielded a maximum displace-


ment of 2.1×10-7m, only marginally exceeding the analytical prediction.

Example 3: Thin disk with a clamped periphery


and distributed load

Theory The thin disk has a diameter of 22m and a thickness of 0.2m. Note that the
model aspect ratio is high, and therefore care must be taken in defining the
mesh. The disk is clamped around the whole of its periphery. A distributed
load of 2 N/m2 is applied to the disk.

The maximum deflection occurs at the centre of the disk and can be
expressed as
4
pa
w max = ---------- (11.54)
64D

where:
a is the radius of the disk (in m)

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324 Stress Analysis Solver Validation

p is the pressure applied on the disk (in N/m2)


D is the flexural rigidity.

The flexural rigidity can be expressed as


3
Eh
D = -------------------------- (11.55)
2
12 ( 1 – ν )

where:
h is the thickness of the plate
v is the poisson’s ratio.

Based on the dimensions given in the present example, the maximum


deflection value is 2.08×10-5m

The maximum stresses occur at r=a and z=±h/2. They are expressed as
2
3 pa –2
σr = ± --- --------- = 4537Nm (11.56)
max 4 h2

Model The model is set up in axisymmetry and has its whole side at R=11 m con-
preparation strained in both R and Z (this implies an R,Z constraint all around the
peripheral surface of the disk). The model must also be constrained so that
the centre axis of the disc (at R=0) does not move along the R-direction,
hence creating a ‘virtual hole’ in the model. The mesh chosen is of 55×10
subdivisions, yielding an aspect ratio of 10. The axisymmetric model set up
is shown in Figure 123.

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Stress Analysis Solver Validation 325

Figure 123 Clamped disc model preparation in axisymmetry

Results The maximum displacement value returned by OPERA-2d is 2.08x10-5m,


in perfect agreement with the analytical prediction. The maximum value of
σr returned from the OPERA-2d model is 4960 N/m2. This is in reasonable
agreement with the theoretical value of 4537 N/m2 though it can be further
improved by refining the mesh.

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326 Particle Trajectory Intersections in OPERA-2d

Particle Trajectory Intersections in OPERA-2d

The following describes the sequence to create trajectory intersections with


a line:

Display the model solution as required.

Display the trajectories on the model using


Trajectories -> Display Trajectories

and selecting the tracks file through the dialog shown in Figure 124.

Figure 124 Dialog for selecting track file for display

Define the intersection line.


Trajectories -> Intersect Trajectories with a Line

and then complete the dialog shown in Figure 125 to define this intersec-
tion line by its end coordinates. In this case, a graph of current density
crossing the intersection line as a function of X has been selected.

Other standard graphs, Current density v Y and Current density v R,


are available or the user can choose their own function e.g. Y v X

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Particle Trajectory Intersections in OPERA-2d 327

Figure 125 Dialog for specifying intersection line and displaying results

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide


328 Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D

Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D

This example is showing some features of the plasma emission model in


OPERA-2d/SP. It's a simple structure with a few controlling electrodes and
an anode. There is a rotational symmetry, and therefore it can be modelled
in 2D axisymmetry.

Figure 126 shows the simple structure. The emitter is in the lower part of
the model, and the electrons are travelling upwards towards the anode. The
trajectories are calculated only in free space. As soon as a particle hits any
material, it will stop. In most cases the anode is being used to stop the beam.

Figure 126 2d model of a simple rotational structure

We assume that the plasma mostly exists below Z=0 and that the emission
surface will be somewhere in the cone-shaped opening in the electrode
above the plasma (0 < Z < 2), see Figure 127. Note that the shape code of
region 1 is set to Q, which will give a regular mesh.

The emitter is specified by giving a curve (in this case, a straight line) that
will be anchored at its first point but is free to move until a self-consistent
solution is obtained. By self-consistent, what we actually mean is that the
normal electric field to the emitter surface remains constant along the sur-
face. Figure 128 shows the contours of EMOD and the trajectories, where
it is seen that although the surface has a constant normal electric field, it is

OPERA-2d User Guide April 2006


Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D 329

Figure 127 Emission surface

not at a constant value of EMOD. Figure 129 shows contours of EZ and the

Figure 128 Contours of EMOD and emission surface

trajectories.

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330 Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D

Figure 129 Contours of EZ and emission surface

Radial The particles are initially starting from a straight line, and all particles ini-
component of tially have only a z-component of the velocity (the x or r-component of the
velocity velocity being zero). At the end of the iteration process the emitter will
have a curved surface, and there will be a velocity in the radial direction.
Figure 130 shows the relative radial component (VELX/#VELMOD) of the
velocity. Mostly the radial component is about zero (which is why it
appears to be emitted from a constant EZ contour) but at the outer edge the
radial velocity at the start of the track is negative.

The absolute value of the velocity has been specified with the expression
$PARA NAME=#velmod,VALUE=sqrt(velx**2+vely**2+velz**2).

The files required to experiment with this example are on the distribution
CD: plasma_2d.op2 and plasma_2d.emit.

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Plasma Free Surface Emitter in 2D 331

Figure 130 Relative radial component of the velocity

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332 Importing DXF Files

Importing DXF Files

The OPERA-2d Pre and Post-Processor can import DXF data files to either
create construction lines or polygon regions.

Input Options
The import facility is accessed by selecting

File -> Import Autocad DXF

The dialog as shown in Figure 131 requires the user to specify some (or all)
of the following information:

Figure 131 DXF interface dialog

• The DXF file name (including the .dxf or other extension)

The data type Points in the DXF file may be represented in two ways:
• Construction line crosses i.e. pairs of construction lines which
intersect at the point. If this is chosen, then the Size of crosses (the
length of the construction lines) may be specified.
• A Sequence of construction lines i.e. each line connecting an adja-
cent pair of points.

The data type Polyline in the DXF file may be represented as


• Construction lines.
• Region boundaries which will be closed to give a Polygon Region.

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Importing DXF Files 333

• Rectangular strips (SHAPE=H) based on the Polyline width. If the


Polyline width is 0, construction lines are used.

Solid and Trace data types in the DXF file may be included as Rectangu-
lar strips (SHAPE=H) in the same way as the Polyline option above. For
these regions the number of subdivisions and material number must be
given.

Most CAD software will permit subsets of drawings to be stored in a


number of DXF files. This is the most effective way of using the interface
since a number of polygons may be produced with different material num-
bers.

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334 Importing DXF Files

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INDEX

Numerics cases ..................................................126


centimetres ..........................................19
2D ....................................................... 21
change regions ....................................77
3D ....................................................... 21
circumferential stress ........................133
-A- coil .................................................21, 28
coil former ...............................21, 29, 33
ac analysis ........................................... 43
command files
accuracy .......................... 10, 23, 55, 101
command input .............................332
air ............................................ 21, 31, 39
command menu ...................................19
air gap ................................................. 77
component .....................................47, 50
analysis ............................................... 11
conductor .................................28, 30, 64
analysis modules ....................... 9, 10, 43
conductor number ...............................64
aspect ratio ........................................ 136
constraints .........................................138
axes ......................................... 19, 21, 24
construction line intersection ..............59
axisymmetry ....................... 9, 11, 21, 22
construction lines ................................56
-B- continuity ............................................34
contour ................................................89
background region ........................ 31, 32
plot ..................................................47
BH ....................................................... 81
Copying ...............................................65
tables .............................................. 12
copying regions ...................................63
bias ................................................ 34, 60
coupled problems ..............................135
BMOD ................................................ 47
creating tables ...................................313
boundary conditions
current density .......................28, 67, 128
far-field .......................................... 41
cursor ...................................................19
position constraint ........................ 312
cylindrical polar coordinate ................23
setting ............................................. 41
-D-
-C-
diffusion equation .................................9
capacitance ....................................... 239
DM Solver ...........................................43
cartesian coordinates ............................ 9
drawing regions .................24, 28, 29, 31
Cartesian grid ...................................... 69

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336 INDEX

DXF files .......................................... 332 installation notes .................................17


integration .....................................91, 98
-E- integration surface ...............................98
easy direction ...................................... 69
electric ................................................ 22 -L-
electrodes .......................................... 189 line contours ..................................47, 89
electromagnetic ..................................... 9 line integration ..............................91, 98
electron gun ...................................... 189 linear elements ............................54, 136
electrostatics ................................... 9, 14
elements .............................. 9, 21, 51, 76 -M-
emitter data ....................................... 203 Magnetic material characteristics .......81
emitter files ....................................... 203 magnetostatics .................................9, 14
error .................................................... 15 material label .................................24, 64
excitation current ................................ 14 material properties .....22, 24, 28, 29, 32,
external circuits .................. 64, 111, 302 137, .................................157
extra conditions ................................ 312 Maxwell stress ....................................98
mechanical data .........................137, 311
-F- mesh ....................................................34
field averaging .................................... 16 mesh errors ..........................................84
filaments ........................................... 112 mesh file ..............................................45
files mesh generator ..............................21, 34
.dxf ................................................ 332 message box ........................................23
.mesh .............................................. 45 modified Newton-Raphson .................85
.op2 ................................................ 45 modified rA .........................................47
.st .................................................... 45 motor ...................................................51
finite element mesh ..................... 34, 135 mouse ..................................................19
finite element method ........................... 9 multiple turns ......................................28
fixed temperature .............................. 157
flux density ................................... 47, 90 -N-
flux lines ............................................. 89 negative symmetry ..............................81
force .............................................. 91, 98 neodymium iron boron ........................82
nonlinear .......................................10, 14
-G- non-magnetic .......................................75
gap region ................................... 11, 300
getting started ..................................... 17 -O-
OPERA-2d ............................................9
-H- OPERA-2d/RM ...................64, 109, 114
Helmholtz equation .............................. 9 rotor speed ....................................304
-I- -P-
inductance ......................................... 239 particle tracking ................................207

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INDEX 337

periodic (symmetry) boundary ........... 74 solution potential .................................22


permanent magnet ........................ 14, 51 solution symmetry ...............................22
permanent magnet material ................ 69 SP Solver .............................................43
permanent magnet motor .................... 51 Space charge .....................................189
permeability ............................ 24, 28, 29 static adaptive analysis ........................45
plane strain ................................ 132, 314 static analysis ................................43, 45
plane stress ................................ 132, 313 statics (ST) analysis. ...........................85
point .................................................... 30 stator ....................................................57
Poisson equation ................................... 9 steady-state ac .....................................43
Poissons ratio ............................ 133, 312 strain ..................................................133
polygon ......................................... 21, 31 stress ..................................................131
post-processing ................................... 16 stress analysis ..............................43, 131
POT .................................................... 47 stress failure ......................................140
pre-processing ............................... 11, 53 subdivision ....................................34, 66
pressure ............................................. 139 symmetry .............................................51
boundary conditions .................81, 84
-Q-
Q region .............................................. 77 -T-
quadratic elements ................ 54, 55, 136 TEMP ...............................................165
temperature .......................................157
-R- thermal analysis ..........................43, 155
region ............................................ 11, 21 thermal expansion integral ........137, 139
region shape code ............................... 77 thermal material ................................162
relative permeability ........................... 24 time stepping .......................................14
replication ........................................... 63 torque ..................................................91
RMS error ........................................... 55 transient analysis .................................43
Rotating machine air gap . 51, 74, 77, 81,
84, .................................. 127 -U-
rotating machine analysis ................... 43 UNITS .................................................19
rotational periodicity .......................... 51 units ...............................................19, 53
rotor .................................................... 69
-V-
-S- velocity analysis ..................................43
Set view .............................................. 54
shape code H ..................................... 197 -X-
shear modulus ................................... 131 XY symmetry ......................................47
shear stress ........................................ 132
SI units ................................................ 19 -Y-
simple update ...................................... 85 Youngs modulus .......................131, 312
solenoid ....................................... 95, 167
solution file ......................................... 45

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INDEX 338

-Z-
zone contours ................................ 47, 90

Version 11 OPERA-2d User Guide

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