DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR

RAPID RAIL STATIONS

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

By
BINU B

Asa. C.5) dr■

JD at ie. r‘fe,r

noos10

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE & PLANNING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE - 247 667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2007
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in this dissertation entitled
`DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RAPID RAIL STATIONS' in the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Architecture,
submitted in the Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried out during
a period from July 2006 to June 2007 under the supervision of Prof. Rita Ahuja,
Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee.

The matter embodied in this thesis has not been submitted by me for the award of any
other degree of this or any other Institute.

Date: ") ' t)6 , AJ

f/
•," I
Place: Roorkee (BINU B)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
my knowledge and belief.

Pro ja
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards my thesis
guide Prof. Rita Ahuja, the one who moulded and filled me with inspiring and thoughtful

ideas which brought me up to do my research and present the thesis in this style. Her

timely guidance, valuable discussions and suggestions helped me to solve many hurdles
during this research work.

I would like to express my sincere thankfulness to Ar. Nandini Roy Chowdhary, senior

architect, Mott MacDonald; whose valuable suggestions and insights about the subject

proved really helpful. I would also like to express my thanks to Ian, Russel Clevlow,

Sukanya Hoon, Sanjeev De, Indrajit Dutta, Vishal Sood, Sandeep for introducing me

into the field of rapid rail station design and for being good team-mates.

I am thankful to all the staff and critics for their constructive contribution to the research.

I wish to express my sincere gratefulness towards my parents and sisters for giving

me unconditional support and encouragement throughout my education in the way I

wished.

Finally, I thank all my friends for creating a joyful environment during my stay at IIT

Roorkee.

ii
 ABSTRACT

KEY WORDS: RAPID RAIL, MASS TRANSIT, UNDERGROUND STATIONS,

SAFETY, CIRCULATION, SECURITY.

The ever increasing importance of mass transport and subsequent focus shift towards

the transport architecture resulted in redefining travel concepts and perception of civic

places. Technological innovations catalysed the change and together with the newer

concepts, pioneered some of the best ever conceived public transport buildings which

are highly functional, ordered and aesthetically pleasing.

Rapid rail, scoring over the other modes of public transports in efficiently commuting

large masses of people in lesser time, attained significance. Rapid rail stations thus

become important links in the chain of public transport.

The thesis frames design considerations for underground rapid rail stations with universal

applicability. Importance has been given to the station layout, circulation, safety, security,

universal accessibility, finishes, components and signage which hold key for the efficient

functioning of the system.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

GLOSSARY ix

LIST OF FIGURES xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Identification of the problem 1

1.2 Aim 2
1.3 Objectives 2
1.4 Scope and limitations 2

1.5 Motivation 2

1.6 Methodology 4

1.7 Organization of the thesis 4

CHAPTER 2: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 History of rail design 6

2.3 Stations 7

1.2 Indian background 7

2.4 Types of stations 9

2.4.1 City central terminals 9

2.4.2 Rail to rail interchange 9
2.4.3 Classification based on construction 9
2.5 Typical layout of an underground station 1.0

2.6 The concourse 10

2.6.1 Access to station mezzanines 1.1

2.6.2 Layout 1.2

iv
 Page
2.6.3 Functional areas 13
2.6.4 Schedule of areas 13
2.7 Platform 14
2.7.1 Length and width of platforms 16
2.7.2 British railway platform construction guidelines 20
2.7.3 Platform finishes 20
2.8 Passageways 21
2.9 Staircases 22
2.10 Escalators 22
2.11 Passenger bridges 23
2.12 Barriers 23
2.13 Information centre 24
2.14 Toilets 24
2.15 Ventilation 24

2.16 Way finding 25

2.17 Elements 26
2.18 Station design 27
2.18.1 The context of railway stations 27
2.18.2 Problems of station design 27
2.18.3 Principles of station design overview 28
2.18.4 Elements of functionality 29
2.18.5 Creating a brand image 30
2.18.6 Commercial development 31
2.19 Conclusion 32

CHAPTER 3: DESIGN STANDARDS AND RECENT ADVANCES IN

ARCHITECTURE 33

3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Design standards 33

v
 Page

3.2.1 Capacity calculation 33

3.3 Station planning norms 34
3.4 Fire safety requirements for station 35
3.4.1 Definitions 35

3.4.2 Station construction and fire compartmentation 35

3.4.3 Means of egress 36
3.4.4 Exit capacity 37

3.4.5 Flammable and-combustible liquid/vapor intrusion 38

3.4.6 Fire protection and fire detection systems, an example 38

3.5 Emergency situations 39

3.5.1 Station exits 39

3.5.2 Communications 40

3.5.3 Ventilation and air conditioning 40

3.5.4 Support equipment and systems 41

3.5.5 Lighting 42

3.5.6 Flood protection 43

3.5.7 Graphics for emergency 43

3.5.8 Emergency power 44

3.6 Access for disabled people 44

3.6.1 Disabilities 45

3.6.2 Special requirements for physically handicapped 45

3.6.3 Safety and security through design— an example 46

3.7 Signage 52

3.7.1 Introduction 52

3.7.2 Human factors 54

3.7.3 Case study 57

3.7.4 Railway symbols 62

3.8 Recent advances in the field of architecture 63

3.8.1 Introduction 63

vi
 . Page

3.8.2 Advanced technologies 64

3.9 Conclusion 67

CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDIES 68

4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Hong kong airport railway 68
4.3 The Jubilee line extn 69
4.4 Delhi metro 71
4.5 Mumbai suburban railway 73
4.6 Questionnaire used 75
4.7 Layout 76
4.7.1 Built form 76
4.7.2 Functional components 77

4.7.3 Clarity in design 78

4.7.4 Landscape design 79
4.8 Circulation 80
4.8.1 Orientation 80
4.8.2 Circulation pattern 81
4.8.3 Identification of stations 83
4.9 Safety and security 84
4.10 Finishes 85
4.11 Components and signages 87
4.11.1 Components 87
4.11.2 Signage 89
4.12 Other factors 89
4.12.1 Use of technology 89
4.12.2 Customer satisfaction 91
4.12.3 Image of the system/Icon status 92

4.13 Concluding remarks 93

vii
 Page

CHAPTER 5: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 95

5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 General considerations 96
5.3 Layout 96
5.4 Circulation 102

5.5 Safety and security 104

5.5.1 Safety and security through design 104

5.5.2 Lighting 107

5.5.3 Facilities for the physically handicapped 107

5.5.3 Fire protection 110

5.6 Finishes 112

5.6.1 Floors 112

5.6.2 Walls 113

5.6.3 Ceilings 114

5.6.4 Doors 115

5.6.5 Miscellaneous metals 115

5.7 Components and signage 115

5.7.1 Components 115

5.7.2 Signage 117

5.8 Conclusion 119

5.9 Scope for further work 120

BIBLIOGRAPHY 121

REFERENCES 122

APPENDIX 123

Codes 123

Viii
 GLOSSARY

Automatic Fare Collection (AFC): A revenue collection system common on metros

and urban railways which requires the passenger to buy a ticket and use it to release

an entrance or exit gate to permit access to or exit from the railway.

Automatic Railway Inquiry Systems: In Europe a prototype system to provide passenger

timetable information.

Coach: UK term for passenger carrying vehicle. Also known as a carriage. The US

term is car and is used by London Underground.

Elevated: Elevated is a shortened form of elevated railway, a railway built on supports

over other rights of way, generally city streets. They are also called els.

EMU: Electric Multiple Unit - the generic term for an electrically powered suburban

or metro train where a separate locomotive is not required because the traction drive

and control system is contained under various cars in the train.

Faregate: Part of an automatic fare collection (AFC) system where the device is placed

at station entrances and exits to regulate access by reading a ticket inserted by the

passenger and restricting access if the ticket is not correct.

Heavy rail: Heavy rail sometimes refers to rapid transit, but sometimes refers to

regional rail (also known as "commuter rail") and intercity rail.

Interchange: A station where passenger may alight from one train and board another
on a different route. In the US it is referred to as a "transfer".

Island Platform: A single station platform with a track on either side, which is more

efficient in facilities provision than two side platforms.

Light rail: Light rail is a term coined in the 1970s during the re-emergence of streetcars/

trams. In general, it refers to streetcar/tram systems with rapid transit-style features.

It is named to distinguish it from heavy rail, which refers to rapid transit systems as
well as heavier regional rail/intercity rail.

Light Rail Vehicle(LRV): Modern generic term for tram or streetcar. An electrically

powered rail vehicle using rails embedded in the roadway or using dedicated rail tracks,

or a combination of the two as in Manchester, Sheffield, and many other European

and US cities.

Line Capacity: The maximum possible number of trains capable of being operated

over a line in one direction. Usually expressed as trains per hour, it will depend on all

trains running at the same speed, having equal braking capacity and on how the signalling

is arranged.

LRT: Light Rail Transit, a generic term often used to describe a system employing

light rail vehicles as a cheaper alternative to a high capacity urban underground system.

Metro: The term used to denote an urban railway, often partly or wholly underground,

carrying large numbers of passengers on trains at close headways. In the US synonymous

with the term "subway". The word is a diminution of the Metropolitan Railway of

London, the first urban underground railway in the world. It has since been adopted

by many transport authorities to give a catchy name to their system, even if not strictly

correct.

Paid Area: The area of a station which can only be accessed by passengers who have
paid a fare or who are in possession of a valid ticket.

Permanent Way: Generic term for railway track, referring to the rails, sleepers (ties

in US) and ballast. The term "permanent" arose to distinguish it from the temporary

track laid during the construction of the railway.

Platform Screen Doors: Doors placed along a platform edge to separate passengers

from the exposed railway. Usually only used on metro systems (e.g. Singapore, Lille

France, Lenningrad Russia, Kobe Japan) where they are designed to match the train
doorways. Also known as Platform Edge Doors (PEDs)

Railway platform: A railway platform is a section of pathway, alongside rail tracks

at a train station, metro station or tram stop, at which passengers may board or alight

from trains or trams.

Rapid transit (heavy rail): Rapid transit is generally defined as "highspeed, passenger

rail cars operating singly or in trains of two or more cars on fixed rails in separate

right-of-way from which all other vehicular and foot traffic are excluded". This generally

does not include "other" rail modes such as aerial tramways, automated guideway

transit, cable cars, inclined planes tramway, or monorails. (Source: American Public

Transportation Association (APTA))

Subway: Subway used in a transit sense refers to either a rapid transit system or

(rarely) a light rail/streetcar system that goes underground. The term may refer only

to the underground parts of the system, or to the full system.

Tube: The colloquial term 'tube' refers to the London Underground and is the most

common word used for the underground system.

Underground: The usage of underground is very similar to that of subway, describing

an underground train system. Similarly, Metro usually refers to rapid transit.

Unpaid area: The area of a station which can be freely accessed by the public and

which is separated from the paid area by ticket checks or faregates.

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
1.1 Methodology 4
2.1 Old signage in station 6
2.2 The 50-kilometre (3D-mile) tunnel between England and 7
France.

2.3 List of Indian rapid rail networks 7

2.4 Typical platform view 15

2.5 Different types of platform. 17

2.6 Platform barriers on the Berlin-Hamburg high speed line 18

2.7 A common sign at curved platforms on the London 18

Underground.

2.8 Platform screendoors are installed in many underground 19

stations to prevent people from falling into the rails. They

also allow substantial energy savings on station air-

conditioning and tunnel ventilation.

2.9 Options for finishes; a comparative study 21

3.1 Emergency contact point from inside of Singapore's Mass 39

Rapid Transit

3.2 Comparison of Part I Crime* (per 1 Million Riders) on 46

Four Subway Systems-1994

3.3 Sixteen techniques of situational prevention. 48

3.4 Underground signage. 53

3.5 Station identification 58

3.6 Direction signs 59

3.7 Information posters 59

3.8 Route map 60

3.9 Warning sign 61

3.10 Railway symbols 62

3.11 Signage by massimo vignelli 62

xii
 LIST OF FIGURES (CONTD.)
Figure Title Page
3.12 The translation process in Gehry's office (digitally 64
fabricated model)

3.13 Pre-cast rcc panels in cnc-milled styrofoam moulds 64

allowing flexibility in forms.(images credit: gehry

architects)

3.14 Five-axis Milling System 64

3.15 Undercuts cannot be milled 64

with three-axis milling machines

3.16 The interacting 'drops of water' (blobs) and the translation 65

into a built form

3.17 Plasma-arc cnc cutting of steel supports 65

for masonry walls.

3.18 Digital model of a double nanotube 65

3.19 Solar study for the city hall building 66

3.20 Traffic simulation showing people escaping from a station 66

on fire

3.21 A machined physical scale model of part of the London 66

underground infrastructure

4.1 Site location 69

4.2 London metro- route map. 70

4.3 Platform Screen doors 70

4.4 Delhi metro- route map. 71

4.5 Conjestion on Delhi road 72

4.6 Mumbai suburb railway- route map 73

4.7 Andheri station 74

4.8 Overcrowding in stations 74

5.1 View of a typical concourse 97



LIST OF FIGURES (CONTD.)

Figure Title Page

5.2 Madrid, Spain, offers an example of a light, airy station 97

concourse with faregate lines dividing the "paid" and

"unpaid" areas.

5.3 Station box 99

5.4 An example of a wide station platform (Cairo Metro, 99

Egypt) designed to accommodate large numbers of

passengers boarding and alighting at the same time.

5.5 The entrance hall of Doncaster station, UK. 100

5.6 Clarity in circulation 102

5.7 A metro station (Shanghai, China) where there are columns 103

to support the structures over the underground station.

5.8 Schematic section showing vertical circulation in a station. 104

5.9 Typical platform view. 105

5.10 Platform screen doors or Platform edge doors are provided 106

on the new Jubilee Line stations.

5.11 Ramps should be installed at all places both inside and 107

outside of stations where there is a difference in floor

height to facilitate safe and convenient

5.12 Elevator signs 108

5.13 Tactiles for the blind guide visually impaired passengers 109
into stations and all the way to the designated boarding

points on the platform.

5.14 Smoke barrier fixing datail to the ceiling. 111

5.15 Considerations for flooring 112

5.16 Section of a typical stair. 113

5.17 Tolerance gap. 114

5.18 Glazed screen assembly at floor. 115

 LIST OF FIGURES (CONTD.)
Figure Title Page
5.19 Hard, vandal resistant material should be given preference. 116
5.20 Make-up panels should be used to modulate, non-modular 116

poster sizes to keep-up the continuity of the space.

5.21 Counter-sunk screws to prevent vandalism 117

5.22 Relate advertising in groups to special conditions of 118

structure, where possible.

xv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

"Architecture is the learned game, correct and magnificent, of forms

assembled in the light." Le Corbusier

1.1 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM.

Mass travel has become the most important and viable solution for the ever increasing

number of passengers, depleting natural energy resources and less availability of time

all over the world. Thus the subsequent increase in importance for the transport
architecture.

As a time tested solution, rapid rail transit system is considered as the most effective

among the various modes of mass transport. Majority of the major cities around the

globe already have rapid rail network(s) and the rest are swiftly switching over to it.

Rapid rail stations plays a vital role in the network allowing smooth functioning of

the system. Many of the stations are already models of architectural and engineering

excellence. Some of them even have attained icon status in their countries.

As a designer, this brings in greater challenges as well as inspiration to design and

execute rapid rail stations of importance. It gets even more challenging with the

advancement of technology as well as newer concepts in transportation engineering.

The thesis thus aims at framing design considerations for the rapid rail stations that

could be a step towards achieving a better solution and design satisfaction.

1.2 AIM

The study attempts to frame design considerations for rapid rail stations.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1) To frame design considerations for rapid rail stations.

2) To analyse the designing of rapid rail stations giving priority to;

layout, circulation (vertical & horizontal), safety and security, finishes, components
(furniture and fittings) and signage.

3) To analyse various standards/codes

4) To study the advances in rapid rail station design around the globe.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

1) Study deals with the design of rapid rail stations in the modern context.

2) Study deals with the advancements in technology that enables in envisioning

newer concepts in the design of rapid rail stations.

3) Due to the variety and vastness of the subject, the study is limited to underground

stations only.

4) This study does not include the areas;

economic analysis of the projects

techniques of construction management

transportation planning in an urban scale

1.5 MOTIVATION.

A lot of research and study have been conducted over the planning and designing of

transit structures. Rapid rail stations are comparatively a new typology among the

various other mass transit facilities. Since the typology had to deal with altogether a

new set of demands, technologies, user profile, circulation pattern and various other

criteria to fulfil, there arise the need for a specialised research into the field.

2
Though pioneering works have been done like in the Hongkong airport station, improving

and redefining the existing standards and parameters; much of the research have been

limited to the specific case level. Leading architectural firms such as Arup Associates

have contributed with well detailed publications about the construction process and

principles behind the stations done by them. New extensions like Jubilee Line extension

did catch vast media attention and the stations are well documented later. Extensive

researches have been done over the areas like crime prevention, social psychology,

safety, universal accessibility, security etc. to mention a few; which have a direct

impact over the station design.

The research conducted here thus becomes important in framing considerations which

are universally applicable for the design of underground rapid rail stations. It has

attempted to analyse the existing norms, standards, guiding principles, literature along

with the comparative analysis of case studies among the pioneering stations (Hong

kong airport station, Jubilee Line extension, Delhi metro- the latest) assisted with

field survey to arrive at the considerations.

The study threw revealing light over the technological innovations, that continue to

evolve the way one perceive a project, and ever increasing demand for a more safer

and secure space, not to mention the aesthetic and functional qualities, to commute.
Attempt have been done to identify and generalize the basic concepts so that newer

innovations and advances could be applied over it.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

overview of advance LITERATURE STUDY

techndogies in architecture history of rail design
standards

CASE STUDIES IDENTIFICATION OF DESIGN

. literature
. live CONSIDERATIONS

ANALYSIS

CONCLUSIONS AND
Fig 1.1 Methodology DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS.

Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature available about the design of underground

rapid rail stations. The history of rapid rail around the globe is discussed, along with

its Indian counterparts. This chapter also includes the discussion on various types of

rapid rail stations, typical layout of an underground rapid rail station and areas inside

a station such as concourse, platform and other facilities. The various elements and

faces of station design are also discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 3 presents a review of design standards, planning norms, fire safety requirements

for rapid rail stations, emergency situations, access for disabled people and signage.

The recent advances in the field of architecture is also discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 4 presents the case studies in detail. A brief discussion on the various case

studies followed by the detailed analysis of the same using selected parameters comprises

the chapter. The chapter also includes a sample questionnaire which was used during

the survey of live case studies.

The various aspects of the work presented in this thesis are analysed and summarized

in Chapter 5. Design considerations and conclusions are highlighted. Finally, suggestions

are provided for scope for future work.

 CHAPTER 2
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

"I must study politics and war that my sons may have liberty to study

mathematics and philosophy. My sons ought to study mathematics and

philosophy, geography, natural history, naval architecture, navigation,

commerce and agriculture in order to give their children a right to study

painting, poetry, music, architecture, statuary, tapestry, and porcelain."

John Adams (1735 - 1826) Source: Letter to Abigail Adams, May 12, 1780

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the 19th century and the arrival of mass travel, the need for transport architecture

has spawned some of the most impressive secular structures of recent times. As all

forms of travel - air, rail, road and water - continue to expand, the ever-growing numbers

of passengers and carriers moving around the world are presenting today's engineers,

architects and planners with greater challenges than ever before. [1]

Rapid transit, transportation system designed to allow passenger travel within or

throughout an urban area, usually employing surface, elevated, or underground railway

systems or some combination of these. Rapid transit systems are generally considered

to be mass transit systems, capable of moving large numbers of passengers in a single

train. The large capacities of such systems make them potentially more efficient, in

terms of cost and environmental effects, than automobile transportation.

The various aspects of a rapid rail station design has been extensively studied in this

chapter. This includes the history of rail design, classifications, layout of station,

circulation, various spaces and an outlook towards the problem of designing a station

and its various elements.

5
2.2 HISTORY OF RAIL DESIGN

London's underground, which went into service in 1863, is the oldest in the world;

initially steam-powered, it was fully electrified by 1896, the same year that the first

subway began operating on the European continent in Budapest, Hungary. Boston

installed (1898) the first subway in the United States; others followed in Paris (1900),

Berlin (1902), New York (1904), Madrid (1919), Tokyo (1927), and Moscow (1935).

Toronto's subway, completed in 1954, was the first in Canada; Montreal's subway was

completed in 1966. By the beginning of the 21st century there were 95 subways in 59

countries, 11 of these in the United States. In addition to Boston and New York, there

are subways in Atlanta (1979), Baltimore (1983), Chicago (1943), Cleveland (1955),

Los Angeles (1993), Miami (1984), Philadelphia (1908), San Francisco (1972), and

Washington, DC. (1976).

Some subways consist of only a single line, but others,

such as the Metropolitain in Paris, the New York City

Transit system, and the London underground, are

networks. The London system has the most track (256

mi/ 410 km), and the Moscow system carries the most

passengers annually (3.1 billion). By far the largest

underground transportation system in the United States

is that of New York City. It carries 1.2 billion people

and has more than 245 mi (393 km) of track; it also

Fig 2.1 Old signage in has 6,273 cars and 463 stations more than any other
station
system in the world. Moscow has an elaborate subway

system with tunnels 15 to 20 ft. (4.5 to 6 m) high instead of the usual 10 ft. (3 m).

Marble was used lavishly in constructing the stations, and Russia's best-known artists

participated in their decoration.

In recent years concern over urban crowding and automotive air pollution has stimulated

the construction and expansion of many rapid transit systems that incorporate automated
operation and magnetic-card fare

systems; examples are the Bay Area

Rapid Transit system in California, the

Metro system in Washington DC., and

a section of the London underground.

[2]

2.3 STATIONS

Stations are the places where trains stop

to collect and deposit passengers. Since

the station is the first point of contact

most passengers have with the railway,
it should be regarded as the "shop
window" for the services provided. It
Fig 2.2 The 50-kilometre (3D-mile) tunnel
between England and France, completed in 1994,
was bored by 800-tonne Tunnel Boring Machines
moving up to 1,500 tonnes of earth every hour.
The back-up train was 235 metres (770 feet) long.

1.2 INDIAN BACKGROUND

LIST OF RAPID RAIL NETWORKS

Bangalore Metro Pre-Final Stages of Planning BMRT Ltd.

Kolkata Metro 1984 Metro Railway Calcutta

Kolkata Suburban Railway 1954

Chennai Metro 1997 MTC

Delhi Metro 2002 DMRC

Hyderabad MetroMMTS Started in August 2003 Hyderabad Metro

Ahmedabad Metro Proposed for 2010

Kochi Metro Proposal Cleared by Cabinet

Mumbai Suburban Railway 1867 MRVC Ltd.

Mumbai Metro Under construction

Fig 2.3 List of Indian rapid rail networks

7
should therefore be well designed, pleasing to the eye, comfortable and convenient

for the passenger as well as efficient in layout and operation. Stations must be properly

managed and maintained and must be operated safely.

Stations are collectors and distributors, and they accommodate large concentrations

of transit passengers. This concentrated traffic has to be handled without any confusion,

but at the same time at maximum efficiency in entraining and detraining operations.

Ideally the station layout should be such that passengers find themselves located along

the platform in uniform groups at each transit car doorway. Though this is not always

practicable, it is an important factor in selecting the locations of stairways, turnstiles,

escalators and passageways.

Pleasing physical appearance is important in a rapid transit system for both users end

non-users. The appearance of stations and terminals affects not only the users who

spend time there in transferring from one mode of transportation to another, but also

the non-users who are forced to live with the appearance of the station structure and

the high level of activity focused around it.

The design and layout of the stations affect the time necessary for trains to load and

unload, and these in turn affect the line capacity. Station arrangements can have a

significant effect on costs and operation with respect to fare collection and transfer

facilities.

Two level stations offer a means of controlling the number of passengers waiting on

the platforms at anyone time. By using the mezzanine as a holding zone whenever the

number of passengers become too large, scheduled train loading times may be maintained.

Rapid transit stations are the links between the roads and the rapid transit lines, and

the conditions in these stations must be congenial for rapid but smooth exchange of

passengers. These will be the starting and terminating points of daily trips by thousands

of rapid transit passengers. The arrangements at these stations must go beyond the

realm of their functional and aesthetic considerations.

8
2.4 TYPES OF STATIONS

2.4.1 City central terminals

They are likely to be used by both Intercity and Local trains. They will usually offer

interchange with bus services and taxis, sometimes metro services too. They may

even serve international routes and airport rail links. Shops, buffets and restaurants,

left baggage offices, waiting rooms, toilets and other facilities are likely to be required.

In short, a city centre terminal will embody virtually all the characteristics of larger
stations, within a single site.

2.4.2 Rail to rail interchange

Access is provided between intersecting rail routes, and between fast and stopping

trains on the same route. Interchange may also be provided between main line and

metro services, and between trains and trams.

2.4.3 Classification based on construction

Construction of a railway line falls into three basic categories;

1) Underground

2) Elevated

3) Surface/at grade

4) Open cut

Surface construction has limited applications within an urban area because it cuts

through other means of communication. Similarly it is seldom practical to make much

use of elevated structures in dense urban developments and its adoption must therefore

be limited to very low-density areas where development is just beginning.

9
 a-,
2.5 TYPICAL LAYOUT OF AN UNDERGROUND STATION

A typical underground station consists of concourse level at the first basement and a

platform level at second basement. The central portion of the concourse level is designed

as a ticketing hall where ticket machines, automatic fare gates, station control room

are located. Equipment Rooms serving the operations of the station are located on

both sides of the ticketing hall. Where possible, some small shops, automatic teller

machines, public telephones, etc. are provided along the corridors leading from the

various entrances to the ticketing hall.

The platform is approximately the length of the rolling stock used in the system and

separated from the tracks by the platform screen doors. The platform level, directly

beneath the concourse level is basically an open central area to facilitate passengers'

waiting and boarding/alighting onto/from trains. Equipment rooms will also be located

on both sides of this central area or beside the trainway.

The concourse and platform levels are linked by open staircases and escalators at the

public areas. Lifts are currently being provided for the newer stations, or otherwise

being retrofitted into the existing stations. Enclosed staircases are also provided at

both ends of the station to cater for quick egress from the station platform in the event

of any emergency.

2.6 THE CONCOURSE

Unlike the surface railway system a rapid transit system will have its platforms only

for ingress and egress of passengers to and from trains. All other connected activities

will be dealt at station mezzanines, which are generally at different level. The principal

function of the mezzanine is to provide for movement of people between station platforms

and road accesses, and for the activities associated with that movement. The main

activity is that of paying the fare, so the mezzanine will house the booking offices,

ticket vending machines and barriers to control entry into and exit from platforms.

The mezzanine will also accommodate several other facilities depending on the nature

1.0
and volume of traffic. For mezzanines, headroom of 3 m is recommended but in very
difficult places it may be reduced to 204 m.

The other facilities required in mezzanines may be divided into two categories: those

required in connection with the operation of the rapid transit system in general and

the stations in particular, and those provided for the convenience of and as amenities

to the users. Of the first category the most important is the Station Master's Office

which will contain public address equipment for both the mezzanine and the platforms

and means of communication with the control centre. Space has to be provided in

mezzanines for a rest room for station staff and canteen facilities for train crew. Some

space will be required for a small operational and clerical staff and some for storage

of items ranging from cleansing equipment's and tickets. Space has to be provided

not only for the escalators to be installed in the beginning, but also for those to be

provided in the future.

Accommodation is also required for the provision of ventilation equipment and electrical

sub station. Facilities for the passengers include illuminated direction signs, train
indicators, information booths, counters for sale of newspapers and other selected

commodities, toilets and first aid facilities. Although the primary design considerations

of the mezzanine are efficient operation of the system, all of them will serve a secondary

but important function of a pedestrian subway.

2.6.1 Access to station mezzanines

The underground stations have to be designed with mezzanines under major roads at

the level of the roof of the subway. Access to the mezzanines should be provided from

both sides of the road. Where there is an important road junction above, efforts would

be made to provide access to the mezzanines from all corners of the junction by means

of stairways.

II
Entrances and Exits

Station entrances and exits must be designed to allow for the numbers of passengers

passing through them, both under normal and emergency conditions. Specific emergency

exit requirements are outlined in many countries as part of safety legislation or to

standards set down by the railways or other organisations. The codes in NFPA 130

(the US standard for their transit industry) are one such instance. These codes usually

define the exit flows and the types of exits allowed for, e.g. the different rates for

passages, stairways and escalators.

Whatever the codes define, the entrances to a station must be welcoming to the prospective

passenger. Stations must also have sufficient entrances to cater for the different sides

of the railway route but the number must also take into account the cost effectiveness

of each entrance. The cost of staffing ticket offices can be very considerable and the

numbers of ticket offices must be managed to suit the patronage offering.

Consideration must be paid to issues like which way doors open. On the Paris Metro

in 1918, a crown panicked near Bolivar station during an air raid on the city and 66

people were killed in a crush trying to get into the station for shelter. The obstacle

that triggered the crush was a set of doors that only opened outwards -- normally the

right direction for safety, but not when the crowd is trying to rush in! Subsequently it

became Metro policy that all doors had to open both ways. [3]

2.6.2 Layout

The concourse is split into the "free" area where passengers enter the station, acquire

information and purchase tickets before moving into the "paid" area and thence onto

the platform. The size of the concourse varies with areas required to accommodate

the design passenger flows, the relevant number of ticketing machines and the relative

location of the entries.

1.2_
2.6.3 Functional areas

All station infrastructure can be broadly classified into 3 functional areas:

Public utilities functions

1) Station entrances

2) Platforms

3) Passenger amenities

Operational functions

1) Electrical distribution equipment necessary to power the train

2) Electronic equipment for control and surveillance

3) Offices and other spaces needed for operation and maintenance the system.

Service area

1) Environmental control systems

2) Electrical equipment

2.6.4 Schedule of areas

Public utility areas

1) Concourse:

a) free area b) Paid area

2) Passenger amenities at concourse:

Information/enquiry, public address system, illuminated directional signs to guide

passengers, illuminated train indicators to inform passengers about arrival and departure

of various trains, illuminated time display, automatic ticket vending machines, automatic

gates with turnstile, police assistance room, first aid facilities, public telephones, fire

fighting equipment, mini bank (at some stations), lost property office (at some stations),

display windows and advertisements, other furniture and components.

1.3
Operational Areas

Station control room (closed circuit TV), area manager's office/station master, chief

booking clerk, meeting room, station staff room and lockers, staff mess, cash counting,

audit room, public address system room, ticket, signal equipment, signal maintainer,

signal battery room and charger, telecom equipment, telecom maintainer, telecom battery

room and charger, relay room, store rooms, stationery, refuse track, staff toilets and

lockers, cleaners room and store.

Service Areas

Ventilation equipment, electric substation, electric store and electric duty room, fire

fighting equipment, station sump room, sewage ejector room, generator for signal

equipment.

Provision of the rooms above and their respective areas shall vary as per the station

requirements.

Faregates

The purpose of an AFC system is to ensure that every passenger has a valid ticket

when he enters the railway and that he pays the correct fare for the journey he has

made. The most effective way of doing this is to impose a barrier of faregates across

the station entrance which will only allow passengers with valid tickets to enter the

system and board a train.

2.7 PLATFORM

The arrangements of entrances and exits to station platforms can considerably affect

the time required to load and unload trains. For a given train length and the number of

passengers to be loaded, the loading time will depend upon:

I4
1) Distribution of the passengers along the platform.

2) Ratio of total door length to car length and

3) Relative size of movements into and out of the train

The loading time will be minimum only when the number of passengers using each

door is equal. But obtaining such as equal distribution of traffic along the length of

the platform is difficult since the passengers tend to locate themselves at points which

provide them with a favourite exit upon arriving at their destination or at points which

they feel will be less crowded than other points. The location of platform -entrances

also affects the relative loading of each car in the train. If entry to the platform is at its

center, the number of passengers in the end car tends to be less. Similarly, passenger

loading in the central cars tends to falloff, if there is access to the platforms only at

the ends. Ideally therefore, if two stairways are provided to the station platform, they

should be located at the quarter points. This arrangement however, has its own

disadvantages including that of obstructions of the platform by the stairways.

lighting

support
footbridge column

clock

destination escalator
indicator advertising
board
platform

bench metro
track

subway map www.inlovisual.info

Fig 2.4 Typical platform view

1.5
Types of platform

Platform types include the bay platform, through platform, island platform, and the

side platform. A bay platform is one at which the tracks terminate, i.e. a dead-end or

siding. Trains serving a bay platform must reverse in or out. A through platform,

conversely, is the more usual type of platform, located alongside tracks where the

train may simply pull into the platform from one end, and leave passing the other end.

Finally, an island platform has designated through platforms on both sides; it may be

indented on one or both ends, with bay platforms. For passengers to reach an island

platform, there may be a bridge, a tunnel, or a level crossing. The climb up to the

bridge or down to the tunnel may use stairs, ramps, escalators, lifts, or a combination

of the above.

2.7.1 Length and width of platforms

The length of the platform is dependent on the length of the train that will operate on

the system. The length of an 8 coach train is 162.4 m and allowing a margin in the

matter of train stopping, a length of 170m is considered adequate. Platform width is

also an important feature of station design. The width must be sufficient to accommodate

the largest numbers of passengers expected but must not be wasteful of space - always

at a premium for station areas in expensive land districts of a city. The platform

should be designed to give free visual areas along its length so that passengers can

read signs and staff can ensure safety when dispatching trains. Columns supporting

structures can often seriously affect the operation of a station by reducing circulating

areas and passenger flows at busy times. Platform edges should be straight to assist

operations by allowing clear sight lines. The width of the platforms as already explained

would depend upon the intensity of traffic, but the following can be accepted as standard:

1) Island Type Platforms: 10 m standard (8m minimum)

2) Side Type Platform: 4m minimum.

1.6
Station Building

Fig 2.5 Different types of platform.

4! Platform 1 is a "bay" platform, while
■
• platforms 2, 3 and 4 are "through"
platforms. The physical platform
111 accommodating 3 and 4 is an "island"
■ platform, and can only be accessed via
■ a footbridge or tunnel
■
•
•
■ Aor
• Air
■ Allr
■ra
iV
■

Independent platform cater to a large population effectively. In view of developing

commercial areas above the platform level, side platforms cater to well ventilated

demand and option for vertical development is more feasible. Visual impact of a side

platform station is more. Island platform is more feasible and spacious going to being

free of tracks.

Stations can be of the island or side platform types. Island platforms have the advantage

of requiring a minimum duplication of facilities like stairs, escalators, lighting and

other services. Total platform width will be generally less for island platforms since

the same can be used to accommodate both the morning and evening peaks. In the

case of side platforms each platform will have to be of sufficient width to accommodate

peak traffic. Side platforms; on the other hand are more adaptable to direct access

from sidewalks. As a general standard side platforms should be planned only at stations

where local topography does not permit an island type platform except at high cost.

Whereas island platform stations can have only multiple level arrangements, the side

17
platform stations may be constructed using single or multiple level arrangements. In

the single level stations, ticketing, fare collection and loading operations take place

on the same level. In two level stations, a mezzanine is provided for ticketing and fare

collection while train loading and unloading is accomplished on a separate level.

The platform level should be the same as that of the floor of car under loaded conditions

to facilitate easy and smooth movement of traffic. On these considerations, the height

of the platform has been fixed to 1080 mm above the surface of the rails and the

headroom on the platforms should be 4 to 4.5 m, but if very high coats are moved then

an absolute minimum of 3m can be used. In calculating the width of the platform

required at a station allowance has to be made for the safety zones required on the

train side as also on the off side of the platforms. The minimum safety zone required

is 650 mm on the train side and 250mm on the off side. In the case of the island

platform the extra width required for the safety zone will therefore, be 1300mm whereas

in the case of side platforms it will be 900mm. A

column located on a platform should be at least

1500mm away from the edge of the platform. In

calculating the width of the platform, a density of

1.5 persons per sq.m. has to be allowed and the safety

width will then be added to the actual width. If a

Fig 2.6 Platform barriers on the
platform handles only unidirectional traffic then a Berlin-Hamburg high speed
line
density of 2.5 persons per sq.m. is permissible.

Curvature

Ideally platforms should be straight or slightly

convex, so that the guard can see the whole train

as he prepares to close the doors. Platforms that

have great curvature have blind spots that create

a safety hazard. Mirrors or closed-circuit cameras Fig 2.7 A common sign at curved
platforms on the London
may be used in these cases to view the whole Underground.
platform. Also passenger carriages are straight, and so doors will not always open

directly onto a curved platform — often a gap is present. (Usually such platforms will

have warning signs, possibly auditory, such as "Mind the gap"). In some cases, sections

within the platform may be movable, so as to cover any gap; moving away again to
allow the train to leave. [3]

Platform Screen Doors

An important aspect of station

planning is conservation of

energy. Platform screen doors

prevent conditioned air in

stations from escaping into the

tunnel and thus help to

maintain comfort level inside

the station. These doors are

operationally reliable

particularly in the matching of

Fig 2.8 Platform screendoors are installed in many
the screen and train door underground stations to prevent people from falling into
the rails. They also allow substantial energy savings on
openings. They also have an station air-conditioning and tunnel ventilation.

in built safety feature, which prevents doors from closing, in case of an obstruct between

the screen door or the train door. [3]

Access to station platforms

Access from the mezzanine to the station platforms will be by a stairway or escalator

or both, depending upon the vertical, separation of the two levels. For all vertical

movements more than 5 m, escalators should be assumed. At stations with exceptionally

large passenger loads escalators have been proposed even where the ascend is less

than 5 m.

19
2.7.2 British railway platform construction guidelines

Platform access: Stairs.

Going 300 mm , Riser 150 mm

Width 1200 mm (min), 1800 mm (max.) without intermediate handrails.

Headroom :1850 mm (measured normal to the pitch)

Number of steps: :Maximum 16, Minimum 3

Disabled access: :Maximum number of steps between landings : 8

Handrails: :Continuous on both sides at 850 mm above nosings.

Platform access: Ramps.

Ramps needed : For all level changes up to 500 mm and for level changes above

500 mm in conjunction with stairs.

Gradients :1 in 12 maximum, 1 in 20 preferable

Landing (between ramps) : 1800 mm

Width :1200 mm (minimum)

:1450 mm (preferred)

2.7.3 Platform finishes

Material options:

1) Clay files - Poor slip resistance when wet. Good appearance, repair relatively

easily undertaken. Not suitable for vehicular traffic.

2) Concrete paving blocks - Good visual impact. Excellent wear qualities , Good

slip resistance I Repairs easily undertaken.

3) Terrazzo Tiles - Only suitable where kept dry. Up market appearance, excellent

wear qualities, repairs expensive.

Hot - rolled asphalt - Average to poor appearance. Good resistance to wear, Requires

expert laying, Repairs tend to "show" .

20
5) Dense bitumen macadam - Available in a variety of colors . Good resistance to
heavy wear, repairs tend to "show".

Flooring options Walling options

Hardened screed YES OK OK NO yEs Painted render NO NO NO YES

Sandstone NO NO NO OK YES Glazed tiles OK OK NO YES

Kota stone OK OK NO OK YES Marble OK OK OK YES

Ceramic tiles YES YES OK OK NO Insitu terrazzo YES OK YES YES

Terrazzo YES OK poor OK YES Glass OK YES YES YES

Marble OK OK poor OK yEs Granite YES YES YES YES

Granite YES YES YES YES YES

VE YES YES YES NO

S •
N

Ceiling options
Plaster board NO Gal OK 11211 YES
Fig 2.9
Coloured render OK OK OK YES YES

Metal tile OK YES YES YES OK

GRC YES NO YES YES

Options for finishes; a
comparative study

2.8 PASSAGEWAYS:

This term refers to all means of access to and from station platforms and includes
corridors, stairways and escalators. In determining the desired capacity and passageways,
three simple rules should be borne in mind. The first says that the passageway capacity
to a platform should not be greater than the number of people that can be carried away
by the trains. If passenger backup is unavoidable during certain periods, then a platform
is not the place for this backup if scheduled stop times are to be maintained. The
second rule states that the conflict between rent passenger flows should be minimal
while the third says long passageways between passageways should be avoided.

21.
 ti

Capacity of passageways

Level corridors and platforms:

1) Direction of traffic flow for movement in one direction should be 4000 per hour.
2) Direction of traffic flow for movement in both directions should be 3500 per
hour.

Staircases:

1) Direction of traffic flow for downward journey should be 3500 per hour.

2) Direction of traffic flow for upward journey should be 3000 per hour.

3) Direction of traffic flow for both upward and downward journey should be 3200

per hour.

2.9 STAIRCASES

For facilitating the handling of large volume of passengers with ease and comfort,

modern rapid transit lines are provided with escalators. Where escalators are provided,

a staircase is also provided for use at the option of the passengers. Where heights of

ascents and descents are less, only staircases are considered adequate. In view of the

very high passenger traffic, the Central station will have to be provided with escalators

at the commencement of service. The inclination of the stances should not exceed 450

with steps of 320 mm and 140 mm rise. It is desirable to have flatter slope. With steps

having 340mm tread and 130mm rise, and this should be provided wherever practicable.

Landings should be provided at length intervals not exceeding 3m. The width of the

staircases should, in general, be in multiples of 600mm which is the width required

for one person. A 3m wide staircase will allow walking of 3 persons simultaneously,

with 100 mm hand railing on each side.

2.10 ESCALATORS

Escalators will have a standard slope of 30°. To cater to the changing demands of the

passengers, the escalators should have arrangements for changing its direction of

22
movement. The requirement of escalators has been calculated on the basis of a standard

carrying capacity of 8000 persons per escalator on 1 m width per hour. All access and

egress arrangements for the stations have been designed for the peak of the peak traffic.

2.11 PASSENGER BRIDGES

Bridges are generally preferable to pedestrian tunnels as a means of crossing over the

tracks to distant platforms. They are cheaper to build and offer greater amenity than

artificially lit tunnels.

2.12 BARRIERS

Initially the barriers were manned and operated manually, but these are so designed

that automatic barriers replaced the manual operation. The capacities of the manual

and automatic barriers may be taken as 3000 and 2000 per hour respectively. Booking

counters, where automatic ticket vending machines operated by insertion of coins

will sell tickets to passengers, will precede the barriers. The tickets will be checked at

the barrier before a passenger is permitted to enter into the platform. The minimum

width of the barrier will be 650 mm and in between, a small cabin of 9000 x 2000 mm

will be provided for the ticket checker. This area will be adequate for installation of

automatic barrier machines in future. In front of the barriers there should be adequate

space for use by the waiting passengers and this should be adequate to hold of the

passenger passing through the gate in 90 seconds of the peak period. In the absence of

any data, the peak may be assumed at 67% more than the normal peak. Controller per

shift of 6 hours duration has been provided. This work involves sustained attention
and consumption of physical and mental energy. They will work under one Chief

Controller who will be in overall charge of planning train services and dealing with

emergencies. They will be assisted by one telephone clerk on 8-hour shift to answer

public and departmental inquiries.

23
2.13 INFORMATION CENTRE

Even under the A.T .0. system, masterminding of the system by a controller in the

console is necessary since at moment's notice in case of emergency the electronic

brain may have to be superseded by human brain. Special watch has to be kept by

controllers regarding working of sidings, station step, crossovers, terminal working

and movements of rakes from and to car Depot. The hot line has to be established by

the controller with the trains, stations, power controller and other agencies. He should

use the red telephone in emergencies. For station stop, he must have a window panel

through which trains stopping at different stations are visible and red light indication
is displayed when a train exceeds the station stop time. Headway recorders will furnish

data relating to actual train running so that loopholes can be rectified and links in
train running curves spotted.

2.14 TOILETS

Their provision in stations is an important measure of customer satisfaction. The planning

of toilets should separate W/Cs from the sanitary zone (where wash basins are located)

with spacious internal areas. Queuing space away from circulation areas should be

provided at stations.

2.15 VENTILATION

The objectives of ventilation in underground structures are to:

1) Provide a comfortable environment for patrons and staff.

2) Provide, in the event of fire, control of smoke migration; and, an effective means

to purge smoke and supply fresh air to patrons and fire department personnel

during evacuation and fire fighting operations.

3) Provide for the removal of equipment-heat generated through normal operation

of system elements including trains, lights, and electrification and train control

equipment, so that the normal life expectancy of such equipment will not be

reduced.

24
4) Provide positive control of condensate and haze, and removal of objectionable

• or hazardous odours and gases.

2.16 WAY FINDING

The only satisfactory way of handling large volume of passengers with ease and rapidity

is to separate the incoming and outgoing volume of passengers at the stations wherever

possible from the very beginning. This will avoid disagreeable conflicting movements,

which create confusion and decrease the capacity of staircases and passageways. The

width of the staircases at the entrance into the station should be adequate so that

unnecessary accumulation of passengers at the entrance does not take place. When

passengers moving in both the directions use a staircase or a passageway, they should

be divided by means of a satisfactory of railing. Interchange stations have to be given

special attention in the matter of visual indicators so as to guide the passengers to

correct staircases and passageways for easy and quick transshipments.

For the guidance of the passengers, platforms should be provided with indicators of

the sequence of the trains, giving only the destination or the name of the terminal

station of the approaching train. Two such indicators would be adequate for each platform

located at about 1/8 distance from the platform ends. Visual flashing indicators should

be provided on all platforms, which will repeat the names of the stations continuously

thus, attracting the attention of the passengers travelling in the trains. For the guidance

of detraining passengers clear indicators should be given of the direction of exit. The

most effective way of doing this is by means of coloured intermittent lighting

arrangements, which will give continuous signals to walking passengers. All platforms,

waiting places and mezzanines should be provided with loudspeakers so that continuous

communication may be maintained between train dispatchers at stations and the

passengers.

25


2.17 ELEMENTS

To the designer the station consists of six main elements.

) Railway track and signalling

2) The platforms
3) Circulation areas

4) Ticket sales and retail space

5) Post and parcel areas and

6) Station forecourt.

The railway track and signalling systems have fixed engineering parameters, which

the station designer is rarely able to modify. Generally the architect accepts track as

fixed elements, which naturally dictates the arrangement of platforms. The width of

platform is a function of a anticipated passenger density. Platform width should also

accommodate non-travelling station users such as those meeting passengers, disabled

travellers, and parcel vehicles. Normally a platform of at least 4 m, width is required.

The width, length and configuration of a platform are products of the level of usage,

the type of train the platform serves. The design of circulation areas is dependent

upon a number of factors - density of use, ticket dispensing and control systems, the

complexity of levels, whether passengers are regularly carrying luggage, the fluctuations

at peak times, and access needs for disabled people.

Normally circulation areas are zoned into: Ticket and information areas, waiting areas,

dwell areas for intending passengers, cafes, shops and bookstall, toilets, telephone

and office facilities (fax etc.), tourist information boards.

Ticket sales and retail areas occupy the main circulation concourse of most stations.

For railway companies, revenue from shop and restaurants is an important secondary

source of income. Generally speaking, ticket purchase occurs before other sales are

made at station. This allows the tickets sales point to have primary in terms of station

26
layout. The first of contact in the station's concourse is the ticket office; other retail

or leisure activities are between ticket point and platform barrier.

2.18 STATION DESIGN

2.18.1 The context of railway stations

Railways are capital intensive, and the cost of making alterations is high. As the assets

of service organizations, stations are on public display and popularly reflect upon

their owners and operators. Consumers are becoming increasingly sophisticated too,

demanding higher standards of service together with better value for money.

The conventional view of the activity of a designer is that his job is to design environments

and artifacts that both solve a business problem and respond to a customer need.

Unfortunately customer need is too often interpreted as those needs that can be articulated

or tested through market research, and are almost always expressed as variations or

improvements on what already exists. Consumers are becoming increasingly sophisticated

too, demanding higher standards of service together with better value for money.

2.18.2 Problems of station design

In customers' response to research it is nearly always the immediate or short term

needs that are identified- improved safety, better fighting, good information - all

achievable with basic skills, common sense and, of course, money, but will we be

satisfied with these in twenty or thirty years time?

A railway station is a place at which passengers join or leave trains. It is a place of

arrival and departure, for trains as well as passengers, two somewhat diverse units of

which designers must take cognizance, causing a railway station to fall into two distinct

parts, the passenger concourse and the train shed, to each of which a different measure

must be applied if they are to be apt and fit for their purpose.

27
Many of the traditional functions of the station are, or will become, obsolete; we have

no real need of booking halls or box like waiting rooms, but we do demand a reasonable

standard of comfort, good catering, convenient shopping and, above all else, safety
and security.

Design is central to the process of assembling all the various elements into a coherent

and a cohesive whole, for without the order that design brings to a station environment

very little else will appear satisfactory. Customers value safety, security, and ease of
use above everything else.

Design is the factor that interprets and translates customer needs and perceptions into

reality, a reality that sometimes conceals the complexity and sophistication of the

process through the apparent simplicity of the solution.

2.18.3 Principles of station design overview

Design in the real world

In an ideal environment, one without the discomfort of weather that is too hot or too

cold, without rain and snow, without dishonesty and crime, without people afflicted

by disability or mobility impairment, stations would become very simple indeed. Facilities

might be limited to one or more platforms for boarding and alighting, a kiosk or desk

for the purchase of tickets, and some signage to give fixed information such as directions

and timetables. In an ideal world trains would be frequent and punctual so real-time

information would be superfluous, although seats might be needed for waiting passengers,
and perhaps some kiosks or machines to sell small items.

Everything else beyond these simple facilities is in some way provided to overcome

environmental factors, system unreliability, public uncertainties, or behavioural

dysfunction. Walls and roofs deal with bad weather, and in doing so obstruct sightlines.

Platform canopies and waiting rooms are needed for the same reasons. The risk of

robbery has resulted in fortified ticket offices, whilst tendencies towards fare evasion

28
require lines of ticket barriers. Complex surveillance and security systems are perceived

to be required. The risk of service delays, and the consequent need to reassure travellers,

requires the provision of real-time information displays. Lifts and ramps are required

to meet the needs of mobility-impaired people. New devices, such as emergency

alarms for platforms, are invented and installed from time to time to meet perceived

needs and deal with perceived hazards. Stations have gained the potential for complexity,
even in quieter suburban locations.

2.18.4 Elements of functionality

When functioning to their full capability stations will function broadly in four areas.

The design process must aim to fulfil creatively each of these areas of functionality:

1) Circulatory (i.e.. providing access to the trains for numbers of passengers specific

to each site).

2) Operational (i.e. selling of tickets and other services, and accommodation of

staff and equipment).

3) Beacon (i.e.. 'signalling the service in the street').

4) Commercial (i.e. attracting revenue from primary and secondary sources, through

range and quality of facilities, standard of service and 'image').

Stations may also serve a range of practical objectives:

1) Access and egress point for train service, with appropriate facilities, as ticket

sales.

2) Provision of operational facilities, such as staff accommodation and train

provisioning.

3) Provision of commercial facilities, such as retail, as well as airspace developments

4) Interchanges

5) Gateways into towns / cities / sports stadia /commercial spaces / airports - providing

a 'sense of arrival'.

6) Focal points for communities.

29
The first and second of the four mechanistic functions are well understood. They may

be codified in design standards and building codes. The third ought to be obvious, but

tends to be marginalized where, for example, a station becomes submerged in a large

commercial development, is built as cheaply as possible, or is the work of a lacklustre

designer. The fourth role often seems to be understood only in a simplistic way that of

cramming as much retail as possible into spaces. Greater sophistication and flexibility

are often required.

2.18.5 Creating a brand image

We have seen that a brand is an image perceived by the customer of a business upon

experiencing a combination of product, service and corporate communication.

A railway company brand will be agreed at high level and imposed globally, encompassing

all aspects of the business. Large items such as stations and trains, individual fixtures

and fittings, posters, letterheads and uniforms are amongst the items whose form will
be manipulated to project the brand.

Buildings have a longer life than other branded elements, but are able to reflect integrity

(through permanence, performance and state of repair) and display graphics (through

colour schemes, signage, posters and so on). This allows stations to differ, permits

variety across the network, whilst projecting a common brand image. Whether old or

new, buildings have a place, providing that they function acceptably.

It is tempting to attempt to brand stations simply through adding new corporate graphics.

(This might be termed the 'graffiti tag school of marketing', since logos seem to appear

wherever there is space to insert them!) Adding graphics without a supporting foundation

of integrity is not likely, however, to convince today's sophisticated consumers. The

only effect might be to convince ill-advised railway operators that 'branding is a waste

of money'.

30
An example can be taken as Great Portland Street. It is one of the oldest metro stations

in the world. But whose brand image does it carry? London Underground is represented

by the customary roundel, and the building is of architecture that in London says

`station'; however, the retail units have achieved considerable prominence. The collection

of dustbins outside makes an impression too. The result is chaotic, with London
Underground's brand image (which is strong and effective when well presented) failing

to take first place in the hierarchy of commercial information where it would both

dominate and add coherence.

2.18.6 Commercial development

Principles of Station Retail Development

Retail is an important secondary activity that both adds to the income of station premises

via rental payments and makes stations more useful and attractive to passengers and

passers-by. Its potential scale ranges from 'niche' kiosks occupying a few square meters

at suburban stations up to complete self-contained shopping centres at major city termini.

Major stations have grown from operational to commercial premises in recent years.

At large city termini, retail is set to mushroom in a manner reminiscent of airport

terminals, perhaps even coming to dwarf travel activities as a source of income for

the station owner. The need to maintain convenient access to the trains whilst maximizing

commercial income will challenge designers.

Concentrated development - shopping malls

Where commercially viable, shopping mall developments may be used to realize the

real estate value of the airspace above major station premises. They offer the advantage

over office developments of providing retail, catering and other services for passengers.

Shopping malls should be integrated with public areas of the station, so that passengers

may easily pass between the two.

3l
A good approach is to surround an atrium, through which daylight floods, with several

levels of shops. One level will lead to the platforms. Ticket-selling facilities may be

accommodated on that or another level. Lifts and escalators may be located within the

atrium. The whole aim is to lead passengers into the complex, past the ticket office,
through the retail area, and on to the platforms.

A direct route to the platforms is required for commuters and others with little time to

spare. Passengers with more time, together with shoppers, may be tempted to follow

a more circuitous route designed to lead them around the whole range of shops, restaurants

and other facilities. The complex should be designed to maximize the profitability of

the whole railway business, not just to maximize the commercial value of the terminal

development alone.

2.19 CONCLUSION

Rapid rail station design is governed by a complex set of parameters. Starting from

being functional, aspects such as aesthetic quality, space requirements, commercialisation

of the stations, creation of a brand image, understanding the psychology of the masses

etc. all has to be taken into account.

The chapter discussed the above aspects which has to be supplemented by the analysis

of the existing standards in station design. The next chapter deals with these standards

and norms along with aspects such as safety, security, universal accessibility, signage

and recent advances in the field of architecture.

32
 CHAPTER 3
DESIGN STANDARDS AND RECENT ADVANCES IN
ARCHITECTURE.

"Ah, to build, to build!

That is the noblest of all the arts." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The chapter presents a study of design standards, planning norms, fire safety requirements

for rapid rail stations, emergency situations, access for disabled people and signage,

along with the recent advances in the field of architecture. The study of the existing

standards is a must to understand the problems of station design better and together

with an understanding of the advances in the field, it could help evolve a better

solution.

3.2 DESIGN STANDARDS

3.2.1 Capacity Calculation

A detailed study of traffic generation is required as a basis for station design. The

passenger at each station will vary in terms of daily passengers and directional split

which occurs during peak periods. Knowledge of this patronage, its peaking and

directional characteristics is important for the layout of stations. For sizing passenger

circulation facilities it is necessary to convert the patronage estimates to design flow

using various factors as follows.

1) To allow for peaking within that hour it is assumed that 5 % of the hourly flow

would occur during the peak 2 minutes.

2) The design period referred above is selected to coincide with the minimum headway

between trains. These numbers must be cleared through the platform in the average

two minutes between trains if a .build up of dangerous congestion on platform

and escalators is to be avoided. Having obtained design passenger flows, it is

possible to assess the numbers and sizes of pedestrian facilities such as entrance,

stairs, tickets, gates and escalators needed to each station concourse. Of these

the number of escalators is the most significant, as it has a profound influence

on the type and size of station selected.

3.3 STATION PLANNING NORMS (Source: RITES)

Design passenger flow /2 min. -5% of peak hour flow

Escalators carrying capacity /2 min. (up and down) -267 passengers

Uni - directional staircase/m/2min Up -126 passengers

Uni - directional staircase/m/2min Down -140 passengers

Uni-directional passengers/m/s min (up down) -177 passengers

Concourse -1 person/ sq. m.

Side platform -5 persons/sq.m.

Island platform -1.5 persons/sq.m

Minimum platform widths

Side platform -6m

Island platform -10m

Emergency evacuation time

Max. travel distance in emergency -60 m

Walking speed for passengers -1 m/ s

Escalators carrying capacity in emergency /2 min. -240 passengers

Staircase carrying capacity in emergency /2 min. -114 passengers

No. of passengers in 8 coach train under dense crushing load -2000

Peak Hour Passenger flow at ISBT Interchange -52,000

34
3.4 FIRE SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR STATION

3.4..1 Definitions

1) Fire Resistant Non-Combustible Construction: Non -combustible construction

which has a fire resistance rating through application of a protective fire resistive

membrane such as masonry or concrete to supporting steel.

2) Fire Resistance Rating: An hourly rating assigned to a tested element or assembly

by any recognized authority.

3) Fire Load: The average weight of the combustible contents of a foom or floor

area in pounds per square foot, including the building materials, furnishings,

equipment, and transit vehicles.

4) Fire Separation: A barrier against the spread of fire and the migration of smoke

having a fire resistance rating.

3.4.2 Station construction and fire compartmentation

The underground stations should be of non-combustible construction with the elements

of structure built to a fire resistance period of at least 4 hours. The architectural finishing

materials in stations should be also of non-combustible types. Electrical cables should

be of low smoke, halogen free and either fire retardant or fire resistant type.

Station design should follow the NFPA 130 fire compartmentation requirements. All

non-public areas should be separated from public areas by at least 2 hours fire resistant

construction. The non-transit occupancies such as commercial spaces should have at

least 3 hours fire separation from the transit area. Different occupancies within a non-

public area should be further compartmentalized from one another. For example, electrical

substations should be provided with minimum 3 hours fire compartmentation; generator

rooms should be provided with minimum 4 hours fire compartmentation and other

plant rooms, stores and refuse storerooms should be provided with minimum of 2

35
hours fire compartmentation. Enclosed staircases and electrical code shafts should be

individually compartmentalized by at least 2 hours fire rated construction.

3.4.3 Means of egress

MRT stations are elongated in design with centralized exiting facilities composed of

open stairs and escalators to serve normal traffic. NFPA 130 allows open stairs and

escalators which passengers normally use for ingress and egress to be used as means

of egress in the event of an evacuation. In addition to these open stairs and escalators,

enclosed emergency stairs are provided at each end of the platform as a secondary

means of egress. Generally, these emergency stairs discharge directly to the concourse

transit area. However, at least one of them which is designated as the fireman staircase
emerges at the ground level.

The fare gates installed at the concourse level will fully open in the event of a loss of

power or upon activation of a control switch in the Station Control Room (SCR) for

speedy evacuation. Emergency swing gate is provided adjacent to the fare gates to

increase the exit capacity. This gate is held in closed position by a simple latch and

may be released manually during emergency.

Movement of escalators can be controlled either locally or remotely from the Station

Control Room. Escalators running in the reverse direction of egress will be stopped

before the evacuation commences.

The maximum travel distance to an exit from any point on the platform shouldn't

exceed 91.4 m (NFPA 130). This requirement is not applicable to the concourse level.

The commercial spaces such as shops along the transit route should be limited to one

big shop not exceeding 100 m2. The exit routes from these commercial spaces should

be similar to that of the station. These commercial spaces should have minimum 3

hours fire separation from the transit public area.

36
In stations which are incorporated with an additional shopping level, the large commercial
spaces on the shopping level should be compartmentalized with minimum of 3 hours
fire barrier from the transit public area.

Linking the station with adjacent commercial building at basement level is permitted,

provided the commercial development is separated from the station by 1-3 hour fire

compartment in accordance with the requirement of NFPA 130. The 3 hours fire shutter

installed in the link interface can normally remain open. Through the operation of the

smoke detectors installed in front or behind the fire shutter or by activation of the fire

alarm system in the development, the fire shutter will be automatically shut. For this

reason, the link does not form part of the requisite exit routes from either the station
or the adjacent development

3.4.4 Exit Capacity

Time is used as the main criterion in the determination of exit capacity. Escalators,
staircases, passageways and fare gates provided in the station are designed not only to

handle traffic flow at peak hour but also to ensure that passengers are able to leave the

station within a specified time frame.

The time frame set by NFPA 130 is 4 minutes for evacuation of station occupant load

from the platform level and 6 minutes for evacuation of station occupant load from

the most remote point on the platform to a point of safety entrances at the ground
level.

The station occupant load used in the exit time calculation is derived differently. It is

not calculated based on the area of the station, but is dependent on the traffic parameters.

The detraining and entraining loads are the two components making up the station

occupant load. In computing the detraining load, trains carrying the calculated train

loads (i.e. converted from the peak 15 minutes traffic load with safety factor to account

for missed headway in the peak direction) are assumed to enter the station simultaneously

37
on all tracks in normal traffic direction and discharge all their passengers. The entraining

load is calculated from the peak station entry load in similar manner.

Evacuation time from the platform can be calculated by dividing the station occupancy

load by the exit capacity available form platform to concourse. Where a station has

two platform levels both the evacuation times from lower platform to upper platform

and from upper platform to concourse are to be determined.

To calculate the total evacuation time for a station, walking travel time should first be

tabulated using the longest exit route and travel speeds given in NFPA 130. Waiting

times may occur at various constriction points.

3.4.5 Flammable and-Combustible Liquid/Vapor Intrusion

Accidental flammable liquid or vapor intrusion can create the potential for a serious

fire or explosion within the rail transit station.

Extensive specifications to minimize emergency conditions which could result from

such hazardous liquid or vapor intrusion are contained in Subsection 3.2.7 of NFPA

130.

3.4.6 Fire protection and fire detection systems in stations, an example:

The Singapore MRT system is designed to achieve a high standard of fire safety in

stations by providing a host of fire protection and fire detection systems surpassing

the requirements of NFPA 130. Each Station is fitted with automatic fire sprinkler

system, automatic fire alarm system, total flooding - gas fire suppression system for

certain plantrooms, fire hose reel system & portable fire extinguisher, voice

communication system and dry riser system.

38
3.5 EMERGENCY SITUATIONS

3.5.1 Station exits

Station exits are particularly important facilities during emergency situations because

they provide the primary means of evacuating passengers

from the system. They also provide an entry into the system

for fire/rescue personnel.

1) Each emergency exit should be identified by graphics

and by a light of distinctive colour, and provided with

dual light circuitry.

2) Emergency exit doors should not be locked on the inside

at any time.

3) Emergency exit doors on the surface level should not Fig 3.1 Emergency contact
point from inside of
issue onto a hazardous area such as a vehicle roadway Singapore's Mass Rapid
Transit
or parking area, and should be kept free of such

obstructions as vendor carts, trash dumpsters, etc.

4) Emergency exits should have the capability of being readily opened from the

outside by the fire department or other rescue personnel.

5) The use of vertical ladders in emergency exits should be prohibited.

6) All doors, ladders, etc., that do not provide egress capability should be clearly
labelled "Not an Exit."

7) The needs of passengers with special egress requirements (wheelchair, elderly,

etc.) should be addressed. Faregate areas, exits, etc., should be evaluated for

ease of evacuation by those passengers.

8) Consideration should be given to developing a means of limiting access to station

platforms when overcrowded conditions exist [4].

39
3.5.2 Communications

Passenger station communication systems make possible the reporting of emergencies

and crimes, requests for assistance, announcements to passengers, visual surveillance,

and coordination of fire/rescue efforts. The different types of equipment available for

these uses are: radio, private automatic branch exchange (PABX), direct line telephones,

maintenance line telephones, public address system (PA), intercoms, data transmission

cables, and closed circuit television (CCTV).

1) A communication system should be provided between all stations and Central

Control to permit rapid and coordinated communication between passenger stations

and Central Control.

2) The P.A. system speakers should be installed in a manner which allows

announcements made by a station attendant or Central Control to be clearly

understood by passengers.

3) The P.A. system should have an alternate source of power to permit use when

the normal power system fails.

4) P.A. system components should be protected from unauthorized use, vandalism,

or other damage [4].

5) The direct two-way line telephones should receive redundant power from an

alternative power source.

3.5.3 Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Ventilation (and air conditioning) systems provide passenger comfort by dissipating

heat from train and station operations, and by removing objectionable odours. Ventilation

systems are also used to purge smoke and heat in the event of a fire. In addition, the

proper operation of fans and dampers may play a critical role in confining the fire and

smoke to a limited area. Proper design of ventilation systems is essential for emergency

preparedness in rail transit stations.

40
1) The local fan and damper controls should be clearly identified by lighting and/
or graphics.

2) Consideration should be given to providing a portable stand-by power source or

other auxiliary power for ventilation system operation.
3) Fans and dampers should be remotely controlled from Central Control [4].

3.5.4 Support Equipment and Systems

Fire Protection Equipment

Location of Detection and Alarm Boxes:

1) Fire and smoke detection devices should be located in non-public areas of rail
transit stations. Ancillary and/or storage rooms located in stations are of particular

importance.

2) .Manual alarm devices should be of a type to discourage activation except during

an actual fire/smoke condition. It may be advisable to install them within the

station attendants' line of vision.

3) Graphics and lights on annunciator panels in passenger stations should indicate

the geographical location of alarms.

Automatic Fire Sprinkler System

An automatic fire sprinkler system should be provided in areas of transit stations

used for commercial spaces, storage, refuse store, mechanical plant rooms and other

similar areas with combustible loading.

1) In accordance with NFPA 130, the station public transit areas need not be provided

with an automatic fire sprinkler system due to its negligible fire load.

2) All escalator pits in the concourse and platform levels should be protected by

sprinklers.

41
3) All electrical or electronic equipment rooms, which would be fully

compartmentalized with minimum 2 hours fire resistance need not be provided

with automatic fire sprinkler system.

Portable Fire Extinguishers

1) The location of fire extinguishers and simple instructions for their use should

be clearly identified with graphics within the rail transit station.

2) Fire extinguishers should be protected from theft or vandalism.

Standpipe and Hose Systems

1) If standpipe and hose systems are used, they should comply with the requirements

of NFPA 130.

2) When not located between the tracks in a station, standpipes should, when possible,

be located on the side of the station platform opposite the third rail.

Rescue Equipment

Different types of rescue equipment may be stored at rail transit stations according to

transit system reqiiirements: Fire axes, crowbars, ladders, and stretchers are among

the items which may be considered for storage in designated station areas (such as

attendant kiosks or equipment rooms).

3.5.5 Lighting

Lighting is an essential factor in many emergency situations, particularly in underground

stations.

1) The minimum illumination level for emergency lighting should furnish sufficient

visibility in passenger station areas - platforms, mezzanines, ticketing areas,

passageways and entrances - to allow passenger evacuation from these areas.

2) Emergency lighting fixtures and power sources should be protected from damage

42
 caused by accidents, water, maintenance to adjacent equipment, or vandalism.
3) The emergency lighting should conform to the codes and regulations of authorities
having proper jurisdiction.
4) The emergency lighting system should be activated automatically upon loss of

the normal lighting system and provide continuous operation for an amount of

time specified by the individual transit system. This time-span should be determined

by the amount of time necessary for safe evacuation of passengers from the station.
5) Lighting fixtures in the normal lighting system may be considered emergency

lighting if a designated number of the fixtures are powered by a separate or

independent power source.
6) Consideration should be given to locating a designated number of lighting fixtures

towards the bottom of the walls of the station to provide visibility for passenger

evacuation under smoke conditions (Such fixtures should be vandal-proof.) [4].

3.5.6 Flood Protection

Rail transit passenger stations may in many areas be subject to water leaks. In addition,
storm water drainage may enter at portals and shafts.

1) Pumping stations should be provided at low points within the transit station.
2) The drainage pumps should be of the proper size to handle water intrusion from

weather, fire fighting operations, etc.

3) There should be two separately powered alternate pumps at each location.

4) Where the pumps operate automatically, local controls should be able to manually

override the system [4].

3.5.7 Graphics for emergency

Graphics are defined as the informational symbols indicating the location and use of

crucial passenger station facilities and equipment. They are essential in identifying

exits, exit paths, emergency exits, fire extinguishers, etc.

4
1) Consideration should be given to using bilingual and/or pictograph signs.
2) Standardized emergency graphics should be used. Advertising should be segregated
from informational graphics.

3) Advertising should be avoided entirely at decision points.

4) Information signs should be located at decision points for maximum visibility.
5) Signs should be posted in stations providing instructions for reporting unusual

occurrences and procedures for emergency evacuation.

6) Location signs and instructions for operation of emergency exits, fire extinguishers

and emergency intercom or alarm should also be provided [4].

3.5.8 Emergency Power

In order to ensure the continued operation of such vital components as lighting and

emergency ventilation systems and pumping stations, it is necessary to consider two

options for furnishing uninterruptible power. One option involves the use of dual
controls, feeder cables, etc., to provide redundancy should failure in one component

occur. The second option is to provide an alternative power source in case the normal

power source becomes unavailable.

The following station components should be considered for connection to alternative

power systems: Station emergency lighting, all illuminated exit signs, selected signs,

ventilation system (subway), radio and telephone systems, public address system, fire

alarm system, pumps (subway) [4].

3.6 ACCESS FOR DISABLED PEOPLE:

Some of the common measures are;

1. Providing lifts to supplement stairs or ramps,

2. Avoiding short flights of steps by installing ramps.

3. Increasing the level of lighting, especially at entrances and staircases,

4. Using textured paving to define safe limits.

44
3.6.1 Disabilities

1) Disabilities of inco-ordination: Faulty co-ordination or palsy from brain, spinal,

or peripheral nerve injury.
2) Hearing disabilities: Deafness or hearing handicaps that might make an individual

insecure in public areas because he is unable to communicate or hear warning

signals.

On-ambulatory disabilities: Impairments that, regardless of cause or manifestation,

for all practical purposes, confine individuals to wheelchairs.

4) Semi-ambulatory disabilities: Impairments that cause individuals to walk with

difficulty or insecurity. Individuals using braces or crutches, amputees, arthritics,

spastics, and those with pulmonary and cardiacills may be semi-ambulatory.

5) Sight disabilities: Total blindness or impairments affecting sight to the extent

that the individual functioning in public areas is insecure or exposed to danger.

3.6.2 Special requirements for physically handicapped

Ramps with gradients

Because the term `ramp• has a multitude of meanings and, its use in this text is clearly

defined as ramps with gradients (or ramps with slopes) that deviate from what would

otherwise be considered the normal level. An exterior ramp, as distinguished from a

`walk', would be considered an appendage to a building leading to a level above or

below the existing ground level. As such, a ramp shall meet certain requirements

similar to those imposed upon stairs.

Walks

Because the term 'walks' has a multitude of meanings and uses, its use in this standard

is clearly defined as a predetermined, prepared-surface, exterior pathway leading to

or from a building or facility, or from one exterior area to another, placed on the

45
existing ground level and not deviating from the level of the existing ground immediately
adjacent.

3.6.3 Safety and security through design— an example.

Subway Metro System, Washington, D.0

Washington's subway system is recognized for its unusually low crime rates. To determine

whether Metro's environment is responsible for its low crime rates, Metro's design

characteristics were reviewed and Metro's management and maintenance policies were

assessed to observe the extent to which they embody situational crime prevention

measures that both theory and practice suggest would be successful. Discussed here

is; how the design, management, and maintenance characteristics of Metro, Washington,

D.C.'s subway system, have contributed to the system's safety and appearance.
Fig 3.2 Comparison of Part I. Crime*
(per 1 Million Riders) on Four
Factors Subway Systems-1994

16
1) High, arched ceilings that not only are
14 Total Part I crimes
per 1 million riders 12.31
architecturally sound and aesthetically
12

pleasing but also create a feeling of 10

openness that reduces passenger fears and

provides them with an open view of the

station. Additionally, long and winding

corridors and corners were avoided to

reduce shadows and nooks that criminals
and panhandlers could occupy.
2) A system that allows passengers to buy
multiple-use farecards in any dollar amount,
cutting down the time money is exposed
Metro MARTA MBTA CTA
*Includes murder, rape, robbery, aggravated
assault, burglary, larceny, and arson, but
excludes auto theft due to the nature of
subway crime.
Sources: Washington Area Metropolitan Transit
Authority Transit Police, Metropolitan Atlanta
Rapid Transit Authority Transit Police,
Metropolitan Boston Transit Authority Transit
Police, and Chicago Police Department.

to pickpockets and robbers. Farecards also must be used on entry and exit from

the system, reducing the likelihood of fare evasion.

46
3) Metro trains are equipped with graffiti- and vandal-resistant materials to discourage

potential offenders. When graffiti artists or vandals do cause damage, maintenance

workers clean and repair damaged property promptly.

4) No public restrooms, lockers, or excess seats for potential offenders to loiter.

Fast food establishments are prohibited because customers generate litter and
provide victims for robbers and pickpockets.

5) Enforcement of "quality of life" violations, such as smoking or eating on trains,

and prompt reporting of all vandalism and graffiti to maintenance personnel to

ensure a safe and clean environment.

6) Continuously staffed entrance kiosks while Metro is open. Station attendants

are aided by closed-circuit televisions at all unmanned entrances, tunnels, and

platforms, and they carry two-way radios to report crime and maintenance problems.

Washington, D.C.'s subway system (Metro) has experienced lower than expected crime

rates since its inception in 1976. The case study reported here suggests that Metro's

relative safety, compared with mass transit systems in similar urban areas, may be

attributable to a combination of design characteristics, management practices, and

maintenance policies that incorporate principles of situational crime prevention and

crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED).

The factors identified in Metro's environment that are consistent with situational crime

prevention, [5] which aims to reduce criminal opportunities by:

1) Increasing the perceived effort of offending.

2) Increasing the perceived risk of offending.

3) Decreasing the perceived reward of offending.

4) Removing the "excuses" for offending i.e., lax conditions or attitudes that lead

to criminality.

47
Methodological concerns

Demonstrating that Metro's environment explains its unusually low crime rates, or

even that Metro's crime rates are unusually low, is not an easy task. Metro's design is

highly uniform from station to station, a characteristic that Metro's architects deliberately

planned to ensure that riders could recognize and use the system with ease. The differences

that do exist among stations — such as whether the station is elevated, the length of

the escalators, or whether the station connects two or more lines — are characteristics

that are either unavoidable due to construction restrictions or necessary to serve the

needs of Metro's ridership. Likewise, the maintenance of Metro's stations is stringent

throughout: Graffiti and litter are removed within hours, lights are replaced promptly,

and structures damaged by vandalism or wear and tear are removed or repaired
immediately.

Situational crime prevention at Metro

Metro's environment has most of the opportunity-reducing characteristics found in a

recent compilation of situational crime prevention techniques. These features and their

effectiveness are discussed below.

Fig 3.3 Sixteen techniques of situational prevention.

Increasing Perceived Effort Increasing Perceived Risks Reducing Anticipated Rewards Removing Excuses

1. Target hardening 5. Entry/exit screening 9. Target removal 13. Rule setting

Slug rejector device Automatic ticket gates Removable car radio Harassment codes
Steering locks Baggage screening Women's refuges Customs declaration
Bandit screens Merchandise tags Phonecard Hotel registration

2. Access control 6. Formal surveillance 10. Identifying property 14. Stimulating conscience
Parking lot barriers Red light cameras Property marking "Shoplifting is stealing"
Fenced yards Burglar alarms Vehicle licensing Roadside speedometers
Entry phones Security guards Cattle branding "Bloody idiots drink and drive"

3. Deflecting offenders 7. Surveillance by employees 11. Reducing temptation 15. Controlling disinhibitors
Bus stop placement Pay phone location Gender-neutral phone lists Drinking age laws
Tavern location Park attendants Off-street parking Ignition interlock
Street closures CCN systems V-chip

4. Controlling facilitators 8. Natural surveillance 12. Denying benefits • 16. Facilitating compliance
Credit card photo Defensible space Ink merchandise tags Improved library checkout
Caller-ID Street lighting PIN for car radios Public lavatories
Gun controls Cab driver ID Graffiti cleaning Trash bins

Source: Clarke, R.V. (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies, 2d ed., New York, New York: Harrow and Heston, 1997.

Increasing perceived effort: Metro characteristics that might increase the perceived

effort of offending include the following:

48 •
1) Target hardening. Metro's seats, windows, and fixtures are constructed with

materials resistant to graffiti writing and vandalism to increase the effort associated
with these offences. On Metro platforms, recessed walls and bars installed in
front of the walls discourage graffiti.

2) Controlling access. Because Metro's design limits the number of stairways leading

from street level to underground stations, gaining entry to the system to commit

offenses requires more effort than would otherwise be the case. Metro also closes

during low-density (early morning) hours. The risk of victimization is highest

during off-peak hours due to the absence of capable guardians (third parties) to

intervene; therefore, closing the Metro during these hours reduces criminal

opportunities.

3) Deflecting offenders. Stations have escalators on both ends of the platform to

encourage passengers to occupy the entire platform rather than congregating in

the middle. This design characteristic deflects pickpockets; the open environment

reduces jostling among passengers. In addition, clear signage directing riders to

the nearest exits and transfer points as well as maps situated at exits, entrances,

and transfer locations reduce confusion and uncertainty among riders, making

them less vulnerable to pickpocketing.

Controlling facilitators of committing crime. Metro's planners deliberately omitted

public restrooms, luggage lockers, and excess chairs and benches so that potential

offenders would not be encouraged to linger in the system and assess their targets.

Planners prohibited fast food facilities to minimize robbery and pickpocket

opportunities and to decrease litter, thereby enhancing maintenance of a clean

environment.

Increasing perceived risks: Metro's entry and exit screening policies, formal

surveillance, employee surveillance, and natural surveillance all contribute to Metro's

appearance of a high-risk place to commit crime.

1) Metro's automated fare collection system is designed to reject counterfeit slugs

and bills and to preclude the use of one farecard by several passengers in succession,

49
 thus increasing the risks of appreh e traditional
token systems of older subways, farec ds a .distanc d must be used

on both entry and exit from the system, incre• rn- isk of apprehension by

100 percent. The farecard system also allows passengers to purchase cards of

any dollar amount for multiple trips, enabling them to reduce the frequency with

which they exchange cash for fares (thus exposing their wallets to pickpockets).
2) Formal surveillance is achieved through Metro's transit police, consisting of

approximately 286 sworn officers and officials. They are trained to be vigilant

and to take immediate action against "quality of life" violations by making arrests

and issuing citations. Metro prohibits riders from eating, drinking, smoking,

playing radios, transporting animals, or moving from one rail car to another.

These rules are clearly posted at the entrance to and exit from the station platforms

as well as on the rail cars themselves, and they are stringently enforced by Metro

police.

3) Employee surveillance by station attendants supplements formal surveillance of

the system and contributes significantly to Metro's safe environment. Metro stations

are staffed during all hours of rail operation. Attendants are positioned in kiosks

at the entrances to the platforms to provide assistance to riders and keep an eye

on potential fare evaders.

4) All Metro stations have at least eight strategically placed closed-circuit television

(CCTV) cameras so attendants can monitor unstaffed entrances, tunnels, and

platforms. CCTV screens are located in each station attendant's kiosk to increase

employee surveillance, thereby increasing the risks of apprehension.

5) Another key component of Metro's surveillance is its communications system.

All Metro employees, including maintenance personnel, are equipped with two-
way radios so they can be located or alerted at any time.In addition, each rail car

has passenger-to-operator intercoms to enable passengers to alert drivers to

dangerous situations or crimes in progress. Blue light boxes containing emergency

phones and power-takedown buttons are located every 600 feet along the right

of way.

50
6) Employee surveillance is aided by Metro's design, which was deliberately structured

to ensure a high level of natural surveillance. Metro's platforms are a uniform

600 feet long, designed to accommodate a train of eight 75-foot-long cars. The
platforms have a minimal number of supporting columns, which can provide

cover for criminals. A high, free-standing vaulted ceiling arches above the tracks,
giving the appearance of a wide-open design. These unobstructed views also

enable riders to observe goings-on as they wait for trains.

7) Metro's natural surveillance characteristics include open pathways to and from

train railways that maximize natural surveillance, thereby increasing the perceived

risks of committing crime. In addition, the trains are characterized by a "straight

through" design, enabling police to walk freely between cars, thus increasing

formal surveillance capabilities. Metro's planners deliberately avoided long,

winding corridors and corners found in many older systems. Such corners create

shadows that could hide criminals and serve as nooks that panhandlers and homeless

people like to occupy.

8) Proper lighting also enhances natural surveillance. Lighting within Metro is a

minimum of one footcandle, and all new lighting is a minimum of two footcandles.

Lighting is recessed so it does not cast shadows. In addition, indented walls

provide greater reflection of light.

9) Reducing anticipated rewards. Reducing the rewards of crime can be as simple

as removing the crime target or reducing benefits or temptations associated with

a particular crime. In the case of Metro, the availability of public telephones

both within stations and immediately outside enables riders to make pick-up

arrangements with a relative or friend before boarding the train, thus reducing

waiting time within the system and the associated risk of victimization.

10) Trains are strategically scheduled to minimize the time riders are waiting on

platforms, particularly during off-hours. Such scheduling increases the chances

of riders arriving at stations just before trains depart. This reduces opportunities

for robberies by minimizing the time suitable targets (riders waiting for trains)

remain on the relatively isolated platform.

51
11) Rewards of crime are also reduced through Metro's policy of keeping the premises

well maintained. -Platforms, cars, and corridors are free of litter; graffiti is removed
within 24 hours; and vandalism damage is repaired promptly. These actions diminish
the psychic thrill for titterers, graffiti artists, and vandals because neither they

nor their friends are given the chance to appreciate their work for long.
12) Removing the excuses. Removing the excuses associated with committing a crime

is new situational crime prevention tenet, based on the assumption that individuals

will be less likely to commit a crime if prohibitions are clear or if public humiliation

is the probable result of a violation. Metro has established highly specific and

visible rules, with signage indicating proscribed activities and violations. These

rules, combined with the "zero tolerance" enforcement approach adopted by transit

personnel, deter potential offenders by making them accountable for any violations.

A related means of removing excuses is through "stimulating conscience," or

evoking a sense of guilt or shame associated with proscribed behaviour. Metro

uses its public address system for this purpose; station managers broadcast public

reprimands of rule breakers.

13) Facilitating compliance with rules and laws is another strategy that promotes

personal accountability. For example, Metro makes it difficult to justify littering

by placing an adequate number of trash receptacles and newspaper recycling

bins throughout each station. In addition to facilitating compliance, an abundance

of trash receptacles helps transit employees to maintain a clean environment,

which may in turn promote a sense of territoriality in law-abiding passengers

and enhance their willingness to intervene should the need arise.

Metro's success suggests that the environment can be manipulated to reduce criminal

opportunities. [5]

3.7 SIGNAGE.

3.7.1 Introduction

Signage design is a type of visual design, which uses the composition of words, graphics

52
and colors to provide identification, guidance, illustration, and warning functions.

The signage system in the Rapid Rail station provides assistance, disseminates metro
information, connects facilities and helps manage the system.

The most important single criterion in graphics is orientation. The need for orientation

places great emphasis on maps and a consistent system and style of identification and
directional signing. Graphics then emerges as a major factor in the design of each

element of the system, a factor that must be given high priority in the early design

phases of each project.

A graphics standards manual should be

prepared by the operating authority to

coordinate the efforts of designers working

on various parts of the system and serve

as a guide for updating the system. Signing

and graphics policies must be controlled

to ensure continuity of the graphics system.

Fig 3.4 Underground signage.
Graphics requires the "systems approach". Arriving and departing passengers have

distinctly different needs. The designer must work out a continuous path of graphics

from the street to the train and from the train back out to the street.

Ask ten people to guess how many traffic control signs there are at a busy street

intersection they pass every day and you will probably get ten different responses.

(Just for the record, the average is 20 basic electrically operated traffic and pedestrian

signs.) What this example illustrates is that people vary greatly in their awareness of

signs, how quickly they read them, and their ability to remember the sign message.

Perception of signs is influenced by numerous physical and psychological factors such

as quality of eyesight, reading ability, memory, colour sensitivity, and mental attitude.

While these vary with the individual and are beyond the designer's control, he should

53
have a general understanding of how these factors affect the 'viewer' s response to
signing

The average city dweller has been conditioned by years of exposure to signing. Some

viewers may respond negatively when exposed to many signs, but most seem to have
a rather neutral attitude toward signing in general. There are many signs to which a

person responds out of habit; he reacts to stop and go traffic signals and to other

traffic control signs often without conscious thought. This automatic response leaves
the conscious mind free for gathering information and making decisions.

As he drives or walks through the city looking for information, he scans the environment.

Signs along with many other elements within his field of vision are seen in a generalized

way, unless they provide some needed information-and then they are focused upon.

The designer should be aware of this basic response and realize that signs compete

for the viewer's attention with all other elements in the environment. When a specific

environment can be visually controlled by the designer, the viewer's awareness of the

sign system and its effectiveness can be dramatically increased. [6]

3.7.2 Human factors

Each viewer's perception of and response to signs are conditioned by certain

characteristics, referred to as human factors, which are listed below:

1) Normal Field of Vision.

Studies indicate that the normal field or cone of vision suitable for signing covers an

angle of about 60°. Areas outside the angle tend to be seen in much less detail. While

it is true that this field of vision can be greatly enlarged by turning the head or tilting

the head, the average viewer resists this extra effort. For example, if a sign were

supported from a high ceiling so that a sight line between the viewer's eye and the

horizontal were more than 30°, it would probably be overlooked. Normally, viewers

are not in the habit of tilting their heads to look at a sign, nor will they make any

unusual head motions in order to see a sign which is not within their normal field of

54
vision. Consistency in the height of signs in a system reduces the viewer's need to
look many places for information.

2) Visual Ability.

Viewers differ considerably in their ability to see clearly.

3) Reading Rate.

Among the normal reading public there is a wide variation in individual reading rates

from perhaps 125 words per minute to 500 or 600. Factors like age, intelligence and

education influence reading rates; the average is about 250 words per minute. Considering

this reading rate, vehicular signs, which may be seen for only a few seconds, should
include no more than six short items.

4) Legibility.

Distance studies indicate that under normal daylight when standing still a person with

normal 20/20 vision can read I-inch (25-millimeter) high letters on a standard Snellen

eye chart used by optometrists at a distance of 50 feet (15 meters). However, this kind

of laboratory ideal must be modified for sign design legibility.

5) Eye Level.

The average height of a viewer's eye level, measured from the ground when the viewer

is standing, is about 5 feet, 6 inches (1.7 m); when sitting, it is about 4 feet, 3 inches

(1.3 m); when driving an auto, it is about 4 feet, 6 inches (1.4 m). The eye level of a

viewer driving a large truck is much higher than that of auto drivers and should be

verified for each specialized vehicle where relevant to the design problem.

6) Letter Heights.

Determining letter heights of copy for vehicle-oriented signs involves additional factors:

primarily the speed of the vehicle and the time it takes to recognize and read the sign.

55
In an era of aging and disabled population, public facilities are used by elderly and
physically disabled people to an increasing extent. To meet broad public needs, then,

a letter height of I inch for 25 feet (7.5 meters) of viewing distance, based on Helvetica

capital letters, is a more practical guide for pedestrian signs than the Snellen chart. [6]

Passenger Information

Information systems on stations are variously referred to as a Passenger Information

System (sometimes referred to as PIS) or Passenger Information Display (PID).

Professional railway staff often refer to them as Train Describers. Whatever it is

called, there must be a reliable way of informing the passengers where the trains are

going.

Information displays mounted in public areas must be visible in all weather conditions

(noting that some electronic displays are very difficult to see in sunlight conditions)
and be updated regularly with accurate information. There are two types of information

- constant and instant. Constant information can be described as that which describes

the services and fares available and which changes only a few times a year or less.

This information can be displayed on posters and fixed notices. There also might be

special offers which can be posted from time to time. Instant information is that

which changes daily or minute by minute. This is better displayed electronically or

mechanically - both systems can be seen around the world.

For instant systems, it can be assumed that passengers require to know:

1) The time now

2) The destination and expected time of arrival of the next train

3) The stations served by this train

4) Major connections requiring boarding of this train

5) The position of their car - if travelling with a reserved place

6) Where the train will stop - for variable length trains

7) Other destinations served from this station and from which platform

56
3.7.3 Case study

Taipei Rapid Transit Systems (TRTS), Taiwan.

The main aim of signage designed by DORTS (Department Of Rapid Transit Systems)

is to provide a basic service to passengers on the network and ensure a safe and smooth

journey from their station of origin to their destination.

The Taipei Rapid Transit Systems (TRTS) is the first transportation network of its

kind in Taiwan. In the early stages of designing the signage system, DORTS referred

to established designs in other countries. However, a variety of designs in different

countries made it clear that there was no standard design. Therefore, to adapt to the

spatial planning and architectural forms of the Taipei Metro, DORTS developed a

graphic design manual specifically for the TRTS. The manual contains all the basic

design concepts and was published in February 1991. It was used as the basis of signage

design for all facilities on the Metro. DORTS also issued a series of standardized

detailed drawings for the systemwide design concept.

Basic Design of Signage

The basic elements of signage include graphics, words, colors and arrows. The visual

effect of a design should cover the basic needs of clarity, comprehensibility, prominence,

and legibility.

1) Graphics: Graphic design should fulfil the requirements of unity, continuity,

simplicity, visibility, legibility and coherence. Graphic design on the TRTS follows
these guidelines and refers to the official ISO Geneva International Standard as

the standard.

2) Words: The design must consider the typeface, size, and spacing of all words.

All literal illustrations on the TRTS are in both Chinese and English. Chinese

characters on regular signboards are in black type (and bold type or special bold

type depending on the size of the typeface). English signs are normally Helvetica

57
 Medium or Helvetica Regular. Signs bearing station names use an adjusted special
Min typeface for Chinese characters and Optima Bold for English.
3) Colour: Proper use of colour can simplify complex information. The colour of

representative graphics should have a unique character that cannot be easily altered,

such as in the DORTS logo. The colour system and colour number should be

fixed in order to unify the colour basis for different production processes and

materials. Signs pertaining to service facilities such as public phones, information

booths, and elevators are mainly in blue; warning signs, such as for emergency

stop buttons, and No Smoking and No Food and Drink signs are mainly in red;

exit information is in yellow.

4) Arrow Heads: This design is for guiding people in the right direction. According

to the guidelines, the angle of the arm of an arrowhead graphic should be 90°X,
and the graphic should be simple and in bold type in order to reduce

misunderstandings generated between vision and comprehension. The oblique

arrow heads on the Taipei Rapid Transit Systems are mostly used in floor transition

areas.

Individual Design Features of Signage on the Taipei Metro

Identification of Systems, Lines and Stations

1) System Identification

The identity sign of Taipei Rapid Transit Systems is the

logo, which is mainly used to identify a Metro facility.

2) Line Identification

To enable easy identification of different metro lines,

each line is assigned a specific colour. There is a Red

Line, Blue Line, Green Line... etc. These colors are used

as the background for station names as well as featuring

prominently in stations' interior furnishings.

Fig 3.5 Station
identification

58
3) Station Identification

Stations are identified by signs with the stations' names, located above every station
entrance, in places connecting to non-metro area and on all platforms.

Direction Signs

These signs mainly provide guidance to main

circulation routes and relevant facilities such as

boarding (towards platforms and train direction),

exit (all exit directions), interchanges, paths for the

disabled, emergency exits etc. Consideration is given

to the planning and design of architectural fittings Fig 3.6 Direction signs

and passenger circulation inside stations, and installation can take the forms of lighted

boxes, freestanding signs, and poster-type signs as appropriate.

Passenger Information Posters

These posters provide detailed subsidiary

information and are located according to entry/

exit circulation and in accordance with the

content and character of information on the

posters.
Fig 3.7 Information posters

Categories of passengers information boards are as follows:

1) TRTS Route Map:

Showing the Metro network, the map mainly provides information on stations, interchange

points and the relative locations of lines. Currently, only the initial network is shown

on the map. Operational lines are shown as solid coloured lines and nonoperational

lines and sections are shown as unfilled lines.

59
2) Station Information Map

This map mainly displays a plan of each floor of the station and identifies the location

of the main public facilities. The direction of the map corresponds to the reader's
location, and a "you are here" point is indicated.

3) Station Location Map

This map identifies the location and scope of a station, its entrance locations, streets

and important buildings within a 500-800-meter radius of the station, and locations

of interchange facilities.

4) Exit Information

If there are more than two exits to a station, the main buildings and streets around

each exit are listed next to the closest exit. Some stations with complex circulation,

such as interchange stations, display sectional exit information on the platforms.

5) Route Map

This map is usually located on the

trackside walls close to the escalators or

stairs at platform level and indicates the

stations along the route and train direction

with the previous stations indicated in Fig 3.8 Route map

lighter colors.

6) Fare Map

Fare maps are posted on the boards between Automatic Ticket Issuing Machines (ATIM)

as well as on the top of each ATIM. These maps provide information on fares, and

also indicate whether the station is operational.

60
At least one fire fighting equipment layout plan should be displayed on each level.

The layout plan includes the location of fire equipment such as the fire hose cabinet,
fire extinguishers and emergency exits.

Instructional Signs

These signs illustrate the characteristics and use of each facility and area, such as

toilets, information booths, women's night-time safeguarded waiting zone, public phones,

fire hose cabinets, emergency buttons, priority seats, parking spaces for wheelchairs,

fire extinguishers, emergency telephones etc.

Warning Signs

Such signs warn passengers of prohibited behavior,

including "No Smoking" , "No Food and Drink" , escalator

caution signs, "Mind the Platform Gap", "No Entrance"

"Danger-High Voltage", etc. Some of these warning signs

list the penalties for violations.

Fig 3.9 Warning sign

Information on the above signs is fixed. The dot matrix display boards provide mixed

information services and have moving displays. The information on them includes

the present time, arrival time of the next train, train direction, promotional information

and some advertising. The dot matrix display boards inside the cars on the Muzha
Line show the name of the next station as a service for the hearing-impaired [7].

61
3.7.4 Railway symbols

1/4. •
General enquiry Tourism enquiry
1 1E1
Post box
LEg
Post office Policeman

X
ow ' Ammo

No Smoking Signal Guard

Rath OverttritdQe

Pl
=ia
Bus Bus parking Suburban I tan Long Distance Car
Train

11. VA *
Luggage lecke; LuggagE., weignin PPFtre.1 Ported /ye Cyder4:kshaw

t
parking

Gents wafting room Ladies waiting room Lodging Atiterto=,?It'a./t

Scooter Scooter park nq Avtotickshow perking

N1 an
Rural man Man too

Lady top Kida i-1--;:todtc:tv

Ladies queue. Registration Kaer, silence tadieit queue Fto( it5t- r.vtictrt K eeP silence

Fig 3.10 Railway symbols

Fig 3.11
Signage by
massimo
vignelli

62
3.8 RECENT ADVANCES IN THE FIELD OF ARCHITECTURE

3.8.1 Introduction

More than ever before, architecture at the beginning of the 21st century is changing
and evolving at lightning speed. The introduction of newer materials, technologies,

concepts etc. is bringing in a wave of change. The buildings have come out of the
moulds created within the limits of the T-square and the drawing table.

One could find the extend of the influence of the recent advances in technology in

designing and conceiving projects by taking a look at the various contemporary projects

all round the globe. Some of the names worth mentioning in the context are works of

0. Gehry, Meier, Ando, Foster, and Starck, as well as a host of newcomers. Buildings

like Jakob & MacFarlane's morphological Restaurant at the Centre Georges Pompidou,

Diller & Scofidio's "Blur Building" proposal for the International Expo 2001 in

Switzerland (an ovular structure suspended over a lake, encapsulated by a fine mist of

water, creating the look of a cloud hovering over the lake), and Herzog & de Meuron's

remarkable Tate Modern fall into this category. New York firm Asymptote's Guggenheim

Virtual Museum proves that contemporary architecture is not limited to physical building

design, a place where visitors can take a cyber-stroll through rooms that are designed

to be "compelling spatial environments." [8]

Some of those cutting-edge technologies that could surely affect the way buildings

are constructed in future, are listed below. The list is not complete. The attempt is to

identify those technologies that could have a direct impact over the design of rapid

rail stations.

63
3.8.2 Advanced technologies

Fig 3.12 The translation process in Gehry's office (digitally fabricated model)

Fig 3.14

Five-axis Milling System

Fig 3.13 Fig 3.15

Pre-cast rcc panels in cnc-milled styrofoam Undercuts cannot be milled

moulds allowing flexibility in forms. with three-axis milling machines
(images credit: gehry architects)

64
Fig 3.16 The interacting 'drops of water' (blobs) and the translation into a built form

Fig 3.17

Plasma-arc cnc cutting of steel supports

for masonry walls.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is an emerging area of science that is concerned with the control of

matter at the scale of atoms and molecules.

There are a wide range

of Nanotechnologies,

with many current and

potential applications.

With molecular control

of matter we can make

smart materials that

change their properties in

response to some
Fig 3.18 Digital model of a double nanotube
stimulus from their

surroundings - including instructions from people. Some smart materials might even

function like microscale factories for the production of other materials or devices.

6.5
 Fig 3.19

Solar study for the

city hall building

Fig 3.20

Traffic simulation showing

people escaping from a
station on fire

Fig 3.21 A machined physical scale model of part of the london underground infrastructure

66
3.9 CONCLUSION

Rapid rail station design does not follow any fixed standards. The standards need to

be evolved or updated along with time taking into consideration new needs, new

technologies, new space requirements and the ever advancing concepts in the field of

architecture. The chapter discussed the available standards for the design of rapid rail

stations. It has to be evaluated along with the contemporary examples to form a clear

image of today's requirements. The next chapter evaluates selected examples in this

light.

67
 CHAPTER 4

CASE STUDIES

"In the elder days of Art,

Builders wrought with greatest care

Each minute and unseen part,.

For the gods see everywhere."

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, The Builders (st. 5)

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Pioneering efforts have been taken in the field of rapid rail station design in the recent

decades. Many of these have become fine examples of public transport architecture

and of technical innovations. This chapter deals with the analysis of selected stations,

giving light to interesting observations.

The stations have been selected considering the time-frame in which they were

constructed, their location and the importance of these in the evolution of modern

rapid rail station design. Hong kong airport railway station, which has been the pioneer

in developing modern rapid rail station standards, Jubilee Line extension, UK, which

has further improved upon and raised the quality bar and Delhi metro which culminates

much of the experiences from the above two and the latest in the list, have been selected

as the casestudies along with Mumbai suburb stations (Harbour line) as supplementary

casestudy.

4.2 HONG KONG AIRPORT RAILWAY

HONG KONG, CHINA, 1992-1998

Architects: Arup associates in association with Rocco design Ltd..

Hong Kong Station is the terminus and flagship station on the MTR Corporation's

new Lantau & Airport Railway. 35 km of trackway, tunnels and bridges link the new
 Fig 4.1 Site location

airport on the island of Chek Lap Kok, located to the west, to Hong Kong Island's

central business district. A new commuter line shares much of the trackway, and gave

rise to the creation of a new town, Tung Chung on the north shore of Lantau Island,

just across the straits from• Chek Lap Kok. These projects together formed one of the

largest infrastructure projects ever conceived.

Design principles followed.

Transparency, daylight awareness, spatial fluidity and clear planning configuration.

[9]

4.3 THE JUBILEE LINE EXTN

The Jubilee Line Extension is the extension of the London Underground Jubilee Line

into southern and eastern London. First proposed in the 1970s, it was constructed in

the 1990s and opened just before Christmas 1999.

The extension begins just south of Green Park, eastward to:

Westminster, Waterloo, Southwark (new station), London Bridge, Bermondsey (new

station), Canada Water (new station), Canary Wharf (new station), North Greenwich

(new station), Canning Town (new station for LU; interchange with DLR), West Ham

and Stratford.

69
 •■•

to.
woo r..s.r•
wItp

•••••rtNo

MAYOR OF LONDON Transport for London

Fig 4.2 London metro- route map.

Before the extension was built, the Jubilee Line terminated at Charing Cross. The

section of Jubilee Line between Charing Cross and Green Park is now unused for

passenger services but is still maintained for emergency use. The abandoned platforms

are occasionally rented out for use as a film set.

DESIGN ASPECTS OF THE

EXTENSION

The physical design of the extension

is radically different from anything

previously attempted on the London

Underground. Stations are

characterised by cavernous, stark

Fig 4.3 Platform Screen doors interiors lined with polished metal

panels and moulded concrete walls and columns. Some of the stations are truly enormous

— Canary Wharf has been compared to a cathedral, while Westminster has a dramatic

vertical void nearly 40 m (130 ft) deep.

The size of the stations was a response to safety concerns — overcrowding and a lack

70
of exits had been significant factors in the 1987 King's Cross disaster — as well as an

attempt to "future-proof' stations by designing from the start for a high volume of

use. One consequence of this is that most of the extension's platforms and halls are

full only in a busy rush hour. (North Greenwich in particular is far too large for the

numbers currently using it, following the current vacancy of the Millennium Dome.
The Greenwich Peninsula residential and commercial development proposals, private

exhibitions and use in the 2012 Summer Olympics will however see the station's passenger

levels change.)

A number of leading architects were employed to design the stations, with the lead

being given by Roland Paoletti. It was decided from the outset that although each

station would be designed as an individual entity, they would be linked to the others

by a common design philosophy and functional elements. Spaciousness was the most

noticeable, along with the shared theme of grey and silver polished metal and concrete

interiors. More subtly, many of the stations were designed to admit as much natural

light as possible. At Bermondsey and to a lesser extent at Canada Water and Southwark,

rotundas and shafts allow daylight to reach, or nearly reach, the platforms.

The platforms saw another innovation: platform edge doors, to improve the airflow

through the system. These have the additional benefit that they stop people falling or

jumping onto the track. [10]

4.4 DELHI METRO Mobil Helen

teem Magee
Amoecrter Canny

Kit (elan

NEW DELHI Slrosnur

aana
',transport Negro
nth. Udyog Hapax

n ohini
Morn (514.4it
Hahet Eric
,„ Hoye It=
Boon

The Delhi Mass Rapid Transit System

ea

Kevits /Amnon. St/ yr"'N S''''';) .4visk,Lc• vIcs,a! oya

:
'
0,::C:, , i,,come
:„ .
.
MIN. &web co n
h ;I51, U,s1es...
... h.
,s 1 ..

(MRTS), or Delhi Metro, is a rapid transit I Jnendeweitn

NI NOP, SIT:1.n

2 Kent eogn :11

20
3 Reiende Place
• C^Iovri ea.! '.
A
4 Shed Pa
system in the Indian city of Delhi operated 5 Mon Nape
6 Ramesh Nagar Vintsptri
MI Nagar CCMOorrl Itlow Nal
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7 R•earl Oarden Litton Nora ....
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519.469994916. Oen ■lhar
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Limited. MOW Ply 1502 0 metloPianet WWW 1,110/71&nel

Fig 4.4 Delhi metro- route map.

71
The Delhi Metro was opened on December 24, 2002. It became the second underground

rapid transit system in India, after the one in operation in Kolkata. Unlike the Calcutta

Metro, however, the Delhi Metro has a combination of elevated, at-grade and underground

lines. Trains operating within the network typically travel at speeds below 80 km/h,

or 50 mph, and stop for an average of 20 seconds at each MRTS station. The MRTS

rolling stock are manufactured by ROTEM, relying on 1676 mm (5 ft 6 in) track

gauge. Since its opening in 2002, two more lines have been added to the system,

bringing the total network length to 56 km, with 50 underground and elevated stations

on three separate lines.

NEED FOR MRTS

As cities grow in size, the number of vehicular trips on road system goes up. This

necessitates a pragmatic policy shift to discourage private modes and encourage public

transport once the level of traffic along any travel corridor in one direction exceeds

20,000 persons per hour. Introduction of a rail based (MRTS) mass rapid transit system

is called for MRTSystems are capital intensive and have long gestation period. It has

been observed that in developed countries, planning for mass transit system starts

when city population size exceeds 1 million; the system is in position by the time the
city population is 2 to 3 million and once the population exceeds 4 million or so,

planned extensions to the MRT Systems

is vigorously taken up.

In developing countries including India,

because of paucity of funds planning and

implementation of Rail based MRT

Systems has been lagging far behind the

requirements. The city of Delhi with a

population of round 12 million should Fig 4.5 Conjestion on Delhi road

have had an MRTS network of at least 100 KM by this time, whereas actually it is still

at the take-off stage. Delhi has all the ideal dress-up for an excellent MRT System to

72


be brought in. It has wide roads (roads cover 23% of the city area) where road possession

for construction is not difficult (except in the old city area).

Delhi has experienced phenomenal growth in population in the last few decades. Its

population has increased from 57 lakhs in 1981 to 120 lakhs in 1998 and is poised to
reach 132 lakhs by the year 2001. For want of an efficient mass transport system, the

number of motor vehicles has increased from 5.4 lakhs in 1981 to 30 lakhs in 1998

and is projected to go up to 40 lakhs by 2001. The number of motor vehicles in Delhi

is now more than that of Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai put together.

The result is extreme congestion on Delhi Road, ever slowing speeds, increase in

road accidents fuel wastage and environmental pollution with motorized vehicles alone

contributing to about two thirds of the atmospheric pollution. Today the traffic on

roads of Delhi is a heterogeneous mix of cycles, scooters, buses, cars and rickshaws

jostling with each other resulting in a chaotic situation. Mass rapid transmit is the most

effective solution for the problems.

43 MUMBAI SUBURBAN RAILWAY.

The Mumbai Suburban. Railway system, part of the public transportation system of

Mumbai, is provided for by the state-

Mumbai Suburban Rail
Network

run Indian Railways' two zonal Western CaeVqu.NW.0

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Railways and Central Railways. The ...........„............... .1

system carries more than 6.1 million

0 0
." "4' On.V1,,JIMCVC.

commuters on a daily basis and

constitutes more than half of the total

daily passenger capacity of the Indian ••••••

■
Frti
Railways itself. It has the highest
/ 1."

passenger density of any urban railway

system in the world. The trains plying C100,00.0

1
Fig 4.6 Mumbai suburb railway- route map.

73
on its routes are commonly referred to as local trains or simply as locals by the general
populace.

Given the geographical spread of the

population and location of business areas,

the rail network is the principal mode of mass

transport in Mumbai.

Western Line

Station names: Andheri, Bandra, Mumbai Fig 4.7 Andheri station

Central, Borivali, Bhayander, Vasai Road, Churchgate, Dadar, Goregaon, Malad, Virar.

Central Line

Station names: Ambernath, Asangaon, Badlapur, Kurla, Dadar, Dombivali, Ghatkopar,

Kalyan, Khopoli, Kasara, Panvel, Karjat, Thane, Titwala.

Harbour Line

Station names: Andheri, Bandra, Belapur, Kurla, Chembur, Mankhurd, Thane, Vashi,
Panvel.

World Record Passenger Traffic Density

The Western Railway line between

Churchgate terminus and Dahanu Road

carries about 2.6 million passengers per

day, almost 43 percent of the total

Mumbai suburban rail traffic. The annual

traffic density, about 255 million

passenger-km per km of route, is believed

Fig 4.8 Overcrowding in stations
to be the world record for passenger rail

transport.

74
Overcrowding

Due to its extensive reach across the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, and its intensive

use by the local urban population, overcrowding has grown to be a compelling problem

(4,700 passengers are packed into a 9-car rake during peak hours, as against the rated

carrying capacity of 1,700). This has resulted in what is known as Super-Dense Crush

Load of 14 to 16 standing passengers per square metre of floor space. Trains on the

suburban line are on average more than 4 minutes apart, contributing to the problem

of overcrowding. The impending introduction of new higher speed rakes may help
address the issue.

4.6 QUESTIONNAIRE USED:

1) Name of the station:

2) Frequency of visits to the station: (regular/scarcely/first time)

3) Are you feeling secure inside the station? (yes/no) Why? (possible reasons)
4) Are you feeling pride about the station?

5) Are you aware about the design quality of the station? How do you rate it?
6) Are you aware about the station signature colours? Can you recognize them?
7) Are you aware about the available facilities for physically handicapped?
8) Do you find any amenities lacking?
9) Are you happy about the clarity of the overall station design? Do you find it

confusing to travel inside the station (for the first time)?

10) How helpful are the signages in wayfinding and general information?

11) Do you find the public announcement system helpful?

12) Do you find it a faster option than other public modes?

13) Do you find the available public furniture sufficient/less/more than required?

14) Do you use these furniture?

15) How do you rate the public landscape in and around the building? Do you spent

time in the park?

16) Any more suggestions that you feel could have a positive impact over the overall

design of the station and the improvement in the passenger facilities?

75
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Strong street presence of the station.

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Railway andinterchanges. Railway andinterchanges. Integration of commercial spaces : .

77
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Efficient use of signages.

Sectional view of the station
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scapes with careful planning.

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4.7.4Landscape design.

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DELHI METRO JUB ILEE LINE EXTENSION HONGKONGSTATION SUPPLIMENTARY
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81
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4.8.2Circulation pattern.

Welldefined entry and exit paths. Welldefined entry and exit paths. Well defined entry and exit.
Paid and unpaid areas are separated. Paid and unpaid areas are separated. Various levels are easily identifiable
making the chances of mistakes less.
1 Chances of cross-circulation has been Well planned signag e and graph ics •
Common fare area at the entry.
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DELHIMETRO JUBILEE LINEEXTENSION HONGKONGSTATION

82
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4.13 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Layout.
1. Built form.: Transparency is the key. The station should not be a sore thumb in

an urban setting. Though the vocabulary varies from colonial to contemporary

throughout the study, clean lines with state of art technology suits the building
type most.

2. Functional components: Though primarily the building is meant for transit facilities,

various other usages like commercial, offices etc. could be successfully

incorporated, taking care of the fact that it will not hamper the basic usage.
3. Clarity in design: The design should be simple, easily understandable. Large

open spaces, uncluttered platforms and concourse along with use of transparent

materials adds to the visual clarity inside the station.

4. Landscape: Aesthetically planned landscpae could bring wonders to an urban

place. It is observed that wherever importance is given for landscape (outside or

inside) it was a huge success.

Circulation

1. Orientation: Since it is a public building, one should easily locate where he is.

Large open spaces connecting various levels visually, entry of natural light, efficient

graphics, use of colour and material palette could help in achieving this.

2. Circulation pattern: Well defined entry and exit paths, paid and unpaid areas

reduces chances of cross-circulation. Position of escalators and stairs along with

efficient use of signage helps smooth circulation.

3. Identification of the station: It becomes important for one to identify his station

from a series of stations comprising of standard material palette and grid pattern.

Station signature colours, graphics, murals etc. could bring in individuality for

each stations.

Safety and security

1. Safety and security: Safety and security is of utmost importance in the station

design. There area lot of instances in the recent past where the stations become

93


the target for terrorist attacks. Fire safety is also very important especially in
underground stations.

Finishes
1. Finishes: Finishes are very important since deciding upon the m could bring

about the style statement, maintenance and economic factor, functionality etc.
Components and signages.

1. Components: Attention to the detail is a must. Since the footfalls of a typical

station would be very high; one should expect the components to be more durable,

vandal resistant, functional and pleasing.

2. Signage: Informative and directional signs comprise an important part of the

whole scheme and smooth functioning. The signages should have an overall

programme set before developing for individual stations.

Other factors

1. Use of technology: Rapid Rail stations are epitome of engineering technology.

Thus one should use to maximum the newer technologies. These could be used

in almost all phases and functions and will enhance the quality, efficiency and

improve the total aesthetics.

2. Customer satisfaction: Since the purpose of a station itself is to serve the public,
customer satisfaction should be given importance. Regular feedback from the

public as well as the media will be much helpful to assess and improve the situation.

3. Icon status/ importance: It is a very debatable issue whether one building (be it

a station or any other building type) is to be designed as an icon, unless the

purpose of the programme is aiming at it. Though in recent years many of the

Rapid Rail stations have attained iconic status for their high quality architecture,

functioning, services, engineering feat etc. The station should always instill pride

among the users.

94
 CHAPTER 5

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

"We shape our buildings and afterwards they shape us".

Winston Churchill

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Rapid rail stations are public spaces. Function, utility and safety should take a front

seat while taking design decisions. When it comes to underground rapid rail stations,

the complexity increases both in defining spaces as well as to engineer it. To the layman
a public transportation system is to a large extent an invisible skeleton of the city and

metropolitan region, the comprehension of that structure generates an awareness and

appreciation of the city itself, and an appreciation of travel through it.

In designing underground rapid rail stations which are to be used by the public, it is

essential that such stations be designed and built to conform to accepted practice,

with regard to safety and with regard to adopting the latest technological developments.

Similarly, in designing, it is equally important that such spaces be designed or specified

to conform with the safest and best of accepted practices. The quality of space and the
aesthetic considerations do have its own importance. Being underground also brings

in along with the less area available due to technical as well as economical reasons

which demands in the maximum utilisation of the available spaces.

Because of the wide divergence in age and character of existing rapid transit stations,

it is obviously impossible to set a standard that all must follow. There must be deviations

in order to achieve compatibility with existing transit structures and equipment. Individual
transit properties are governed by their own authorizing statutes and regulations. Also

considered should be the local context and the psychology of the users.

95
The following design considerations are the outcome of the research and analysis

conducted in the previous chapters. In Chapter 2, literature study related to the history

of rapid rail stations, various spaces inside a station and their relations, planning for

disabled were conducted. Chapter 3 dealt with study of various standards, norms, safety

requirements, design criteria and recent advances in the field of architecture. The inputs

from these chapters were further analysed along with the case studies in the Chapter 4

which formed the base for this final chapter.

5.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1) Establish the system's image through simple, logical and strong designs.

2) Provide movement patterns and directions for patrons that are easy to understand.

3) Meet safety and functional requirements without compromise.

4) Accommodate maintenance and replacement issues.

5) Provide facilities that are accessible to persons with disabilities.

6) Be cost-effective.

7) Provide public spaces that maintain or enhance the quality of nearby

neighbourhoods.

5.3 LAYOUT

The design and layout of the stations affect the time necessary for trains to load and

unload, and these in turn affect the line capacity. Station arrangements can have a

significant effect on costs and operation with respect to fare collection and transfer

facilities.

1 A thorough traffic analysis should be conducted before arriving at the peak maximum

load of the station. This will also helps in identifying the movement patterns, in

locating the entrance and exit points (above ground), in calculating the amount

of traffic control required etc. The possible profile of the total commuters will

be of great help in understanding the crowd psychology.

96


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Fig 5.2 Madrid, Spain, offers an example of a light, airy station concourse
with faregate lines dividing the "paid" and "unpaid" areas. The ticket office
is located in the centre of the gate line so it can be used by passengers in both
areas. The lightweight steel structure over the escalators in the foreground
carries CCTV cameras and loudspeakers.

97
2) The facilities to be provided in a station should be determined by the type of
station (whether city terminus/interchange/without interchanges) in consideration.

The extent to which commercial insertions can be allowed should be determined

by considering the type of station, the location of it (and the real estate demand

of the place), the type of users and the policy and nature of the decision makers.
3) The above ground structures leading to the concourse level should be well distributed

to serve maximum people and to deconjest the load effectively.

4) Long and winding corridors and corners should be avoided to reduce shadows

and nooks that criminals and panhandlers could occupy.

5) Rapid rail stations are normally elongated in design with centralized exiting facilities

composed of open stairs and escalators to serve normal traffic.

6) A layout of a typical underground station should consist of concourse level at

the first basement and a platform level at second basement. Clarity and simplicity

in design should be given due importance.

7) The central portion of the concourse level should be designed as a ticketing hall

where ticket machines, automatic fare gates, station control room are located.

The 'free' area and the 'paid' area should be well distinguished. Equipment Rooms

serving the operations of the station should be located on both sides of the ticketing

hall. Where possible, small shops, automatic teller machines, public telephones,

etc. should be provided along the corridors leading from the various entrances to
the ticketing hall.

8) In case of an under ground station, it appears logical to build a concourse extending

to the full limits of the station box. The advantages of this are manifold.

i. It efficiently serves both the island and edge platform with uniformly distributed

pick up and drop points. Helps to relieve congestion at access points on platforms

by segregation of up and down movements wherever desirable.

ii. Provides a good solution for future expansion. Wherever a sizable area of the

concourse may be left unused, it may put to commercial use.

iii. Facilitate station surveillance and supervision.

iv. Facilities through movement for station staff concourse level; without interfering

98


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with passenger movement.

9) The platform level, directly beneath the concourse level should be well connected

through a pool of escalators, open staircases, ramps as per the standards so that

the passengers are evenly distributed on the platform while alighting the trains.

Ideally the station layout should be such that passengers find themselves located

Fig 5.4 An example of a wide station platform (Cairo Metro, Egypt) designed to
accommodate large numbers of passengers boarding and alighting at the same time.
Note that there are no supporting columns to limit circulation or visibility on the platform.
There are a few seats for waiting passengers but these are arranged to prevent a person
lying on them. Vagrants sheltering in stations are a serious problem in some cities and
have to be discouraged.

99
 along the platform in uniform groups at each transit car doorway. If two stairways
are provided to the station platform, they should preferably be located at the

quarter points. Care should be taken to allow the platform area open with minimum

(or nil) number of columns and other obstructions over the usable area. Platform

screen doors should be installed to save energy as well as to ensure safety.

10) Island platform is more preferred in an underground station since it has the advantage

of requiring a minimum duplication of facilities like stairs, escalators, lighting

Fig 5.5 The entrance hall of Doncaster station, UK. The ticket office is
immediately behind the camera position. The hall has a shop, a car rental
office and public telephones. A train information display is mounted high on
the wall and a TV screen duplicates the information below it. There is an
information counter next to the shop, this being an additional service now
often seen in larger stations. Flooring is designed to be easy to keep clean.
and other services. Total platform width will be generally less for island platforms

since the same can be used to accommodate both the morning and evening peaks.

11) Equipment rooms should also be located on both sides of this central area or

beside the trainway.

12) Lifts and enclosed staircases should also be provided considering the disability

and the fire safety norms.

13) Toilets should be provided as per the norms. But the design decision for the
position or provision of the same could be done considering the safety factor of

discouraging people to spend more time in toilets and restrooms and to encourage

speed and smooth traffic movements.

l 00
5.3.1 Station exits

Location

1) Exits should be located along the platform to provide for uncongested passenger

movement and permit safe exiting from trains and platform under emergency
conditions.

2) Each underground platform should be provided with at least two fully separated
exits.

3) The distance from the end of platform to the nearest point of exit should not

exceed 200 feet unless provisions are made to safely exit patrons along the invert
or walkways within the running tunnel.

4) To permit grouping of fare collection equipment into a single concourse area,

exits from platform may lead to a common concourse.

5) Illuminated "Exit" signs operated from an emergency power source should be

installed to define paths of egress.

5.3.2 Width

1) To properly size station exits, the designer must first determine the volume of

patrons being served. It is recommended that the average volume of passengers

per minute boarding and leaving trains over the peak 15 minute period under

normal operating conditions be estimated and that exits be sized to ensure that

passengers from a train are able to exit from the platform before the next train

enters.

2) The designer must consider the possibility of emergency evacuation of a train at

any station on the line. The passenger load that is considered should again be

the average train load entering the station over the peak 15 minute period under

normal operating conditions. Under these conditions it is recommended that the

exits be sized to ensure that the loaded train can be evacuated and the platform

cleared within a 4-minute period. This criteria will frequently establish the minimum

size of exits on line stations.

101
5.4 CIRCULATION

1) A proper study of the users of the space should be conducted. The movement

patterns of the commuters, staff, security personnel should be well defined to

avoid conflicts and confusions.

2) Clarify circulation by avoiding useless options, dead end corridors, unnecessary

and disorienting turns and where space is adequate, separate the facilities provided

for entering and leaving the station.

3) Promote circulation by providing adequate space to eliminate bottlenecks.

4) Locate fare collection components to avoid cross circulation at constricted decision

points and to generally provide right-hand circulation.

•eteAlry

Fig 5.6 rrao•Arya. c.A_Avx\-r ‘r-k 6tVe4A. L.A1-1 ori

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102
5) Provide adequate assembly space on platforms preferably allowing approximately

8 sq. ft. of occupancy space per person for maximum assembly crowds.
6) Provide a preferred space of approximately 8 feet between the edge of platform
and obstructions such as stairs, escalators, or railings.
7) Provide adequate space in mezzanines and entrance lobbies for queuing outside

fare collection area without blocking normal traffic channels.

8) Locate passageways and stairs to encourage balanced train loading and unloading,

as passengers will tend to board trains at points where passageways and stairs
connect to train platforms.

9) Provide escalators whenever the stair height in the up direction exceeds 12 feet

and in the down direction exceeds 24 feet.

10) The wayfinding should be ably assisted by the effective use of signage, maps,

floor pattern etc.

11) Effective colour coding should be done to help user identify stations and facilities.

12) Tactile tiles should be laid to assist the blind person in way finding.
13) Geometric simplicity and openness ensures an awareness of the building's anatomy

to give orientation and provide a hint of the place. Extensive use of glazing

could bring in transparency.

14) The illumination level for lighting should furnish sufficient visibility in passenger

station areas - platforms, mezzanines, ticketing areas, passageways and entrances

- to allow smooth flow of

passengers.

15) Importance should be given

for smooth and easy flow

of people. Distractions from

the main flow and

encouragements for

spending more time should

Fig 5.7 A metro station (Shanghai, China) where there
be promptly avoided or are columns to support the structures over the
underground station. The station is bright and the
should be played down. columns do not seriously obstruct the platform.

103
16) Traffic simulation techniques could be used to find the way people react in an
emergency.

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5.5 SAFETY AND SECURITY.

5.5.1 Safety and security through design.

1) The system safety concept should be applied in the station planning phase to

identify and resolve potential safety hazards associated with a transit system's

emergency response capabilities.

2) Critical station egress and access paths should be identified in the planning phase,

and thereafter remain unobstructed.

104
3) Security can best be provided by assuring proper orientation. The rider must not

only be physically comfortable, he must also know in the fullest sense where he
is and where he is going.

4) An open, spacious design within the limits of economics, provides patrons with

a feeling of security. Open stairwells, elimination of or reduction in the number

of columns on station platforms, high ceilings, and generally uncluttered design

contribute to a sense of patron safety.

5) Elimination of dog-leg passages, dark corners and reverse stair landings improve

security design. Long and winding corridors and corners should be avoided to

reduce shadows and nooks that criminals and panhandlers could occupy.

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6) Clear signage should direct riders to the nearest exits and transfer points as well

as maps situated at exits, entrances, and transfer locations should reduce confusion

and uncertainty among riders, making them less vulnerable to pickpocketing.

7) Station design should provide for maximum direct surveillance by the station

105
 attendant or by closed circuit TV.

8) The maximum use of glass within the bounds of maintainability can often improve
surveillance and security.
9) A system that allows passengers to buy multiple-use farecards in any currency

amount, cutting down the time money is exposed to pickpockets and robbers.

Farecards also must be used on entry and exit from the system, reducing the

likelihood of fare evasion.

10) Stations should be equipped with graffiti and vandal-resistant materials to discourage

potential offenders. When graffiti artists or vandals do cause damage, maintenance

workers should clean and repair damaged property promptly. On platforms, recessed

walls and bars installed in front of the walls discourage graffiti.

Fig 5.10 Platform screen doors or Platform edge

doors are provided on the new Jubilee Line
stations.

11) Public restrooms, lockers, or excess seats for potential offenders to loiter should

be avoided. Fast food establishments should be limited (or avoided) because

customers generate litter and provide victims for robbers and pickpockets.

12) Enforcement of "quality of life" violations, such as smoking or eating on trains,

and prompt reporting of all vandalism and graffiti to maintenance personnel to

ensure a safe and clean environment.

106
13) Entrance kiosks should be continuously staffed while station is open. Station

attendants should be aided by closed-circuit televisions at all unmanned entrances,

tunnels, and platforms, and they should carry two-way radios to report crime

and maintenance problems.

14) The number of stairways leading from street level to underground stations should

be limited so that gaining entry to the system to commit offenses requires more

effort than would otherwise be the case. The risk of victimization is highest

during off-peak hours due to the absence of capable guardians (third parties) to

intervene; therefore, closing the station during these hours reduces criminal

opportunities.

5.5.2 Lighting

An inviting image of comfort, pleasantness, cleanliness and security must be created

for transit facilities. Lighting is one of the means by which such an atmosphere is

established.

1) Good lighting design is mandatory. The concept of 'increased lighting/decreased

crime' has been a proven one in all contexts.

2) The minimum illumination level for emergency lighting should furnish sufficient
visibility in passenger station areas - platforms, mezzanines, ticketing areas,

passageways and entrances - to allow passenger evacuation from these areas.

5.5.3 Facilities for the physically handicapped

Ramps with Gradients

.1) Where ramps with gradients are

necessary, the ramp should have a slope

no greater than one foot rise in 12 feet

or 8.33 percent.
2) A ramp should have handrails on at least
Fig 5.11 Ramps should be installed at
all places both inside and outside of
stations where there is a difference in
floor height to facilitate safe and
convenient

107
 one side and preferably two sides that are 32 inches in height, measured from

the surface of the ramp, that are smooth and extend one foot beyond the top and

bottom of the ramp. This requirement may be at variance with local building

codes in which case two sets of handrails should be installed to serve all people.

3) The ramp should have a surface that is nonslip and should have a level platform

at the top of the ramp if a door occurs at that location.

4) Each ramp should have at least 6 feet of straight clearance at the bottom and

should have level platforms at 30-foot intervals or where turns occur in the ramp.

Entrances and Exits

1) At least one entrance and exit to each station should be usable by individuals in

wheel chairs.

Doors and Doorways

1) Doors should have a clear opening of not less than 32 inches when opened and

shall be operable by a single effort.

2) It is recommended that all doors have kick plates

extending from the bottom of the door to at least rg 5.12 Elevator signs
Railings
16 inches from the floor. in the elevators

3) The floor on the inside and outside of each

doorway should be level for a distance of 5 feet

inside the elevators
from the door in the direction of the door swings

and should extend one foot beyond each side

of the door. Where possible thresholds should

be flush with the floor.

Elevators

1) The elevators should be installed especially for

use by the physically impaired, with one elevator

108
 giving access from ground level to the concourse level and another giving access

from the concourse level to the platform level. Where platforms are of the side

type, there should be an additional elevator for the overpass or underground

passageway.

2) The control panels within the elevators should contain Braille buttons for use

when necessary, and there needs also a voice system to reinforce the service

standard of the Braille system.

3) The sidewalls of the elevators should have handrails and special control panels

for use by physically impaired passengers.

Stairs

1) Stairs should have handrails 32 inches high as measured from the tread at the

face of the riser.

2) Stairs should have at least one handrail that extends at least 18 inches beyond

the top step and beyond the bottomstep. Handrails should have no stub ends;

they should either return to the adjacent wall or bend down 180 degrees.

3) Steps should, wherever possible and in conformance with the existing step formulas,

have risers that do not exceed seven inches.

Floors

1) Floors should have a non-slip surface and

should be of a common level throughout and

be connected by a ramp or elevator.

2) Floors adjacent to unprotected areas of danger,

such as platform edges, should have surfaces
Fig 5.13 Tactiles for the blind guide
with a different finish to the general finish visually impaired passengers into
stations and all the way to the
to aid those with sight disabilities in designated boarding points on the
platform.
identifying the danger.

109
Controls

1 Switches and controls for use by the general public such as fire alarms, elevator

controls, and similar controls of frequent or essential use should be placed within

the reach of individuals in wheel chairs.

Identification

1) Appropriate identification of specific facilities within the transit facility used

by the public is particularly essential to the blind. Essential facilities should be

indicated by raised letters or numbers.

2) Doors that are not intended for normal use and not kept locked, but might prove

dangerous if entered by the blind, should be made quickly identifiable to the

touch by knurling the door handle or knob.

Warning Signals

1) Audible signals should be accompanied by visual signals and visual signals by

audible signals, for the benefit of those with hearing or sight disabilities.

Fare Collection Gates

A service gate, at least 3 feet wide, should be accessible to the physically

handicapped. Operation of the gate may be controlled either by the attendant or

by fare collection equipment. If the gate is controlled by equipment, the equipment

should be designed for use by the blind.

5.5.3 Fire protection

The severity of the hazards of a fire in a building or structure is affected by the amount

and type of combustible materials in the area, the type of construction, the means of

I 10
egress provided for the building occupants, the accessibility of the structure to fire-

fighting equipment.

M•

Fig 5.14 Smoke barrier fixing datail to the ceiling

1) In Rapid transit structures of non-combustible construction, except in occupied

areas such as areas containing equipment rooms, storage areas or concession

areas, the potential fuel contribution to the fire hazard is normally very low.

Smoke is a prime hazard and the use of materials that produce large volumes of

dense or toxic smoke when ignited should be limited in usage within the structure,

equipment and rolling stock of rapid transit properties.

2) Elimination of combustibles within the structure and the isolation of fire loads

of occupied areas from the means of egress through proper compartmentation

are major fire safety factors.

3) Fire safety norms (NFPA 130) should be strictly followed.

4) The materials used should be of standard fire resistant rating.

111
5) Sufficient exit signs and exit directional signs should be placed with secondary

power supply.

5.6 FINISHES

DURABILITY YES YES

MAINTENANCE COSTS YES YES
SLIP RESISTANCE YES
APPEARANCE YES YES YES
ACCESS YES

O
0 •

Fig 5.15 Considerations for flooring

In case of an elevated station or a surface station, the architect has a variety of forms

to exploit and there by impart a visual appeal to the mass. But in case of under ground

stations, the immediate visual impact experienced by passengers, as they gradually

descend below the surface of the earth and into the station, is of the appearance of the

wall, floor and last but not the least the ceiling. What would otherwise be a dreary

subterrain structure, must necessarily be of fairly good aesthetic values, so that travelling

by the system is not a drudgery by a pleasant experience to be looked forward to

everyday.

5.6.1 Floors

1) Floors should have a dense, low absorption and soil resistant surface that provides

good traction for pedestrians.

2) Non-slip materials at platform edges and on stair nosings should be used to improve

safety.

3) Floors in heavy wear areas should have a wear surface separate from the structural

slabs to facilitate replacement.

112
 kAiscvf -1-e4-44Amit,
vY) eiYTA,( C4e,1r lb:0

g4 ,064soi

ef A TYldb4t.
Fig 5.16

4) Flood drains should be installed adjacent to outside walls in below grade structures

to prevent seepage water from spilling over large floor areas, causing a slipping
hazard.

5.6.2 Walls

1) Walls should be of a dense dirt resistant, polished, enamelled or glazed surface

to reduce cleaning and maintenance costs.

2) Exterior walls in below grade structures should have a cavity between the structural

wall and the finish wall to avoid moisture damage to the station finish in the

event of ground-water infiltration. Drainage holes should be provided at the bottom

of the cavity.

3) Walls should be started on a floor base to facilitate floor cleaning.



cidi4K;(-1v■0^.4-,e)(5-e=4
beAricy
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el ■

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fD Aft441-47Tr--t9
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Fig 5.17

5.6.3 Ceilings

; *4*
1) Ceilings must be designed to be resistant to damage or soiling and be easily
cleaned.

2) Where suspended ceilings are used of the tile or pan type construction, the minimum

floor to ceiling height should be 9'-0" to discourage damage by vandals. This

type of construction must also include a suspension system sufficiently rigid to

resist air flows and pressures resulting from train operations within the rapid

transit tunnels.

3) Ceilings offer an effective means of controlling noise levels within the subway

station areas, and the designer should therefore give serious consideration to the use

of ceiling materials designed for the attenuation of sound.

11.4
5.6.4 Doors

Doors should be faced with plastic or other damage resistant material to reduce

maintenance costs.

5.6.5 Miscellaneous metals

Handrails and metal trim should be of stainless steel, anodized aluminium, or other

low maintenance material.

;loc.? .k--Crii6h
y\ooce-riaA
e.-a\okpob

6e5y-)e-rete,
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.be:.keette)(.e,
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Fig 5.18

5.7 COMPONENTS AND SIGNAGE

5.7.1 Components

1) Target hardening. Station's seats, windows, and fixtures should be constructed

with materials resistant to graffiti writing and vandalism to increase the effort

115
 associated with these

offenses. On platforms,

recessed walls and bars

installed in front of the walls

will discourage graffiti. When

graffiti artists or vandals do

cause damage, maintenance

workers should clean and

repair damaged property

Fig 5.19 Hard, vandal resistant material should be
promptly. given preference.

2) The materials selection

should be on the basis of the

qualities like durability,

maintenability, cost-

effective.

3) Innovation and attention to

the details should be given

more priority.

4) Accepted tolerance levels

Fig 5.20 Make-up panels should be used to modulate,
should be incorporated while non-modular poster sizes to keep-up the continuity
of the space.
designing the fixings

considering the materials.

5) Consistency in colours should be observed.

6) Technological and commercial driven insertions can be easily done without

compromising on the clarity of the station's main function if a proper modular

grid size is followed.

7) Make-up panels should be used to modulate, non-modular poster sizes to keep-

up the continuity of the space.

8) Screws and fixings used should be countersunk or be of heads which need the

specific machine to remove.

116
9) Care should be taken to give a round/chiselled edge, wherever possible, for the

edges of the components which are in direct touch with the users, rather than a
sharp one to avoid accidents.

10) Extensive use of glass inside should be encouraged within the limits of the economic

viability to enhance the expansiveness of surface and generosity of space and

rev
eytxtgAA1 •

•
c,eAoore)c)e,
• 45 •
• 44 0 4
.• •

6,c9eAni*ei.e4AAf)14
4GyeAA/ cc• 4

c..extviev2b
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Fig 5.21

light.

11) Provision for bi-metallic separation should be given when in case two metals of
different qualities are in contact.

12) Design of components should be integrated with the overall design from the

initial stages of the design to attain the desired results.

13) Switch over to automatic components wherever possible with interactive control

for the disabled.

14) Proper placement of components such as litter bins will encourage the users to

keep the station cleaner.

15) Doors incorporating glass, SS and aluminium will reflect a transportation aesthetic
rather than a strictly architectural one.

117
5.7.2 Signage

1) Follow a well laid graphics design manual for the stations.

2) Use one style of lettering for all graphics in stations, on cars and on surface
vehicles, including all station name signs.
3) Segregate advertising from information graphics.

4) Avoid advertising at critical decision-making points.

5) Provide illuminated signs at station entrances.

6) Locate information signs at decision points for maximum visibility.

7) Provide map space immediately adjacent to fare collection equipment and at

other decision points such as platform areas and interior of vehicles.

Fig 5.22 Relate advertising in groups to special conditions of structure, where

possible.

8) Locate station name signs so they may be easily seen by passengers in transit

cars.

9) Signs directing motorists to, or within, station areas must be coordinated with

appropriate Federal and State highway standards.

10) Locating advertising opposite departing and waiting passengers, in linear clusters

118
 and with accent lighting.
11) Relate advertising in groups to special conditions of structure, where possible.
12) Walls at ends of passageways, opposite major entrances, or leading to exits, or

opposite turnstiles, should be kept free of miscellaneous doors and advertisements

so that they may be used for information graphics.
13) Consideration may be given to colour coding of lines and stations.
14) Consider relating outbound passengers to surrounding community with appropriate
signage.
15) Design map mounting system to allow easy replacement and updating of maps.
16) Consider use of automatic destination signs for lines with a number of branches
or terminals.
17) The designer must work out a continuous path of graphics from the street to the
train and from the train back out to the street.
18) To meet broad public needs, a letter height of I inch for 25 feet (7.5 meters) of

viewing distance, based on Helvetica capital letters, is a more practical guide

for signs.

5.8 CONCLUSION

Rapid rail is one of the most effective mass transit system. When cities around the
globe are feeling the heat of the traffic and energy crunch, encouraging more of the

travellers into mass transport modes have been the most suitable solution. Thus the
focus shifts into designing spaces more efficiently and aesthetically pleasing such
that it could bring in a positive difference and make the travel a pleasant, refreshing,
timesaving and safe experience.

Though different standards are set by various countries/states for the designing of
rapid rail stations, the designer should be aware of the general design considerations,
which could be applied globally, and is arrived through systematic research and studies

of various norms and existing systems that could help him in arriving at the right

119
solution. Since the system is to be used by a very large number of public, each design
decisions should be well thought of.

In a world of rapidly changing lifestyle, less availability of time, changing equations

of power and politics, conflicts between good and evil, and ever evolving technologies,

one should not limit oneself into the mere possibilities that exist; but should always

thrive to achieve the best possible solution at the particular time frame. These stations

will be the starting and terminating points of daily trips by thousands of rapid transit

passengers. The arrangements at these stations must go beyond the realm of their

functional and aesthetic considerations.

5.9 SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK

1) Technological innovations (in architecture as well as rail systems and equipment)

that could redefine the previous design considerations and standards.

2) Detailed study of integrated architecture and its impact on design.

3) Analysis and study of various services for underground rapid rail stations.

4) Futuristic architecture and its possible impact(s) on the system.

5) Evolving styles in architecture and aesthetic considerations.

6) Detail analysis of the social psychology and its possible impact on security, safety,

movement pattern, reaction to the design elements etc.

7) Integration of the station system with other transport modes.

1211
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books
1) Banham, Reyner, The architecture of the well-tempered environment, The
Architectural press, 1969.
2) Betjeman, Sir John, London S historic railway stations, Capital transport, 2002.
3) Binney & Pearce, Railway architecture, Orbis publishing, 1979
4) Collis, Hugh, Transport, engineering and architecture, Laurence King Publishing,
2003.
Evans, P.E., 'King's cross underground station redevelopment', Arup bulletin,
March 2001.
6) Follis, John and Hammer, Dave, Architectural signing and graphics, Whitney
Library of Design, 1979.
7) Geidion, Sigfried, Mechanisation takes command, London and cambridge, 1950
8) Jodiodio, Philip, Santiago Calatrava, Taschen, 2001.
9) Kolarevic, Branko, Architecture in the digital age: design and manufacturing,
Spon Press, 2003.
10) Meeks, C.L.V, The railway station - an architectural history, Yale university
press, 1956.
11) Menges, Axel, Arup Hongkong station, Daehan Printing and Publishing Co.,
Korea, 2001.
12) Powell, Kenneth, The jubilee extension, Laurence King Publishing, 200.3.
13) Sims, Mitzi, Sign Design, Thames and Hudson, 1991.

Websites
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_transit

http://english.taipei.gov.tw

http://euro-inox.org
http://www.mic-ro.com/metro/index.html
http://www.nfpa.org

121
 REFERENCES

[1]. Collis, Hugh, Transport, engineering and architecture, Laurence King Publishing,
2003.
[2]. Meeks, C.L.V, The railway station - an architectural history, Yale university
press, 1956
[3]. http://www.railway-technical.com/index.shtml
[4]. John, A., Recommended Energy PreparednessGuidelines for Rail Transit Systems.
Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, March
1985
[5]. Nancy, G. LaVigne, Visibility and Vigilance: Metro's Situational Approach to
Preventing Subway Crime, NIJ Research in Brief, November 1997.
http://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles/166372.txt
[6]. Follis, John and Hammer, Dave, Architectural signing and graphics, Whitney
Library of Design, 1979.
[7]. http://english.taipei.gov.tw/dorts/index.jsp
[8]. Kolarevic, Branko, Architecture in the digital age: design and manufacturing,
Spon Press, 2003.
[9]. Menges, Axel, Arup Hongkong station, Daehan Printing and Publishing Co.,
Korea, 2001.
[10]. Powell, Kenneth, The jubilee extension, Laurence King Publishing, 2003.
[11]. Personal communication, May 2007, with Ar Nandini Roy Chowdhary, Senior
architect, Mott MacDonald, Delhi.

122
 APPENDIX

CODES

DESIGN CODES (used for Delhi Metro)

ARCHITECTURAL

(Listed in the order in which they take priority):

1) 1998 California Building Code

2) 1997 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 130

3) 1999 DMRC RT Design Criteria Section 2-13

STRUCTURAL

1) Caltrans Bridge Design Specifications (BDS).

2) AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.

3) For stations, elevators, escalators, tunnels, and shafts the design shall meet all

California Occupational Safety and Health Act (CAL/OSHA) standards.

4) Building Codes — 1997 California Building Code.

5) American Railroad Engineering and Maintenance of Way Manual (AREMA).

FIRE SAFETY CODES

1) American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI)

2) The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

3) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

4) California Code of Regulations (CCR), Title 8

5) California Code of Regulations (CCR), Title 19

6) California Code of Regulations (CCR), Title 24

7) California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) General Orders.

8) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 383

9) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 484

123
10) Insulated Cable Engineers Assoc. (ICEA) S-19-81, with Amendments FR-1

11) San Diego City Building Code

12) San Diego City Fire Code

13) San Diego County Building Code

14) San Diego County Fire Code

15) NFPA 70, National Electrical Code (NEC)

16) NFPA 91, Blower and Exhaust Systems

17) NFPA 101, Life Safety Code

18) NFPA 110, Emergency and Standby Power Systems

19) NFPA 110A, Stored Electrical Energy Emergency and Standby Power Systems

20) NFPA 130, Fixed Guideway Transit Systems

21) Other NFPA National Fire Codes (as applicable)

22) California Building Code

Other city and county codes and standards dealing with fire/life safety which are referred

to the FLSC for adjudication.

1) Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL 44 and 83)

2) Uniform Building Code (UBC)

124