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Components of a Power
System (With Diagram) |
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Major components of a power system are- synchronous

generators, synchronising equipment, circuit breakers,
isolators, earthing switches, bus-bars, transformers,
transmission lines, current transformers, potential
transformers, relay and protection equipment, lightning
arresters, station transformer, motors for driving
auxiliaries in power station. Some of the components
will be discussed here as shown in Fig. 1.7 .
Component # 1. Synchronous Generators:
The synchronous generators used in generating stations
are revolving field type owing to its inherent advantages.

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The synchronous generators, based on the type of

prime movers to which they are mechanically coupled,
may be classified as:

(i) Hydro-generators

(ii) Turbo-generators, and

(iii) Diesel engine driven generators.

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Power Transformers:

Power transformers are used for stepping-up the

voltage for transmission at generating stations and for
stepping-down voltage for further distribution at main
step-down transformer substations. Usually naturally
cooled, oil immersed, known as ON type, two winding,
three-phase transformers, are used up to the rating of
10 MVA.

The transformers of rating higher than 10 MVA are

usually air blast cooled. For very high rating, the forced
oil, water cooling and air blast cooling may be used. For
regulating the voltage the transformers used are
provided with on load tap changer.

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They are put in operation during load hours and

disconnected during light load hours i.e. they are usually
operated at approximately full load. This is possible
because they are arranged in banks and can be thrown
in parallel with other units or disconnected at will. So
power transformers are designed to have maximum
efficiency at or near full load (i.e. with iron loss to full-
load copper loss ratio of 1: 1).

Power transformers are designed to have considerable

leakage reactance than is permissible in distribution
transformers because in power transformers inherent
voltage regulation is not as much important as current
limiting effect of the higher leakage reactance. Power
transformers usually make use of flux density of 1.5 to
1.77; have percentage impedance ranging from 6-18%
and regulation 6-10%.

The transformer specifications cover the following:

1. KVA rating;

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2. Rated voltages;

3. Number of phases (single or three phases);

4. Rated frequency;

5. Connections (Δ or λ in case of 3-phase transformer);

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6. Tappings if any;

7. Type of core (core or shell);

8. Type (power or distribution);

9. Ambient temperature (generally average 40°C);

10. Type of cooling – (a) cooling medium-air, oil or water

(b) circulation type- natural or forced (c) simple or mixed
cooling;

11. Temperature rises above ambient in °C depending

upon the class of winding insulation;

12. Voltage regulation [(a) Per cent or pu at full load at

75°C unity pf or 0.8 pf lag (b) Impedance-per cent or pu
(c) Reactance-per cent or pu];

13. No-load current in amperes or per cent of rated

current at rated voltage and rated frequency;

14. Efficiency-in per cent or pu at full load, 1/2 load, 3/4

load at unity power factor and 0.8 pf.

Power transformers are covered under IS 2026-1962.

The transformers are generally installed upon lengths of

rails fixed on concrete slabs having foundation 1 to
1(1/2) metre deep.

Component # 2. Switchgear:
Everyone is familiar with low voltage switches and
rewirable fuses. A switch is used for opening and
closing of an electric circuit while a fuse is used for
over-current protection. Every electric circuit needs a
switching device and protective device. Switching and
protective devices have been developed in different
forms. Switchgear is a general term covering a wide
range of equipment concerned with switching and
protection.

In a power system switchgear serves two basic

purposes:

(i) Switching during normal operating conditions for the

purpose of operation and maintenance.

(ii) Switching during abnormal conditions such as short-

circuits and interrupting the fault currents.

The first of above could be served by relatively simple

switches because it is relatively simple as it involves
normal currents which are easy to interrupt. The second
function is, however, complex. With the advancement of
electrical power system the lines and other equipment
operate at very high voltage and carry large currents.

Whenever a short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flows

through the equipment causing considerable damage to
the equipment and interruption of service. In order to
avoid such damage every part of the power system is
provided with a protective relaying system and an
associated switching device.

The function of protective relaying system is to cause

the prompt removal from service of any element of a
power system when it suffers a short-circuit, or when it
starts to operate in any abnormal manner that might
cause damage or otherwise interfere with the effective
operation of the rest of the system.

The relaying equipment is aided in this task by circuit

breakers that are capable of disconnecting the faulty
element when they are called upon to do so by the
relaying equipment. In addition to circuit breakers and
protective relays, the associated equipment for
controlling, regulating and measuring can also be
considered as switchgear devices.

Thus the apparatus including its associated auxiliaries

employed for controlling, regulating or switching on or
off the electrical circuits in the electrical power system
is known as switchgear. It includes switches, fuses,
circuit breakers, isolators, relays, current and potential
transformers, indicating instruments, lightning arresters
and control panels.

A circuit breaker is a device that interrupts the abnormal

or fault currents and in addition performs the function of
a switch. Circuit breakers and fuses both possess a
time element of operation, whereby they operate
practically instantaneously on short-circuits but with
definite time lags on overloads. Circuit breakers can be
reset in less time and with less trouble that are required
to replace blown fuses and spare parts are seldom
required.

For low voltage circuits fuses may be used to isolate the

faulty circuits; but for higher voltages, say from 3.3 kV
upwards, isolation is achieved by circuit breaker. Circuit
breakers may also be preferred where continuity of
service is an important consideration or where frequent
fuse replacement may be expected. However, for low
capacities a fuse with circuit breaking arrangement is
quite useful and economical.

As the circuit breakers have to be accessible for

inspection and maintenance, the Indian Standard
regulations require the provision for separation of the
breaker from the live parts by means of isolating
switches. Isolating switches are employed for
separating the disconnected element from the live
portion of the system. They should be employed only
after the corresponding circuit breakers have been
opened. Isolating switches are employed for isolating a
piece of equipment from adjacent live elements for
purposes of safety.

Circuit Breakers:

Circuit breakers are mechanical devices designed to

close or open contact members, thus closing or opening
of an electrical circuit under normal or abnormal
conditions.

Automatic circuit breakers, which are usually employed

for the protection of electrical circuits, are equipped with
a trip coil connected to a relay or other means, designed
to open the breaker automatically under abnormal
conditions, such as over-current.

The automatic circuit breakers perform the following

duties:

(i) It carries the full-load current continuously without

overheating or damage,

(ii) It opens and closes the circuit on no load,

(iii) It makes and breaks the normal operating current

and

(iv) It makes and breaks the short-circuit currents of

magnitude up to which it designed for.

The circuit breaker performs first three duties

satisfactorily but in performing fourth duty i.e., when it is
to make or break short-circuit currents, it is subjected to
mechanical and thermal stresses. The circuit breakers
are rated in terms of maximum voltage, number of
poles, frequency, maximum continuous current carrying
capacity, maximum interrupting capacity and maximum
momentary and 4-s current carrying capacity.

The interrupting or rupturing capacity of a circuit

breaker is the maximum value of current which can be
interrupted by it without any damage. The circuit
breakers are also rated in MVA which is the product of
interrupting current, rated voltage and 10-6.

Operating Principle:

A circuit breaker is a switching and current interrupting

device. It consists, essentially, of fixed and moving
contacts, which are touching each other and carry the
current under normal conditions i.e., when circuit
breaker is closed. When the circuit breaker is closed, the
current carrying contacts, called the electrodes, engage
each other under the pressure of a spring.

During the normal operating condition the circuit

breaker can be opened or closed by a station operator
for the purpose of switching and maintenance. To open
the circuit breaker, only a small pressure is required to
be applied on a trigger. Whenever a fault occurs on any
part of the power system, the trip coils of the breaker
get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart
by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit. The
separation of current carrying contacts produces an arc.

The current is thus able to continue until the discharge

ceases. The production of arc not only delays the
current interruption process but it also generates
enormous heat which may cause damage to the system
or to the breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a
circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the
shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may
not reach a dangerous value.

The basic construction of a circuit breaker requires

the separation of contacts in an insulating fluid which
serves two functions:
1. Extinguishes the arc drawn between the contacts
when the circuit breaker opens.

2. Provides insulation between the contacts and from

each contact to earth.

The insulating fluids commonly used for this purpose

are as follows:

1. Air at atmospheric pressure.

2. Compressed air.

3. Oil producing hydrogen for arc extinction.

4. Ultra high vacuum.

5. Sulphur hexa-fluoride (SF6).

The fluids used in circuit breakers should have the

properties of high dielectric strength, non-inflammability,
high thermal stability, arc extinguishing ability, chemical
stability, and commercial availability at moderate cost.

Of the simple gases air is the cheapest and most widely

used for circuit breaking. Hydrogen has better arc
extinguishing property but it has lower dielectric
strength as compared to air. Also if hydrogen is
contaminated with air, it forms an explosive mixture.
Nitrogen has similar properties as air.

CO2 has almost the same dielectric strength as air but is

a better arc extinguishing medium at moderate currents.
Oxygen is a good extinguishing medium but is
chemically active. SF6 has outstanding arc-quenching
properties and good dielectric strength. Of all these
gases SF6 and air are used in commercial gas blast-
circuit breakers.

Air-circuit breakers are often used instead of oil up to 15

kV in these units and oil reclousures are also sometimes
used to cut cost in small rural substations.

Isolators:
Since isolators (or isolating switches) are employed only
for isolating circuit when the current has already been
interrupted, they are simple pieces of equipment. They
ensure that the current is not switched into the circuit
until everything is in order.

Isolators or disconnect switches operate under no load

condition. They are not equipped with arc-quenching
devices. They do not have any specified current
breaking capacity or current making capacity. The
isolators in some cases are used for breaking charging
current of transmission line.

Isolators are employed in addition to circuit breakers,

and are provided on each side of every circuit breaker to
provide isolation. While opening a circuit, the circuit
breaker is opened first, then isolator. If an isolator is
opened carelessly, when carrying a heavy current, the
resulting arc could easily cause a flash-over to ground.

This may shatter the supporting insulators and may

even cause a fatal accident to the operator, particularly
in hv circuits. While closing a circuit, the isolator is
closed first, then circuit breaker. Isolators are necessary
on the supply side of the circuit breakers in order to
ensure isolation (disconnection) of the circuit breaker
from the live parts for the purpose of maintenance.
Automatic switching of isolators is preferred.

Isolators employed in power systems are usually 3-pole

isolators, each having three identical poles. Each pole
consists of two or three insulator posts mounted on a
fabricated support. The fixed and moving conducting
parts are of copper or aluminium rods. During the
opening operation the conducting rods swing apart and
isolation is obtained. The simultaneous operation of
three poles is obtained by mechanical interlocking of the
three poles.

To prevent the mal-operation, the isolator is provided

with the following interlocking’s:

(i) Interlocking between three poles for simultaneous

operation.
(ii) Interlocking with circuit breakers – Isolator cannot be
opened unless the circuit breaker is opened and circuit
breaker cannot be closed unless the isolator is closed.

(iii) Load interrupter switches – In addition to isolators

and circuit breakers, there is one more device, called the
load-interrupting switch, which combines the functions
of the isolator and a switch. They are designed only for
breaking and making the load currents.

These switches are designed and used to close and

open high voltage circuits under normal working
conditions (at normal load). The arc extinguishing
device of the load interrupter is made in the form of a
split, moulded plastic chute fitted with organic glass
inserts. This chute surrounds the moving knife of the
arc extinguishing system. The stationary arcing contact
is located in the lower part of the chute.

Load interrupter switches are intended only for handling

low-energy arcs resulting from the interruption of load
current and altogether unsuitable for extinction of high-
energy fault current arcs.

When the switch is opened, the working contacts

between which the arc is drawn separate. Acted upon by
the high temperature of arc, the walls of the organic
material insert generated gases (mainly hydrogen),
which create a longitudinal blast serving to extinguish
the arc. Lever- arm manually operating mechanisms are
employed for closing and opening the load interrupter
switches.

It is a wide practice to install load-interrupting switches

in low-capacity installations like industrial-shop, urban
and rural, and like distribution substations where it is
possible to provide short-circuit current protection with
high-voltage fuses and where the only duty of load-
interrupting switch is to make and break the load
current.

The installation of a load-interrupting switch, including

the high-voltage fuses, is not only cheaper, but also
usually requires less space than the installation of a
high-voltage circuit breaker.
Earthing Switch:

Earthing switch is connected between the line

conductor and earth. Normally it is open and it is closed
to discharge the voltage trapped on the isolated or
disconnected line. When the line is disconnected from
the supply end, there is some voltage on the line to
which the capacitance between the line and earth is
charged.

This voltage is significant in hv systems. Before

commencement of maintenance work it is necessary
that these voltages are discharged to earth by closing
the earthing switch. Normally, the earthing switches are
mounted on the frame of the isolator.

Component # 3. Bus-Bars:
Bus-bar (or bus in short) term is used for a main bar or
conductor carrying an electric current to which many
connections may be made.

Bus-bars are merely convenient means of connecting

switches and other equipment into various
arrangements. The usual arrangement of connections in
most of the substations permits working on almost any
piece of equipment without interruption to incoming or
outgoing feeders.

In some arrangements two buses are provided to which

the incoming or outgoing feeders and the principal
equipment may be connected. One bus is usually called
the “main” bus and the other “auxiliary” or “transfer” bus.
The main bus may have a more elaborate system of
measuring instruments, relays etc. associated with it.
The switches used for connecting feeders or equipment
to one bus or the other are called “selector” or “transfer”
switches.

Bus-bars may be of copper, aluminium or steel. Copper

has a comparatively low resistivity and also the
advantage of relatively high mechanical strength; this
makes it economical to use copper bus-bars in
installations of very large capacity where the currents
are particularly heavy.
During 1960’s the need for substituting the copper with
aluminium became very urgent, particularly in countries
like India where copper is imported. Now aluminium is
being increasingly used for various switchgear
installations due to its numerous advantages over
copper such as higher conductivity on weight basis,
lower cost for equal current carrying capacity, excellent
corrosion resistance and ease of formability.

For proper reliable electrical connections aluminium

buses are coated with silver. The aluminium used for
bus-bars should have high conductivity, good
mechanical properties, high softening temperature etc.
Steel bus-bars have a comparatively high specific
resistance (about 7 times greater than that of copper).

Furthermore, the losses due to hysteresis and eddy

currents when carrying ac are also considerable. The
primary advantage is that steel bus-bars cost very little.
The influence of the above factors is seen in the wide
application of steel bus-bars in low-capacity
installations where the load currents do not exceed 200-
300 A.

The bus-bars used in substations are usually bare

rectangular x-section bars (but they can be of other
shapes such as round tubes, round solid bars, or square
tubes) as they are more economical in comparison with
round solid bus-bars. This is explained by the fact that
rectangular- section bus-bars of the same x-sectional
area have a higher rate of heat dissipation due to their
greater cooling surface.

Furthermore, the ac (or effective) resistance of a round

bus-bar is greater than that of rectangular-section bus-
bars because of the skin effect. Because of these two
facts rectangular-section bus-bars are able to carry
larger load currents than round solid bus-bars (for the
same cross-sectional area and the same temperature
rise).

For the same cross-sectional area and the same

temperature rise, copper bus-bars will have the greatest
and steel bus-bars the least-permissible current-carrying
capacity because of the difference in their resistance.
As the size of the bus-bars increases, their heat
dissipation capacity falls off and the permissible current
density must therefore be reduced.

If the load current to be carried exceeds the permissible

current for a single-strip bus-bar of the greatest
available size, each phase of the bus-bars shall have to
be assembled of several strips arranged in a stack and
clamped on post insulators. The air-gaps left between
the strips in a bus-bar stack are usually made equal to
the thickness of the strips, this is necessary for
adequate cooling.

As the number of strips in a bus bar stack is increased,

the current with which it is permissible to load the bus-
bar cannot be raised in direct proportion to the number
of strips; the increase in permissible current must be
appreciably less because the conditions for cooling
become more unfavourable. Moreover, when dealing
with ac it is necessary to take another factor into
consideration, i.e., the proximity effect. The result is that
the bus-bar metal in a stacked bus-bar is much less
efficiently utilised than in a single-strip bus-bar.

It is for the above reason that bus-bars for ac are

designed with not more than two, and, rarely, with three
strips. For dc, the bus-bars may consist of a large
number of strips because there is no proximity effect
and current distribution is uniform.

In large-capacity ac installations with extremely heavy

working currents it is more effective to install box-
shaped types of bus-bars of aluminium or copper. In this
case the bus-bar takes the form of a hollow square
conductor in which the metal is much more efficiently
utilized than it would be in a stacked-strip bus-bar. The
box shape also makes for better cooling than is
obtained with stacked-strip bus-bars.

When installations operate at 33 kV and high voltages,

the bus-bars have to be designed with due
consideration for corona effects.

All rigid types of bus-bars mounted on support

insulators are coated with enamel paints of the
following colours:

Three-phase systems—Red, yellow and blue to indicate

different phases.

DC systems—Positive bus-bars-claret-coloured; negative

bus-bars—blue.

Coating bus-bars with paint improves their rates of

cooling to some extent and therefore permits them to
carry a larger load current. By coating steel bus-bars
with paint we protect them from corrosion. The use of
different colours is important because it helps the
operating personnel to distinguish between the different
phases of the installation at a glance.

Flexible bus-bars (bare stranded conductors) are not

coated with paint. To identify the phases of the bus-
bars, disks painted with the respective phase colour are
hung from the bus-bars.

The most common sizes of bus-bars are 25 × 6 (150

mm2); 50 × 6 (300 mm2), 75 × 6 (450 mm2); 100 × 6
(600 mm2); 125 × 6 (750 mm2); 50 × 10 (500 mm2); 75 ×
10 (750 mm2); 100 × 10 (1,000 mm2); 125 × 10 (1,250
mm2); 150 × 10 (1,500 mm2); 200 × 10 (2,000 mm2); 75
× 12 (900 mm2; 100 × 12 (1,200 mm2); 125 × 12 (1,500
mm2); 150 × 12 (1,800 mm2); 200 × 12 (2,400 mm2); 250
× 12 (3,000 mm2). The bus-bars are of 5 or 6 metres in
length.

The early substations were generally with flexible bus

design. A flexible bus consists of flexible ACSR or all-
aluminium alloy stranded conductors supported by
strain insulators from each end. The flexible bus is held
at higher level above the different substation equipment.
The connections between the flexible bus and the
terminals of substation equipment are made by flexible
conductors held in vertical or inclined plane.

Rigid bus-bars are easy to maintain. They are at lower

height. Connections to substation equipment are easy.
Aluminium tubes are preferred for rigid bus-bars.

A substation usually has a combination of rigid bus-bars

and flexible bus-bars. ACSR conductors are preferred for
flexible bus-bars.

The bus-bars are designed to carry certain normal

current continuously. The x-section of conductors is
designed on the basis of rated normal current and
permissible temperature rise. The value of x-section so
obtained is verified for temperature rise under short-
time short-circuit current. The bus-bar conductors are
supported on post insulators or strain insulators.

Component # 4. Lightning Arresters:

The lightning arrester is a surge diverter and is used for
the protection of power system against the high voltage
surges. It is connected between the line and earth and
so diverts the incoming high voltage wave to the earth.

Lightning arresters act as safety valves designed to

discharge electric surges resulting from lightning
strokes, switching or other disturbances, which would
otherwise flash-over insulators or puncture insulation,
resulting in a line outage end possible failure of
equipment.

They are designed to absorb enough transient energy to

prevent dangerous reflections and to cut off the flow of
power-frequency follow (or dynamic) current at the first
current zero after the discharge of the transient. They
include one or more sets of gaps to establish the
breakdown voltage, aid in interrupting the power follow
current, and prevent any flow of current under normal
conditions (except that gap shunting resistors, when
used to assure equal distribution of voltage across the
gaps, permits a very small leakage current).

Either resistance (valve) elements to limit the power

follow current to values the gaps can interrupt, or an
additional arc extinguishing chamber to interrupt the
power follow current are connected in series with gaps.
Arresters have a short time lag of breakdown compared
with the insulation of apparatus, the breakdown voltage
being nearly independent of the steepness of the wave
front.

Lightning protection by means of lightning arresters and

gaps and overhead ground wires is a means of reducing
outages and preventing damage to station equipment
from lightning disturbances. The amount and kind of
protection vary in different applications, depending upon
the exposure of the lines, the frequency and the severity
of lightning storms, the cost of the protection as an
insurance value against damage to equipment and the
value of reduced line outages.

Transmission line is protected from direct strokes by

running a conductor, known as ground wire, over the
towers or poles and earthed at regular intervals
preferably at every pole/tower.

Substations, interconnectors and power houses are

protected from direct strokes by earthing screen that
consists of a network of copper conductors, earthed at
least on two points, overall the electrical equipment in
the substation.

The ground wire or earthing screen does not provide

protection against the high voltage waves reaching the
terminal equipment, so some protective devices are
necessary to provide protection to power stations,
substations and transmission lines against the voltage
wave reaching there.

The most common device used for the protection of the

power system against the high voltage surge is surge
diverter, which is connected between line and earth and
so diverts the incoming high voltage wave to earth.
Such a diverter is also called the lightning arrester.

Rod gap is a very inferior type of surge diverter and is

usually employed as a second line of defence in view of
its low cost. Horn gap arrester was one of the earliest
type of surge diverters to be developed, and is still used
to a certain extent on low voltage lines on account of its
great simplicity. Like rod gap arrester it is also employed
as an auxiliary protection.

Electrolytic arrester operates on the fact that a thin film

of aluminium hydroxide deposited on the aluminium
plates immersed in electrolyte acts as a high resistance
to low voltage but a low resistance to voltage above a
critical value. Such arresters are very delicate, require
daily supervision, and the film is required to be reformed
whenever destroyed, therefore these arresters have
become obsolete nowadays.

Oxide film arrester operates on the fact that certain

chemicals (such as lead peroxide) have the property to
change rapidly from a good conductor to almost perfect
insulator when slightly heated. The great advantage of
such an arrester is that it does not require daily
charging, and it may be installed at points on
transmission systems where daily attendance is difficult
or expensive to provide.

Thyrite arrester is the most common and is mostly used

for the protection against high dangerous voltages. It
operates on the fact that thyrite, a dense organic
compound of ceramic nature, has high resistance
decreasing rapidly from high value to low value for
currents of low value to those of high value.

The expulsion type arrester consists of a tube made of

fibre (which is very effective gas evolving material), an
isolating spark gap (or external series gap) and an
interrupting spark gap inside the fire tube. Expulsion
type arresters can be considered as economical means
of surge protection for small rural transformers, where
valve type arresters may prove expensive and the
application of airgaps yield inadequate protection.

These arresters can also be used on special

transmission towers of extra height on river crossings
where the possibilities of lightning strokes are relatively
high. Such arresters can be considered very favourably
for use on systems operating at voltages up to 33 kV.

Valve type lightning arrester is very cheap, effective and

robust and is, therefore, extensively used nowadays for
high voltage systems. This consists of a number of
discs of a porous material stacked one above the other
and separated by their mica rings. The mica rings
provide insulation during normal operation.

Home ›› Electrical Engineering ›› Power System ››

Components ›› Components of a Power System

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