Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), "natural", and φύσις (physis), "Nature") is

the science of Nature in the broadest sense.Physicists study the behavior and properties of matter in a
wide variety of contexts, ranging from the sub-microscopic particles from which all ordinary matter is
made (particle physics) to the behavior of the material Universe as a whole (cosmology).

Some of the properties studied in physics are common to all material systems, such as the conservation
of energy. Such properties are often referred to as laws of physics. Physics is sometimes said to be the
"fundamental science", because each of the other natural sciences (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.)
deals with particular types of material system that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the
science of molecules and the chemicals that they form in the bulk. The properties of a chemical are
determined by the properties of the underlying molecules, which are accurately described by areas of
physics such as quantum mechanics,thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.
The precision of length measurements may be increased by using a device that uses a sliding vernier scale. Two
such instruments that are based on a vernier scale which you will use in the laboratory to measure lengths of objects
are the vernier callipers and the micrometer screw gauge. These instruments have a main scale (in millimetres) and a
sliding or rotating vernier scale. In figure 1 below, the vernier scale (below) is divided into 10 equal divisions and thus
the least count of the instrument is 0.1 mm. Both the main scale and the vernier scale readings are taken into account
while making a measurement. The main scale reading is the first reading on the main scale immediately to the left of
the zero of the vernier scale (3 mm), while the vernier scale reading is the mark on the vernier scale which exactly
coincides with a mark on the main scale (0.7 mm). The reading is therefore 3.7 mm.
Figure 1 : The reading here is 3.7 mm.

Figure 1 : The reading here is 15.8 mm.

The vernier calipers

The vernier calipers found in the laboratory incorporates a main scale and a sliding vernier scale which allows
readings to the nearest 0.02 mm. This instrument may be used to measure outer dimensions of objects (using the
main jaws), inside dimensions (using the smaller jaws at the top), and depths (using the stem).
Figure 3: The vernier calipers
To measure outer dimensions of an object, the object is placed between the jaws, which are then moved together
until they secure the object. The screw clamp may then be tightened to ensure that the reading does not change
while the scale is being read.

The first significant figures are read immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier scale and the remaining digits are
taken as the vernier scale division that lines up with any main scale division.
Some examples:
Note that the important region of the vernier scale is enlarged in the upper right hand corner of each figure.

Figure 4: The reading is 37.46 mm.

In figure 4 above, the first significant figures are taken as the main scale reading to the left of the vernier zero, i.e. 37
mm. The remaining two digits are taken from the vernier scale reading that lines up with any main scale reading, i.e.
46 on the vernier scale. Thus the reading is 37.46 mm.
Figure 5: The reading is 34.60 mm.
In figure 5 above, the first significant figures are taken as the main scale reading to the left of the vernier zero, i.e. 34
mm. The remaining two digits are taken from the vernier scale reading that lines up with any main scale reading, i.e.
60 on the vernier scale. Note that the zero must be included because the scale can differentiate between fiftieths of a
millimetre. Therefore the reading is 34.60 mm.

Figure 6: The reading is 40.00 mm.

In figure 6 the zero and the ten on the vernier scale both line up with main scale readings, therefore the reading is
40.00 cm.

The micrometer screw gauge

The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure even smaller dimensions than the vernier callipers. The micrometer
screw gauge also uses an auxiliary scale (measuring hundredths of a millimetre) which is marked on a rotary thimble.
Basically it is a screw with an accurately constant pitch (the amount by which the thimble moves forward or backward
for one complete revolution). The micrometers in our laboratory have a pitch of 0.50 mm (two full turns are required
to close the jaws by 1.00 mm). The rotating thimble is subdivided into 50 equal divisions. The thimble passes
through a frame that carries a millimetre scale graduated to 0.5 mm. The jaws can be adjusted by rotating the
thimble using the small ratchet knob. This includes a friction –clutch– which prevents too much tension being
applied. The thimble must be rotated through two revolutions to open the jaws by 1 mm.
Figure 10: The micrometer screw gauge

In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the jaws and the thimble is rotated using the ratchet until
the object is secured. Note that the ratchet knob must be used to secure the object firmly between the jaws,
otherwise the instrument could be damaged or give an inconsistent reading. The manufacturer recommends 3 clicks
of the ratchet before taking the reading. The lock may be used to ensure that the thimble does not rotate while you
take the reading.
The first significant figure is taken from the last graduation showing on the sleeve directly to the left of the revolving
thimble. Note that an additional half scale division (0.5 mm) must be included if the mark below the main scale is
visible between the thimble and the main scale division on the sleeve. The remaining two significant figures
(hundredths of a millimetre) are taken directly from the thimble opposite the main scale.

Figure 11: The reading is 7.38 mm.

In figure 11 the last graduation visible to the left of the thimble is 7 mm and the thimble lines up with the main scale at
38 hundredths of a millimetre (0.38 mm); therefore the reading is 7.38 mm.
Figure 12: The reading is 7.72 mm.
In figure 12 the last graduation visible to the left of the thimble is 7.5 mm; therefore the reading is 7.5 mm plus the
thimble reading of 0.22 mm, giving 7.72 mm.

Figure 13: The reading is 3.46 mm.

In figure 13 the main scale reading is 3 mm while the reading on the drum is 0.46 mm; therefore, the reading is 3.46
mm.

Figure 14: The reading is 3.56 mm.

In figure 14 the 0.5 mm division is visible below the main scale; therefore the reading is 3.5 mm + 0.06 mm = 3.56
mm
Taking a zero reading
Whenever you use a vernier calipers or a micrometer screw gauge you must always take a –zero reading– i.e. a
reading with the instrument closed. This is because when you close your calipers, you will see that very often (not
always) it does not read zero. Only then open the jaws and place the object to be measured firmly between the jaws
and take the –open– reading. Your actual measurement will then be the difference between your –open– reading and
your –zero– reading.

Recording the result of your vernier measurement

Let us say you take a reading with an object between the jaws of a vernier calipers and you see the following:

Instructions
Things You'll Need:
• Screw-gauge micrometer
1. 1
Choose the correct micrometer for your application, and set the screw on the object you
are measuring. Make sure it is snug but not overtightened.
2. 2
Use the micrometer's locking device to hold the spindle in place.
3. 3
Remove the micrometer and read the linear gauge. This gauge will most likely be
abbreviated so that "24" equals "0.24 inches" or something similar, depending on the
micrometer you are using.
4. 4
Using the horizontal line on the linear scale as a pointer, read the scale on the barrel.
The number of increments on the barrel will depend on the size of the step between
increments on the linear scale. For example, if the linear gauge is divided into quarter
steps, the barrel will have 25 increments.
5. 5
 Screw-gauge reading 5.78 mm.
Combine the readings. In this picture, the linear gauge reads 5.5 mm. Note that this
particular gauge is not abbreviated. The linear gauge is divided into half steps, so the
barrel gauge has 50 increments. This gauge reads "28," which is an abbreviation for
"0.28 mm." The combined rea

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