ELECTRONICS DEVICES ( FLOYD) ◆ Semiconductor atoms have four valence electrons.

Silicon is the
most widely used semi conductive material.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 1
◆ Semiconductor atoms bond together in a symmetrical pattern to
Section 1–1 ◆ According to the classical Bohr model, the atom is viewed as form a solid material called a crystal. The bonds that hold a crystal
having a planetary-type structure with electrons orbiting at various together are called covalent bonds.
distances around the central nucleus.
Section 1–3 ◆
◆ According to the quantum model, electrons do not exist in precise
The valence electrons that manage to escape from their parent atom
circular orbits as particles as in the Bohr model. The electrons can be
are called conduction electrons or free electrons. They have more
waves or particles and precise location at any time is uncertain.
energy than the electrons in the valence band and are free to drift
◆ The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. The throughout the material.
protons have a positive charge and the neutrons are uncharged. The
◆ When an electron breaks away to become free, it leaves a hole in
number of protons is the atomic number of the atom.
the valence band creating what is called an electron-hole pair. These
◆ Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the nucleus at electron-hole pairs are thermally produced because the electron has
distances that depend on their energy level. An atom has discrete acquired enough energy from external heat to break away from its
bands of energy called shells in which the electrons orbit. Atomic atom.
structure allows a certain maximum number of electrons in each shell.
◆ A free electron will eventually lose energy and fall back into a hole.
In their natural state, all atoms are neutral because they have an equal
This is called recombination. Electron-hole pairs are continuously
number of protons and electrons.
being thermally generated so there are always free electrons in the
◆ The outermost shell or band of an atom is called the valence band, material.
and electrons that orbit in this band are called valence electrons. These
◆ When a voltage is applied across the semiconductor, the thermally
electrons have the highest energy of all those in the atom. If a valence
produced free electrons move toward the positive end and form the
electron acquires enough energy from an outside source such as heat, it
current. This is one type of current and is called electron current.
can jump out of the valence band and break away from its atom.
◆ Another type of current is the hole current. This occurs as valence
Section 1–2
electrons move from hole to hole creating, in effect, a movement of
◆ Insulating materials have very few free electrons and do not holes in the opposite direction.
conduct current at all under normal circumstances.
Section 1–4
◆ Materials that are conductors have a large number of free electrons
and conduct current very well.
◆ Semiconductive materials fall in between conductors and insulators
in their ability to conduct current.
 ◆ An n-type semiconductive material is created by adding impurity
atoms that have five valence electrons. These impurities are
pentavalent atoms. A p-type semiconductor is created by adding
impurity atoms with only three valence electrons. These impurities are
trivalent atoms. ◆ The process of adding pentavalent or trivalent
impurities to a semiconductor is called doping.
◆ The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are free electrons
acquired by the doping process, and the minority carriers are holes
produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs. The majority
carriers in a p-type semiconductor are holes acquired by the doping
process, and the minority carriers are free electrons produced by
thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
Section 1–5
◆ A pn junction is formed when part of a material is doped n-type and
part of it is doped p-type. A depletion region forms starting at the
junction that is devoid of any majority carriers. The depletion region is
formed by ionization.
◆ The barrier potential is typically 0.7 V for a silicon diode and 0.3 V
for germanium
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 2
Section 2–1
◆ There is current through a diode only when it is forward-biased. Ideally, there is no
current when there is no bias nor when there is reverse bias. Actually, there is a very
small current in reverse bias due to the thermally generated minority carriers, but this
can usually be neglected.
◆ Avalanche occurs in a reverse-biased diode if the bias voltage equals or exceeds
the breakdown voltage.
◆ A diode conducts current when forward-biased and blocks current when reversed-
biased.
◆ Reverse breakdown voltage for a diode is typically greater than 50 V.
Section 2–2
◆ The V-I characteristic curve shows the diode current as a function of voltage
across the diode.
◆ The resistance of a forward-biased diode is called the dynamic or ac resistance.
◆ Reverse current increases rapidly at the reverse breakdown voltage.
◆ Reverse breakdown should be avoided in most diodes.
Section 2–3
◆ The ideal model represents the diode as a closed switch in forward bias and as an
open switch in reverse bias.
◆ The practical model represents the diode as a switch in series with the barrier ◆ The PIV for each diode in a bridge rectifier is approximately half that required for
potential. an equivalent center-tapped configuration and is equal to the peak output voltage plus
one diode drop.
◆ The complete model includes the dynamic forward resistance in series with the
practical model in forward bias and the reverse resistance in parallel with the open
switch in reverse bias.

Section 2–4
◆ A dc power supply typically consists of a transformer, a diode rectifier, a filter,
and a regulator.
◆ The single diode in a half-wave rectifier is forward-biased and conducts for of the
input cycle.
◆ The output frequency of a half-wave rectifier equals the input frequency.
◆ PIV (peak inverse voltage) is the maximum voltage appearing across the diode in
reverse bias.

Section 2–5
◆ Each diode in a full-wave rectifier is forward-biased and conducts for of the input
cycle.
◆ The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice the input frequency.
◆ The two basic types of full-wave rectifier are center-tapped and bridge.
◆ The peak output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is approximately
one-half of the total peak secondary voltage less one diode drop.
◆ The PIV for each diode in a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is twice the peak
output voltage plus one diode drop.
◆ The peak output voltage of a bridge rectifier equals the total peak secondary
voltage less two diode drops.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 3 ◆ An organic LED (OLED) uses two or three layers of organic material to produce
light. ◆ Quantum dots are semiconductor devices that emit light when energized
Section 3–1
from an external source.
◆ The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown.
◆ The photodiode exhibits an increase in reverse current with light intensity.
◆ There are two breakdown mechanisms in a zener diode: avalanche breakdown and
zener breakdown.
Section 3–5
◆ When zener breakdown is predominant.
◆ The Schottky diode has a metal-to-semiconductor junction. It is used in fast-
◆ When avalanche breakdown is predominant.
switching applications.
◆ A zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a
◆ The tunnel diode is used in oscillator circuits.
specified range of zener currents.
◆ The pin diode has a p region, an n region, and an intrinsic (i) region and displays a
◆ Zener diodes are available in many voltage ratings ranging from less than 1 V to
variable resistance characteristic when forward-biased and a constant capacitance
more than 250 V.
when reverse-biased.
◆ A laser diode is similar to an LED except that it emits coherent (single
Section 3–2 wavelength) light when the forward current exceeds a threshold value.

◆ Zener diodes are used as voltage references, regulators, and limiters.

Section 3–3
◆ A varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor under reverse-bias conditions.
◆ The capacitance of a varactor varies inversely with reverse-bias voltage.
◆ The current regulator diode keeps its forward current at a constant specified value.

Section 3–4
◆ An LED emits light when forward-biased.
◆ LEDs are available for either infrared or visible light. SUMMARY: CHAPTER 4

◆ High-intensity LEDs are used in large-screen displays, traffic lights, automotive Section 4–1
lighting, and home lighting.
◆ The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three regions: base, ◆ Internal transistor resistances are represented by a lowercase r.
collector, and emitter.
◆ The BJT has two pn junctions, the base-emitter junction and the base-collector
Section 4–5
junction.
◆ A transistor can be operated as an electronic switch in cutoff and saturation.
◆ Current in a BJT consists of both free electrons and holes, thus the term bipolar.
◆ In cutoff, both pn junctions are reverse-biased and there is essentially no collector
◆ The base region is very thin and lightly doped compared to the collector and
current. The transistor ideally behaves like an open switch between collector and
emitter regions.
emitter.
◆ The two types of bipolar junction transistor are the npn and the pnp.
◆ In saturation, both pn junctions are forward-biased and the collector current is
maximum. The transistor ideally behaves like a closed switch between collector and
emitter.
Section 4–2
◆ To operate as an amplifier, the base-emitter junction must be forward-biased and
the basecollector junction must be reverse-biased. This is called forward-reverse bias. Section 4–6
◆ The three currents in the transistor are the base current (IB), emitter current (IE),
◆ In a phototransistor, base current is produced by incident light.
and collector current (IC).
◆ A phototransistor can be either a two-lead or a three-lead device.
◆ IB is very small compared to IC and IE.
◆ An optocoupler consists of an LED and a photodiode or phototransistor.
◆ Optocouplers are used to electrically isolate circuits.
Section 4–3
◆ The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of IC to IB and is designated bDC.
Values typically range from less than 20 to several hundred. Section 4–7
◆ bDC is usually referred to as hFE on transistor datasheets. ◆ There are many types of transistor packages using plastic, metal, or ceramic.
◆ The ratio of IC to IE is called aDC. Values typically range from 0.95 to 0.99. ◆ Two basic package types are through-hole and surface mount.
◆ There is a variation in bDC over temperature and also from one transistor to
another of the same type.
Section 4–8
Section 4–4
◆ It is best to check a transistor in-circuit before removing it
◆ When a transistor is forward-reverse biased, the voltage gain depends on the
internal emitter resistance and the external collector resistance. ◆ Common faults in transistor circuits are open junctions, low bDC, excessive
leakage currents, and external opens and shorts on the circuit board.
◆ Voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage.
 ◆ Emitter-feedback bias combines base bias with the addition of an emitter resistor.
◆ Collector-feedback bias provides good stability using negative feedback from
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 5
collector to base
Section 5–1
◆ The purpose of biasing a circuit is to establish a proper stable dc operating point
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 6
(Q-point). ◆
Section 6–1
The Q-point of a circuit is defined by specific values for IC and VCE. These values
are called the coordinates of the Q-point. ◆ A small-signal amplifier uses only a small portion of its load line under signal
conditions.
◆ A dc load line passes through the Q-point on a transistor’s collector curves
intersecting the vertical axis at approximately IC(sat) and the horizontal axis at ◆ The ac load line differs from the dc load line because the effective ac collector
VCE(off). resistance is less than the dc collector resistance.
◆ The linear (active) operating region of a transistor lies along the load line below
saturation and above cutoff.
Section 6–2
◆ r parameters are easily identifiable and applicable with a transistor’s circuit
Section 5–2 operation.
◆ Loading effects are neglected for a stiff voltage divider. ◆ h parameters are important because manufacturers’ datasheets specify transistors
using h parameters.
◆ The dc input resistance at the base of a BJT is approximately BDCRE
◆ Voltage-divider bias provides good Q-point stability with a single-polarity supply
voltage. It is the most common bias circuit. Section 6–3
◆ A common-emitter amplifier has high voltage, current, and power gains, but a
relatively low input resistance.
◆ Swamping is a method of stabilizing the voltage gain.
Section 5–3
Section 6–4
◆ Emitter bias generally provides good Q-point stability but requires both positive
and negative supply voltages. ◆ A common-collector amplifier has high input resistance and high current gain, but
its voltage gain is approximately 1.
◆ The base bias circuit arrangement has poor stability because its Q-point varies
widely with BDC. ◆ A Darlington pair provides beta multiplication for increased input resistance.
◆ A common-collector amplifier is known as an emitter-follower.

Section 6–5
◆ The common-base amplifier has a high voltage gain, but it has a very low input
resistance and its current gain is approximately 1.
◆ Common-emitter, common-collector, and common-base amplifier configurations
are summarized in Table 6–4.
Section 6–6
◆ The total gain of a multistage amplifier is the product of the individual gains (sum
of dB gains).
◆ Single-stage amplifiers can be connected in sequence with capacitively-coupling
and direct coupling methods to form multistage amplifiers.
Section 6–7
◆ A differential input voltage appears between the inverting and noninverting inputs
of a differential amplifier.
◆ In the differential mode, a diff-amp can be operated with single-ended or double-
ended inputs.
◆ In single-ended operation, there is a signal on one input and the other input is
grounded.
◆ In double-ended operation, two signals that are 180° out of phase are on the inputs.
◆ Common-mode occurs when equal in-phase voltages are applied to both input
terminals
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 7
Section 7–1
◆ A class A power amplifier operates entirely in the linear region of the transistor’s
characteristic curves. The transistor conducts during the full of the input cycle.
◆ The Q-point must be centered on the load line for maximum class A output signal
swing.
◆ The maximum efficiency of a class A power amplifier is 25 percent.
Section 7–2
◆ A class B amplifier operates in the linear region for half of the input cycle and it is
in cutoff for the other half.
◆ The Q-point is at cutoff for class B operation.
◆ Class B amplifiers are normally operated in a push-pull configuration in order to
produce an output that is a replica of the input.
◆ The maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier is 79 percent.
◆ A class AB amplifier is biased slightly above cutoff and operates in the linear
region for slightly more than of the input cycle.
◆ Class AB eliminates crossover distortion found in pure class B.
Section 7–3
◆ A class C amplifier operates in the linear region for only a small part of the input
cycle.
◆ The class C amplifier is biased below cutoff.
◆ Class C amplifiers are normally operated as tuned amplifiers to produce a
sinusoidal output.
◆ The maximum efficiency of a class C amplifier is higher than that of either class A
or class B amplifiers. Under conditions of low power dissipation and high output
power, the efficiency can approach 100 percent.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 8
Section 8–1
◆ Field-effect transistors are unipolar devices (one-charge carrier).
◆ The three FET terminals are source, drain, and gate.
◆ The JFET operates with a reverse-biased pn junction (gate-to-source).
◆ The high input resistance of a JFET is due to the reverse-biased gate-source
junction.
◆ Reverse bias of a JFET produces a depletion region within the channel, thus
increasing channel resistance.
Section 8–2 ◆
For an n-channel JFET, VGS can vary from zero negatively to cutoff, VGS(off). For a
p-channel JFET, VGS can vary from zero positively to VGS(off).
◆ IDSS is the constant drain current when VGS = 0. This is true for both JFETs and
D-MOSFETs. ◆ A FET is called a square-law device because of the relationship of
ID to the square of a term containing VGS.
Section 8–3
◆ Midpoint bias for a JFET is ID = IDSS 2, obtained by setting VGS VGS(off) 3.4.
◆ The Q-point in a JFET with voltage-divider bias is more stable than in a self-
biased JFET.
◆ Current-source bias increases the stability of a self-biased JFET.
Section 8–4 ◆ A JFET used as a variable resistor is biased in the ohmic region.
◆ To bias in the ohmic region, ID must be much smaller than IDSS.
◆ The gate voltage controls RDS in the ohmic region. ◆ When a JFET is biased at
the origin (VDS =0, ID = 0), the ac channel resistance is controlled by the gate
voltage.
Section 8–5
◆ MOSFETs differ from JFETs in that the gate of a MOSFET is insulated from the
channel by an SiO2 layer, whereas the gate and channel in a JFET are separated by a
pn junction.
◆ A depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET) can operate with a zero, positive, or negative
gate-tosource voltage.
◆ The D-MOSFET has a physical channel between the drain and source.
◆ For an n-channel D-MOSFET, negative values of VGS produce the depletion
mode and positive values produce the enhancement mode.
◆ The enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET) has no physical channel.
◆ Unlike JFETs and D-MOSFETs, the E-MOSFET cannot operate with VGS =0 V.
◆ A channel is induced in an E-MOSFET by the application of a VGS greater than
the threshold value, VGS(th).
Section 8–6
◆ An E-MOSFET has no IDSS parameter. It is extremely small, if specified (ideally
0).
◆ An n-channel E-MOSFET has a positive VGS(th). A p-channel E-MOSFET has a
negative VGS(th).
◆ The transfer characteristic curve for a D-MOSFET intersects the vertical ID axis.
◆ The transfer characteristic curve for an E-MOSFET does not intersect the ID axis.
◆ All MOS devices are subject to damage from electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Section 8–7
◆ Midpoint bias for a D-MOSFET is ID = IDSS obtained by setting VGS = 0.
◆ The gate of a zero-biased D-MOSFET is at 0 V due to a large resistor to ground.
◆ An E-MOSFET must have a VGS greater than the threshold value.
Section 8–8
◆ The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the input characteristics of
a MOSFET with the output characteristics of a BJT.
◆ The IGBT has three terminals: emitter, gate, and collector.
◆ IGBTs are used in high-voltage switching applications.
Section 8–9
◆ An open gate is hard to detect in a zero-biased D-MOSFET because the gate is
normally at 0 V; however, erratic behavior may occur.
◆ An open gate is easy to detect in an E-MOSFET because the gate is normally at a
voltage other than 0 V.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 9
Section 9–1
◆ The transconductance, gm, of a FET relates the output current, Id, to the input
voltage, Vgs.
◆ The voltage gain of a common-source amplifier is determined largely by the
transconductance, gm, and the drain resistance, Rd.
◆ The internal drain-to-source resistance, of a FET influences (reduces) the gain if it
is not sufficiently greater than Rd so that it can be neglected.
◆ An unbypassed resistance between source and ground (RS) reduces the voltage
gain of a FET amplifier.
◆ A load resistance connected to the drain of a common-source amplifier reduces the
voltage gain.
◆ There is a phase inversion between gate and drain voltages.
◆ The input resistance at the gate of a FET is extremely high.
Section 9–2
◆ The voltage gain of a common-drain amplifier (source-follower) is always slightly
less than 1.
◆ There is no phase inversion between gate and source in a source-follower.
Section 9–3
◆ The input resistance of a common-gate amplifier is the reciprocal of gm.
◆ The cascode amplifier combines a CS amplifier and a CG amplifier.
Section 9–4
◆ The class D amplifier is a nonlinear amplifier because the transistors operate as
switches.
◆ The class D amplifier uses pulse-width modulation (PWM) to represent the input
signal.
◆ A low-pass filter converts the PWM signal back to the original input signal.
◆ The efficiency of a class D amplifier approaches 100%.
Section 9–5
◆ An analog switch passes or blocks an analog signal when turned on or off by a
digital control input.
◆ A sampling circuit is an analog switch that is turned on for short time intervals to
allow a sufficient number of discrete input signal values to appear on the output so
that the input signal can be accurately represented by those discrete values.
◆ An analog multiplexer consists of two or more analog switches that connect
sampled portions of their analog input signals to a single output in a time sequence.
◆ Switched-capacitors are used to emulate resistance in programmable IC analog
arrays.
Section 9–6
◆ Complementary MOS (CMOS) is used in low-power digital switching circuits.
◆ CMOS uses an n-channel MOSFET and a p-channel MOSFET connected in series.
◆ The inverter, NAND gate, and NOR gate are examples of digital logic circuits.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 10
Section 10–1
◆ The coupling and bypass capacitors of an amplifier affect the low-frequency
response.
◆ The internal transistor capacitances affect the high-frequency response.
Section 10–2
◆ The decibel is a logarithmic unit of measurement for power gain and voltage gain.
◆ A decrease in voltage gain to 70.7% of midrange value is a reduction of 3 dB.
◆ A halving of the voltage gain corresponds to a reduction of 6 dB.
◆ The dBm is a unit for measuring power levels referenced to 1 mW.
◆ Critical frequencies are values of frequency at which the RC circuits reduce the
voltage gain to 70.7% of its midrange value.
Section 10–3
◆ Each RC circuit causes the gain to drop at a rate of 20 dB/decade.
◆ For the low-frequency RC circuits, the highest critical frequency is the dominant
critical frequency.
◆ A decade of frequency change is a ten-times change (increase or decrease).
◆ An octave of frequency change is a two-times change (increase or decrease).
Section 10–4
◆ For the high-frequency RC circuits, the lowest critical frequency is the dominant
critical frequency.
Section 10–5
◆ The bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies between the dominant
lower critical frequency and the dominant upper critical frequency.
◆ The gain-bandwidth product is a transistor parameter that is constant and equal to
the unity-gain frequency.
Section 10–6
◆ The dominant critical frequencies of a multistage amplifier establish the
bandwidth.
Section 10–7
◆ Two frequency response measurement methods are frequency/amplitude and step.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 11
Section 11–1
◆ Thyristors are devices constructed with four semiconductor layers (pnpn).
◆ Thyristors include 4-layer diodes, SCRs, LASCRs, diacs, triacs, SCSs, and PUTs.
◆ The 4-layer diode is a thyristor that conducts when the voltage across its terminals
exceeds the breakover potential.
Section 11–2
◆ The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) can be triggered on by a pulse at the gate
and turned off by reducing the anode current below the specified holding value.
◆ Light acts as the trigger source in light-activated SCRs (LASCRs).
Section 11–4
◆ The diac can conduct current in either direction and is turned on when a breakover
voltage is exceeded. It turns off when the current drops below the holding value.
◆ The triac, like the diac, is a bidirectional device. It can be turned on by a pulse at
the gate and conducts in a direction depending on the voltage polarity across the two
anode terminals.
Section 11–5
◆ The silicon-controlled switch (SCS) has two gate terminals and can be turned on
by a pulse at the cathode gate and turned off by a pulse at the anode gate.
Section 11–6
◆ The intrinsic standoff ratio of a unijunction transistor (UJT) determines the voltage
at which the device will trigger on.
Section 11–7 ◆ Slew rate is the rate in volts per microsecond at which the output voltage of an op-
amp can change in response to a step input.
◆ The programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) can
◆ Noise degrades the performance of an amplifier by the introduction of an
unwanted signal.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 12
Section 12–3
Section 12–1
◆ Negative feedback occurs when a portion of the output voltage is connected back
◆ The basic op-amp has three terminals not including power and ground: inverting to the inverting input such that it subtracts from the input voltage, thus reducing the
input, noninverting () input, and output. voltage gain but increasing the stability and bandwidth.

◆ A differential amplifier forms the input stage of an op-amp. Section 12–4

◆ Most op-amps require both a positive and a negative dc supply voltage. ◆ There are three basic op-amp configurations: inverting, noninverting, and voltage-
follower.
◆ The ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, infinite
open-loop voltage gain, and infinite bandwidth. ◆ The three basic op-amp configurations employ negative feedback.

◆ A practical op-amp has very high input impedance, very low output impedance, ◆ Closed-loop voltage gain is the gain of an op-amp with external feedback.
and very high open-loop voltage gain.
Section 12–5
Section 12–2
◆ A noninverting amplifier configuration has a higher input impedance and a lower
◆ Two types of op-amp input operation are the differential mode and the common output impedance than the op-amp itself (without feedback).
mode.
◆ An inverting amplifier configuration has an input impedance approximately equal
◆ Common mode occurs when equal in-phase voltages are applied to both input to the input resistor Ri and an output impedance approximately equal to the output
terminals. impedance of the op-amp itself.

◆ The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a measure of an op-amp’s ability to ◆ The voltage-follower has the highest input impedance and the lowest output
reject common-mode inputs. impedance of the three amplifier configurations.

◆ Open-loop voltage gain is the gain of an op-amp with no external feedback Section 12–6
connections.
◆ All practical op-amps have small input bias currents and input offset voltages that
◆ Input offset voltage produces an output error voltage (with no input voltage). produce small output error voltages.

◆ Input bias current also produces an output error voltage (with no input voltage). ◆ The input bias current effect can be compensated for with external resistors.

◆ Input offset current is the difference between the two bias currents. ◆ The input offset voltage can be compensated for with an external potentiometer
between the two offset null pins provided on the IC op-amp package and as
recommended by the manufacturer.
Section 12–7
◆ The closed-loop voltage gain is always less than the open-loop voltage gain.
◆ The midrange gain of an op-amp extends down to dc.
◆ The gain of an op-amp decreases as frequency increases above the critical
frequency.
◆ The bandwidth of an op-amp equals the upper critical frequency.
◆ The open-loop response curve of a compensated op-amp rolls off at above fc.
Section 12–8
◆ The internal RC lag circuits that are inherently part of the amplifier stages cause
the gain to roll off as frequency goes up.
◆ The internal RC lag circuits also cause a phase shift between input and output
signals.
◆ Negative feedback lowers the gain and increases the bandwidth.
◆ The product of gain and bandwidth is constant for a given op-amp.
◆ The gain-bandwidth product equals the frequency at which unity voltage gain
occurs.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 13
Section 13-1
◆ In an op-amp comparator, when the input voltage exceeds a specified reference
voltage, the output changes state.
◆ Hysteresis gives an op-amp noise immunity.
◆ A comparator switches to one state when the input reaches the upper trigger point
(UTP) and back to the other state when the input drops below the lower trigger point
(LTP).
◆ The difference between the UTP and the LTP is the hysteresis voltage.
◆ Bounding limits the output amplitude of a comparator.
Section 13–2
◆ The output voltage of a summing amplifier is proportional to the sum of the input
voltages.
◆ An averaging amplifier is a summing amplifier with a closed-loop gain equal to
the reciprocal of the number of inputs.
◆ In a scaling adder, a different weight can be assigned to each input, thus making
the input contribute more or contribute less to the output.
Section 13–3
◆ Integration is a mathematical process for determining the area under a curve.
◆ Integration of a step input produces a ramp output with a slope proportional to the
amplitude.
◆ Differentiation is a mathematical process for determining the rate of change of a
function.
◆ Differentiation of a ramp input produces a step output with an amplitude
proportional to the slope.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 14
Section 14–1
◆ A basic instrumentation amplifier is formed by three op-amps and seven resistors,
including the gain-setting resistor
◆ An instrumentation amplifier has high input impedance, high CMRR, low output
offset, and low output impedance.
◆ The voltage gain of a basic instrumentation amplifier is set by a single external
resistor.
◆ An instrumentation amplifier is useful in applications where small signals are
embedded in large common-mode noise.
Section 14–2
◆ A basic isolation amplifier has electrically isolated input and output stages.
◆ Isolation amplifiers use capacitive, optical, or transformer coupling for isolation.
◆ Isolation amplifiers are used to interface sensitive equipment with high-voltage
environments and to provide protection from electrical shock in certain medical
applications.
Section 14–3
◆ The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is a voltage-to-current
amplifier.
◆ The output current of an OTA is the input voltage times the transconductance.
◆ In an OTA, transconductance varies with bias current; therefore, the gain of an
OTA can be varied with a bias voltage or a variable resistor.
Section 14–4
◆ The operation of log and antilog amplifiers is based on the nonlinear (logarithmic)
characteristics of a pn junction.
◆ A log amplifier has a pn junction in the feedback loop, and an antilog amplifier has
a pn junction in series with the input.
Section 14–5
◆ A constant-current source delivers the same load current regardless of load
resistance (within limits).
◆ In a peak detector, an op-amp is used as a comparator to charge a capacitor
through a diode to the peak value of the input voltage. It is useful in measuring peak
voltage surges.
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 15
Section 15–1
◆ In filter terminology, a single RC circuit is called a pole.
◆ The bandwidth in a low-pass filter equals the critical frequency because the
response extends to 0 Hz.
◆ The passband of a high-pass filter extends above the critical frequency and is
limited only by the inherent frequency limitation of the active circuit
◆ A band-pass filter passes all frequencies within a band between a lower and an
upper critical frequency and rejects all others outside this band.
◆ The bandwidth of a band-pass filter is the difference between the upper critical
frequency and the lower critical frequency.
◆ The quality factor Q of a band-pass filter determines the filter’s selectivity. The
higher the Q, the narrower the bandwidth and the better the selectivity.
◆ A band-stop filter rejects all frequencies within a specified band and passes all
those outside this band.
Section 15–2
◆ Filters with the Butterworth response characteristic have a very flat response in the
passband, exhibit a roll-off of and are used when all the frequencies in the passband
must have the same gain.
◆ Filters with the Chebyshev characteristic have ripples or overshoot in the passband
and exhibit a faster roll-off per pole than filters with the Butterworth characteristic.
◆ Filters with the Bessel characteristic are used for filtering pulse waveforms. Their
linear phase characteristic results in minimal waveshape distortion. The roll-off rate
per pole is slower than for the Butterworth.
◆ Each pole in a Butterworth filter causes the output to roll off at a rate of
◆ The damping factor determines the filter response characteristic (Butterworth,
Chebyshev, or Bessel).
Section 15–3
◆ Single-pole low-pass filters have a roll-off.
◆ The Sallen-Key low-pass filter has two poles (second order) and has a roll-off.
◆ Each additional filter in a cascaded arrangement adds to the roll-off rate.
Section 15–4 ◆ The two conditions for positive feedback are the phase shift around the feedback
loop must be and the voltage gain around the feedback loop must equal 1.
◆ Single-pole high-pass filters have a roll-off.
◆ For initial start-up, the voltage gain around the feedback loop must be greater than
◆ The Sallen-Key high-pass filter has two poles (second order) and has a roll-off.
1.
◆ Each additional filter in a cascaded arrangement adds to the roll-off rate.
Section 16–3
◆ The response of an active high-pass filter is limited by the internal op-amp roll-off.
◆ Sinusoidal RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge, phase-shift, and twin-T.
Section 15–5
Section 16–4
◆ Band-pass filters pass a specified band of frequencies.
◆ Sinusoidal LC oscillators include the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong, and
◆ A band-pass filter can be achieved by cascading a low-pass and a high-pass filter. crystalcontrolled.
◆ The multiple-feedback band-pass filter uses two feedback paths to achieve its
◆ The feedback signal in a Colpitts oscillator is derived from a capacitive voltage
response characteristic.
divider in the LC circuit.
◆ The state-variable band-pass filter uses a summing amplifier and two integrators.
◆ The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts with a capacitor added in series
◆ The biquad filter consists of an integrator followed by an inverting amplifier and a
with the inductor.
second integrator.
◆ The feedback signal in a Hartley oscillator is derived from an inductive voltage
Section 15–6
divider in the LC circuit.
◆ Band-stop filters reject a specified band of frequencies.
◆ The feedback signal in an Armstrong oscillator is derived by transformer coupling.
◆ Multiple-feedback and state-variable are common types of band-stop filters. ◆ Crystal oscillators are the most stable type of feedback oscillator.
Section 15–7
Section 16–5
◆ Filter response can be measured using discrete point measurement or swept
◆ A relaxation oscillator uses an RC timing circuit and a device that changes states
frequency measurement.
to generate a periodic waveform.
◆ The frequency in a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) can be varied with a dc
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 16 control voltage.

Section 16–1 Section 16–6

◆ Sinusoidal feedback oscillators operate with positive feedback. ◆ The 555 timer is an integrated circuit that can be used as an oscillator, in addition
to many other applications.
◆ Relaxation oscillators use an RC timing circuit.
Section 16–2
SUMMARY: CHAPTER 17
Section 17–1 ◆ The 78XX series are three-terminal IC regulators with fixed positive output
voltage.
◆ Voltage regulators keep a constant dc output voltage when the input or load varies
within limits. ◆ The 79XX series are three-terminal IC regulators with fixed negative output
voltage.
◆ Line regulation is the percentage change in the output voltage for a given change
in the input voltage of a regulator. ◆ The LM317 is a three-terminal IC regulator with a positive variable output
voltage.
◆ Load regulation is the percentage change in output voltage for a given change in
load current. ◆ The LM337 is a three-terminal IC regulator with a negative variable output
voltage.
Section 17–2
◆ A basic voltage regulator consists of a reference voltage source, an error detector,
a sampling element, and a control device. Protection circuitry is also found in most Section 17–6
regulators.
◆ An external pass transistor increases the current capability of a regulator.
◆ Two basic categories of voltage regulators are linear and switching.
◆ Two basic types of linear regulators are series and shunt.
◆ In a linear series regulator, the control element is a transistor in series with the
load.
Section 17–3
◆ In a linear shunt regulator, the control element is a transistor in parallel with the
load.
Section 17–4
◆ Three configurations for switching regulators are step-down, step-up, and
inverting.
◆ Switching regulators are more efficient than linear regulators and are particularly
useful in low-voltage, high-current applications.
Section 17–5
◆ Three-terminal linear IC regulators are available for either fixed output or variable
output voltages of positive or negative polarities.