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Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
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Accidental Ammonia Release Modeling from Saudi Arabian Fertilizer Company (SAFCO), Saudi Arabia View project
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This study investigates the impact of accidental release of Chlorine gas in surrounding areas. The impact is
studied using standard dispersion modeling techniques considering various locations with different surface
conditions (urban or rural) in different seasons and meteorological conditions. The affected areas which are
harmful to human exposures at different levels are detected using Areal Locations of Hazardous
Atmospheres (ALOHA) Software. The affected areas are divided into three level of concerns namely red
zone, orange zone, yellow zone. Red zone is the affected area in which there is severe concentration of toxic
gas and exposure to which may cause life threatening health effects or even death. Exposure to Orange Zone
may cause long lasting adverse health effects and in Yellow zone average individual may feel notable
discomfort, irritation but reversible upon cessation of exposure. The modeling was performed for an
accidental release of 1.6 tons chlorine gas from a horizontal cylindrical tank lasting for one hour. For a
typical summer atmospheric condition of Bangladesh, this accidental chlorine release would cause a red
zone of 1.1 kilometers, orange zone of 3.6 kilometers and yellow zone stretching to 7.0 kilometers to
downwind from the source. Variation in the different threat zones are observed in the article due to change in
temperature, wind velocity and surface roughness (ground condition).
*
Corresponding Author: Rajesh Paul,
E-mail: rajesh07@che.buet.ac.bd
zones with an exposure time of 60 minutes. Among the wide varieties of available software the
ALOHA uses the heavy gas dispersion model to ALOHA has been used to calculate the
calculate the concentration of released chlorine. concentration of the released chlorine. It is a
Chlorine gas is heavier than air and its initial program designed to model chemical releases for
behavior will be different from a neutrally buoyant emergency responders and planners. ALOHA
gas. In this paper, section 2 describes dispersion allows modeling of many release scenarios: toxic
techniques of the pollutants; software selection is gas clouds, Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor
discussed in section 3 and section 4 presents Explosions (BLEVE), jet fires, vapor cloud
modeling of released chlorine in the surrounding explosions and pool fires. Depending on the release
areas for a hypothetical accident. The effects of scenario, ALOHA evaluates the corresponding type
wind velocity, temperature and surface roughness of hazard. ALOHA displays its estimate as a threat
on dispersion is also observed in section 4. zone, which is an area where hazards (such as
2. DISPERSION TECHNIQUES toxicity, flammability, thermal radiation or
damaging overpressure) exceed a user-specified
The airborne transport of toxic material away from level of concern. It is possible to generate a variety
the accident site is carried away by the wind as a of scenario-specific outputs, including threat zone
Plume or puff. The continuous release of a toxic plots, threats at specific locations and source
material forms plume. In hydrodynamics, a plume strength graphs. ALOHA also defines its limitation
is a column of one fluid moving through another. clearly and state the reason behind. For example it
When a plume moves away from its source, it cannot make predictions further than 10 kilometers
usually widens due to entrainment of the downwind from a release point. There are several
surrounding fluid at its edges. The motion of the reasons that imposed this limitation on ALOHA.
fluid is controlled by wind velocity, buoyancy and The primary reason for this cutoff is related to the
momentum of the released material, ground equations ALOHA uses to predict threat zone
condition, atmospheric conditions, and release length.
height above the ground., The released material is
carried downwind faster and a plume becomes 4. DISPERSION MODELING OF
larger and narrower whenever there exists higher CHLORINE GAS
wind velocity. On the other hand, puff model
describes the temporal concentration of a material Chlorine is used in different purposes such as
from the sudden release of a fixed amount of the bleaching agent, in the preparation of chlorides,
material. A large vapour cloud moves downwind chlorinated solvents, pesticides, polymers, synthetic
from the release point and dissipates by mixing rubbers and refrigerants. It is a greenish yellow gas
with fresh air. and heavier than air. Chlorine is a respiratory
irritant. The severity of health effects depend upon
For instantaneous release of a material of fixed the route of exposure, the dose and the duration of
mass into air, Equation 1, together with appropriate exposure to Chlorine. Following chlorine exposure,
boundary and initial conditions, forms the the most common symptoms are: airway irritation,
fundamental basis for dispersion modeling (Crowl wheezing, breathing difficulty, sore throat, cough,
and Louvar, 2002). chest tightness, eye irritation, skin irritation etc.
214
available to date and all three tiers (AEGL-1, The red (AEGL-3) threat zone which is the
AEGL-2, and AEGL-3) are developed for five area with the greatest exposure level is
exposure periods: 10 minutes, 30 minutes, 60 predicted to extend more than 1 km
minutes, 4 hours and 8 hours. downwind the source.
The orange (AEGL-2) threat zone is
Table 1: AEGLs for Chlorine exposure in ppm. predicted to extend more than 3.5 km
downwind of the source.
Exposure Toxic level
Time The yellow (AEGL-1) threat zone is
AEGL-3 AEGL-2 AEGL-1
predicted to extend 7 km
10 minutes 50 2.8 0.5
4.2.3 Effect of Wind Velocity: The dispersion of a
30 minutes 28 2.8 0.5
fluid in air depends on wind velocity. In presence
60 minutes 20 2.0 0.5 of higher wind velocity, the released material is
4 hours 10 1.0 0.5 carried downwind faster and a plume becomes
8 hours 7.1 0.71 0.5 larger and narrower. For the described hypothetical
chlorine release, results of the variation of wind
AEGL-3 is the airborne concentration (expressed as speed on the dispersion of toxic chlorine gas in air
ppm or mg/m3) of a substance above which it is are presented in Table 2.
predicted that the general population could Table 2: Variation of different threat zones with
experience life-threatening health effects or death. wind velocities
AEGL-2 is the airborne concentration (expressed as
ppm or mg/m3) of a substance above which it is Wind Red Orange Yellow
predicted that the general population could velocity Zone Zone Zone
experience irreversible or other serious, long- (mph) (Km) (Km) (Km)
lasting adverse health effects. AEGL-1 is the 6.5 1.5 5.0 9.9
airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or 7.5 1.1 3.6 7.0
mg/m3) of a substance above which it is predicted 8.5 1.1 3.5 6.7
that the general population could experience 10 0.99 3.3 6.3
notable discomfort and irritation. However, the 12 0.90 3.0 5.9
effects are not disabling and are transient and
reversible upon cessation of exposure. From Table 2, it is observed that the length of red
zone (average chlorine concentration in 60 minutes
4.2 Dispersion Modeling of Chlorine Release is more than 20 ppm), orange zone (average
chlorine concentration in 60 minutes is more than 2
4.2.1 Release Description: This describes a ppm) and yellow zone (average chlorine
hypothetical case of chlorine release from Global concentration in 60 minutes is more than 0.5 ppm)
Heavy Chemicals Limited, a Chlor-alkali plant decrease with increasing wind velocity due to
situated at keranigonj in Dhaka. Let’s assume that higher washout of plume by higher wind velocity.
due to leakage in a storage tank, approximately 1.6 With the help of higher wind velocity, the released
tons of chlorine was directly released into the gas is dispersed in the larger area within a short
atmosphere from the storage through a circular span of time reducing the area of higher
hole with a diameter of 1 inch. The diameter of concentration.
the cylindrical storage tank is 6 feet and the length
is 15 feet. The temperature is 31oC, in presence of 4.2.4 Effect of Surface Roughness: Surface
the wind travelling from the southeast direction at roughness is the roughness of the ground over
7.5 miles per hour. The sky is assumed to be more which a pollutant cloud moves. Degree of ground
than half covered by clouds and the humidity is 75 roughness depends on the size and number of
percent. roughness elements, which can range in size
4.2.2 Results: Figure 1 shows the ALOHA's threat starting from blades of grass to buildings. Ground
zone plot for one hour accidental release of 1.6 tons conditions affect mechanical mixing at the surface
of chlorine from a horizontal cylindrical tank. The and the wind profile with height (Crowl and
area is considered an open country. On the plot the Louvar, 2002). Trees and buildings increase mixing
red, orange and yellow regions represent the areas while lakes and open areas decrease it. For the
where chlorine concentrations are predicted to described hypothetical chlorine release case, results
exceed the corresponding LOC values (the AEGL of the variation of surface roughness on the
values for 60 minutes exposure time) at some time dispersion of toxic chlorine gas in air are presented
after the release begins. in Table 3. Ground roughness increases mechanical
mixing, roughness elements for example buildings,
215
trees increase mixing of air and the pollutant cloud described hypothetical chlorine release case, results
and dilute the pollutant gas. So, from Table 3, it is of the variation of temperature on the dispersion of
observed that threat zones become smaller with toxic chlorine gas in air are presented in Table 4.
increasing surface roughness.
Moderate to strong incoming solar radiation heats
4.2.5 Effect of Temperature: Atmospheric air near the ground causing it to rise and generates
stability depends on air temperature (Turner, 1973). large eddies. Therefore, from Table 4 it is observed
Atmospheric stability relates to vertical mixing that chlorine gas is dispersed more at higher
during the day when air temperature decreases temperature. Thereby threat zones increase with air
rapidly with height and encouraging vertical temperature. On the other hand, for relatively weak
motion. The atmosphere may be more or less solar radiation, air near the surface has a reduced
turbulent at any given time, depending on the tendency to rise and less turbulence develops.
amount of incoming solar radiation. For the
Figure 1: Different threat zones (red, orange and yellow zone) for Chlorine release.
Table 3: Variation of different threat zones with Table 4: Variation of different threat zones with
surface roughness. Temperatures.
Surface Red Yellow Temperature Red Orange Yellow
roughness, Zone Zone (0C) Zone Zone Zone
Z0 (cm) (Km) (Km) (Km) (Km) (Km)
3 (Open country) 1.1 7.0 18 0.94 3.1 6.0
5 1.1 6.7 25 1.0 3.4 6.4
8 0.99 6.3 31 1.1 3.6 7.0
10 0.96 6.2 37 1.3 3.8 7.5
50 0.96 6.2
216
5. CONCLUSIONS 2. Bosanquet, C. H., & Pearson, J. L. (1936).
“The spread of smoke and gases from
Dispersion modeling of released chlorine gas from chimneys”. Trans. Faraday Soc., 32, 1249-
a horizontal cylindrical storage tank is carried out 1263.
using software ALOHA. For accidental release of 3. Crowl, D. A., & Louvar, J. F. (2002). Chemical
1.6 tons chlorine gas from a horizontal cylindrical process safety: fundamentals with applications.
tank through a hole of diameter 1 inch, affected Pearson Education, 2002.
area is divided into red zone, orange zone and 4. Eidsvik, K. J. (1980). “A model for heavy gas
yellow zone. dispersion in the atmosphere”. Atmospheric
The length of red zone (average chlorine Environment (1967), 14(7), 769-777.
5. Labovský, J., & Jelemenský, L. (2010). “CFD
concentration in 60 minutes is more than 20
simulations of ammonia dispersion using
ppm) has been estimated to be 1.1 kilometers,
dynamic boundary conditions”. Process Safety
orange zone (average chlorine concentration in
and Environmental Protection, 88(4), 243-252.
60 minutes is more than 2 ppm) 3.6 kilometers
and yellow zone (average chlorine 6. Labovský, J., & Jelemenský, L. (2011).
“Verification of CFD pollution dispersion
concentration in 60 minutes is more than 0.5
modelling based on experimental data”.
ppm) 7 kilometers, respectively downwind from
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
the source.
Industries, 24(2), 166-177.
With all other conditions constant, a threat zone
7. Li, S., Sun, X., & Liu, L. (2012) “The
is likely to be smaller with increasing ground
ALOHA-based Consequence Analysis of
roughness and wind velocity.
Liquefied Ammonia Leakage Accident”.
The length of a threat zone is likely to rise with
8. Mondal, A. and Paul, R. (2013), Dispersion
increasing temperature as temperature affects
Modelling of Accidental Release of Toxic
atmospheric stability.
Gases, B. Sc. Engg. thesis, Bangladesh
University of Engineering & Technology,
Though average atmospheric conditions of
Dhaka
Bangladesh have been taken into account for the
9. Nielsen, M., Ott, S., Jørgensen, H. E.,
formulation of this modeling, the real situation may
Bengtsson, R., Nyrén, K., Winter, S., ... &
differ from the average value leading to a
Jones, C. (1997). “Field experiments with
considerable change in the results. So care must be
dispersion of pressure liquefied ammonia”.
taken in the interpretation of the results.
Journal of hazardous materials, 56(1), 59-105.
10. Sutton, O. G. “The theoretical distribution of
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<http://www.epa.gov/oppt/aegl/ index.htm> 11. Turner, D. B. (1973). Workbook of
atmospheric dispersion estimates. US
Government Printing Office.
217