TRAINING FOR IMPROVED VERTICAL JUMP

SSE#53-Volume 7 (1994) Number 6

William J. Kraemer, Ph.D.

Associate Professor of Applied Physiology
Center for Sports Medicine
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA
Member, Education Advisory Board
Gatorade Sports Science Institute
Robert U. Newton, MHMS
Lecturer for Biomechanics
Center for Exercise Science and Sport Management
Southern Cross University
Lismore, NSW, Australia

KEY POINTS

1. Vertical jump performance is determined by a complex interaction among several factors,

including the maximal force that the involved musculature can develop, how fast that force can
be developed, and the neural coordination of the movement.

2. A portion of the power developed during a vertical jump is derived from the stretch-shortening
cycle that enhances muscular force by evoking the stretch reflex, and utilizes elastic energy
stored in stretched tissues.

3. The vertical jump is a complex multi-joint movement that requires muscle coordination best
improved by specific skill development.

4. Traditional strength training, explosive types of weight training, plyometrics, and Olympic
lifting can be effective for increasing vertical jump. The form of training that is most effective is
determined by the relative strengths and weaknesses of the athlete.
 

INTRODUCTION

The predominant requirement for success in a large number of athletic skills is explosive power.
For the lower body, this is perhaps best exemplified by the vertical jump. During vertical
jumping, the muscles about the hips, knees, and ankles act rapidly and with great force in an
attempt to produce the greatest possible velocity of the body as it leaves the ground; the jump
height is ultimately determined by the takeoff velocity. This article addresses the factors that
contribute to vertical jumping ability and describes the training strategies that have been shown
to be effective in achieving maximal jump performance.
 

STRENGTH VERSUS POWER: TESTING THE COMPONENTS OF VERTICAL

JUMPING PERFORMANCE

Dynamic strength is defined as the maximal ability of a muscle to exert force or torque at a
specified velocity (Knuttgen & Kraemer, 1987) and is often assessed by using a one-repetition-
maximum (1 RM) test, in which strength is defined as the maximal weight an athlete can lift one
time through the entire range of motion. However, tests of 1 RM strength are of limited practical
value because this specific type of strength is employed in only a few athletic endeavors, such as
power lifting. Most sports require the explosive application of force to accelerate the body or
limb, whereas 1 RM strength tests do not require rapid acceleration to produce the necessary
force. In fact, 1 RM type of strength is maximized during slow muscle actions and minimized as
the velocity of movement increases (Figure 1). Conversely vertical jump performance requires
great power; that is, the ability to exert force rapidly through a vertical distance.

Obviously the ultimate test of vertical jumping ability is simply to measure the height of the
athlete's vertical jump. However, various other tests can be used to assess different components
of vertical jump performance, including the athlete's maximal leg strength, the maximal rate at
which force can be developed, the ability of the athlete to increase power by employing the
stretch-shortening cycle during the crouch before the jump, the ability of the athlete to generate
maximal mechanical power, and the athlete's ability to coordinate the movements involved in
jumping (Table 1). Using such tests on a regular basis could be important in helping the coach to
determine which component is deficient so that training can be implemented to address the
deficiency and to provide motivation to the athlete.

Lower body strength in the jump movement can be assessed by 1 RM squat or leg press. For a
complete analysis of rate of force development, maximal mechanical power, and ability to
employ the stretch-shortening cycle, a force plate is the instrument of choice. However, some
measures can be recorded with less sophisticated equipment. For example, the height of a jump
initiated by a crouch or squat performed either slowly (static crouch) or rapidly (counter
movement crouch) can be measured using the jump-and-reach test or an electronic contact mat
with timer attached. In addition, many aspects of jump performance can be appraised by
measuring the time in contact with the ground and flight times for jumping upward immediately
after dropping down from various heights (drop jumps) (Bosco et al., 1982; Schmidtbleicher et
al., 1988). These variables can also be measured using a simple electronic contact mat with a
timing device to record the contact and flight times (Bosco, 1992a, b). For a detailed explanation
of the methods for assessing various muscle functions during a vertical jump, the interested
reader is referred to Bosco (1992a, b).
Figure 1. Force: velocity power relaationship for skeletal muscle. Vm, Pm, and Fm are , maximal
movement velocity, maximal power output, and maximal isometric force output, respectively
(adapted from Fau;kner et al., 1986).

Vertical jump component Test characteristics

Maximal strength
Maximal force of rate
development
Stretch-shortening cycle
ability
High-velocity force
production
Maximal mechanical power
Jumping skills and muscle
coordination
Squat or leg press
Contact time during drop jump when jumping for minimum
contact and maximal height
Difference between squat jump and counter-movement jump
heights
Not easily assessed during vertical jump
Highest power output during vertical jumps with increasing loads
or increasing drop heights
Technique analysis; difference between jump with and without
arm/trunk movement

Table 1. The assessment of the components of vertical jump performance by various test
characteristics.
 

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VERTICAL JUMP PERFORMANCE: ABSOLUTE

STRENGTH AND MAXIMAL RATE OF FORCE DEVELOPMENT

Muscular strength clearly contributes to vertical jump performance, but whether or not an
athlete's jump performance will be improved by concentrating on improving absolute strength
seems to depend on how strong the athlete is at the initiation of a training program. Thus, vertical
jump performance improved markedly following strength training in subjects who began training
with only average strength (Adams et al., 1992; Bauer et al., 1990; Clutch et al., 1983), but very
little in previously strength-trained individuals (Hakkinen & Komi, 1985a).
 

Maximal Rate of Force Development

It is intuitively obvious that the ability to generate force rapidly is a major contributor to vertical
jump performance. As an extreme example, a very strong individual who tries to smoothly
execute the vertical jump movements slowly over a period of 10 s will never leave the ground.
To examine the maximal rate of force development, scientists determine the maximal slope of
the early portion of the force: time curve during maximal strength tests; it is at this portion of the
curve that the rate of force production is maximal, and the resulting value is termed the maximal
rate of force development (mRFD).

In support of the notion that the maximal rate of force development is important to vertical jump
performance, many investigations have shown that (mRFD) is a very significant factor in
explosive performance (Behm & Sale, 1993b; Hakkinen & Komi, 1985 a, b; Schmidtbleicher,
1992). Surprisingly, however, a recent study on the rate of force development in isometrically
contracting muscles reported a poor relationship between mRFD and vertical jump performance
(Young & Bilby, 1993). This may be due to a methodological problem inherent in isometric
testing, i.e., mRFD is specific to the joint angle at which it is tested. Thus, one is faced with the
dilemma of which joint angle to test when attempting to predict dynamic performance through an
entire range of the movement, as in a vertical jump. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to use
dynamic RFD tests in which a constant load (isoinertial) rather than an isometric load is used.

It is not surprising that training-induced improvements in maximal force during slow movements
do not usually produce great improvements in mRFD or in vertical jump ability. For example,
squat training with heavy loads (70%-120% of 1 RM) improves maximal isometric strength but
not the maximal rate of force development (Hakkinen et al., 1981 ); in fact, such training might
even reduce the ability of the muscles to develop force rapidly (Hakkinen, 1989). On the other
hand, vertical jump training with light loads increases an athlete's ability to rapidly develop force
(Hakkinen et al., 1981). Figure 2 compares the effects of heavy resistance training versus power
training on the isometric RFD curve. Although heavy resistance training increases maximal
strength (and thus the highest point on the force:time curve), this type of training does not
improve vertical jump performance appreciably, especially in athletes who have already been
strength trained for more than 6 mo. This is because the time during which the feet are in contact
with the ground or floor while executing a vertical jump is typically less than 350 ms, and most
of the training-induced increases in force-producing potential cannot be realized over such a
short time.
 
Figure 2. Isometric force: time curve indicating maximal strength, maximal rate of
force development, and force at 200 ms for untrained, heavy-resistance strength-trained,
and explosive-strength-trained subjects (adapted from Häkkinen et al., 1985 a, b).
 

RATIO OF POWER TO BODY WEIGHT

A heavier athlete obviously must generate a greater power output to jump a given height when
compared to a lighter athlete. It is a common belief that strength training should be minimized
when training for vertical jump improvement because additional body weight should be avoided,
even if that extra weight consists largely of increased muscle mass. However, an increase in
muscle cross-sectional area is always accompanied by an improvement of relative strength and,
therefore, an improved power-to-weight ratio (Schmidtbleicher, 1992). This is evident in the
exceptional vertical jumping ability and 30 m sprinting performances of many heavy athletes
such as American football players, weight throwers, and weightlifters (Hatfield, 1989;
Schmidtbleicher, 1992). Thus, strength training cannot be justifiably excluded from a vertical
jumping training program for the reason that an athlete might gain muscle mass.
 

ABILITY TO UTILIZE THE STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE

Most jumping activities involve a counter movement during which the muscles involved are first
stretched rapidly and then shortened to accelerate the body upwards. This type of muscle action
is known as a "plyometric contraction", an example of which is a vertical jump preceded by a
rapid crouch downward to stretch the thigh muscles before contracting them to propel the body
upward. A great deal of research has been directed toward the study of this stretch-shortening
cycle (Bosco & Komi, 1979; Bosco et al, 1982; Ettema et al., 1990; Gollhofer & Kyr61ainen,
199 l;Hakkinen, 1989; Komi et al, 1982; Schmidtbleicher, 1988) because jump performance is
enhanced by the prestretch experienced during a counter movement, especially when that counter
movement is initiated as a jump downward (plyometric drop jump) (Bosco & Komi, 1979). One
study by Bosco et al. (1982) found differences of 18-20% between a vertical jump preceded by a
static crouch and one preceded by a drop jump (counter movement jump). The counter-
movement jump was apparently higher because as the jumper approaches the end of the descent,
the muscles begin to act eccentrically to slow the body and initiate the upward movement. As the
muscle is activated, force is increased in the tendon-muscle complex, increasing its stiffness or
resistance to stretching. The result is a storage of elastic energy in the muscles and tendons that is
recovered during the subsequent upward jump, making it more powerful (Bosco & Komi, 1979).
Also contributing to the enhancement of the upward phase of a drop jump is a reflex increase in
neural stimulation to the muscles that is brought about by the sudden imposed stretch (Gollhofer
& Kyrolainen, 1991; Schmidtbleicher et al., 1988).
 

COORDINATION OF MOVEMENT PATTERN

Power performance is affected by the interaction between agonist, antagonist, and synergistic
muscles involved in the joint movements. To produce a fast movement, resistance must be low.
Although the agonist muscle may be able to apply great force in a short time, there must be a
complementary and simultaneous relaxation of the antagonists. Specific training movements will
reduce the co-contraction of antagonists and increase the coordination of agonist and synergist
activity (Schmidtbleicher, 1992; Young, 1993). Thus, specific skill and coordination of force
application are important contributors to vertical jumping ability.
 

Single-leg versus double-leg takeoff

There have been no definitive studies of whether it is better to train for vertical jumping by
emphasizing the practice of single-leg takeoffs or double-leg takeoffs. The bilateral deficit has
been described by Sale (1992) as the difference between the force output when the left and right
sides act simultaneously and the sum of the forces produced by the left and right limbs acting
alone. Training may either increase or reduce the deficit, as suggested by the fact that rowers,
who train bilaterally, are stronger in the bilateral leg press than when summing their single leg
presses, whereas cyclists, who normally alternate leg actions, display greater summed strength
than bilateral strength (Sale, 1992). Therefore, one might speculate that when training for
basketball, football, or baseball, it may be better to train with more single-leg jumps, and when
training for volleyball (in which double-leg takeoffs are frequently used and are the rule),
training with more double-leg takeoffs may be appropriate.
 

RESEARCH ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF VERTICAL JUMPING ABILITY

Wilson et al. (1993) compared the effects of 10 wk of training with traditional back squats or one
of two forms of plyometric training--loaded jump squats or drop jumps--on vertical jump
performance. The subjects involved in the study had a minimum of 1 y of weight training
experience and could perform half squats with at least 100% of their body weights. During the
loaded jump squats, subjects used a load that produced the greatest mechanical power output,
i.e., about 30% of the 1 RM for the concentric (upward) phase of an ordinary squat lift (Kaneko
et al., 1983; Moritani et al., 1987). Two types of vertical jump tests were performed: 1 ) a
counter-movement jump in which the subjects started from a standing position, performed a
rapid crouch, and then jumped for maximal height, and 2) a jump from a static crouching
position, i.e., with no counter movement. All training groups except the drop-jump group
produced significant increases in vertical jump performance. For the counter-movement jump,
the group that trained with loaded jump squats produced the greatest improvement (18%), which
was significantly greater than that for the drop-jump group (10%) or for the weight-trained group
(5%). For the static crouch jump, the group trained with loaded jump squats increased jump
height by 15%, which was significantly greater than the increase for the drop-jump group (7.2%)
and for the weight training group (6.8%). These results were similar to those obtained by Berger
(1963), who also found that training with jump squats loaded at 30% of maximum resulted in
greater increases in vertical jump than did training programs consisting of traditional weight
training, drop-jump training, or isometric training.
 

TRAINING WITH PLYOMETRIC DROP JUMPS

Results of several studies (Adams et al., 1992; Bosco et al., 1982; Clutch et al., 1983;
Schmidtbleicher et al., 1988) indicate that drop-jump training increases the height of jumps
preceded by counter movements but has no important effect on jumps initiated from a static
crouch position. Drop-jump training apparently enhances the ability to utilize the stretch-
shortening cycle but does not effectively increase fundamental muscular power. Plyometric drop-
jump training increases the overall neural stimulation of the muscle, but this adaptation seems to
require time to develop. Thus, in subjects unaccustomed to intense stretch loads who participate
in drop-jump training, there is an initial reduction in electromyographic activity starting 50-100
ms before ground contact and lasting for 100-200 ms (Schmidtbleicher et al., 1988). Gollhofer
(1987) attributed this to the protective effect of the Golgi tendon-organ reflex acting during
sudden, intense stretch loads to reduce the tension in the tendon-muscle unit at peak loads of the
stretchshortening cycle. After some weeks of plyomettic training, the inhibitory effects of the
tendon-organ reflex are reduced, resulting in an increased height of jumps preceded by a counter
movement (Schmidtbleicher et al., 1988). Plyometric training places considerable force on the
muscu1oskeletal system, so athletes should have participated in strength training such that they
can complete a squat lift with at least 150% of their body weights (Schmidtbleicher, 1992).
Weight training equipment can be adapted to reduce the eccentric load and enhance the safety of
plyometric training (Newton & Wilson, 1993).
 

TRADITIONAL WEIGHT TRAINING

Traditional weight training increases vertical jump performance, but not to the same extent as
plyometric training with loaded jump squats. One explanation for the smaller effect of weight
training is that the weight being lifted is decelerating for a considerable proportion of the
movement (Elliott et al., 1989). On the other hand, plyometric training by drop jumping or by
per-forming weighted jump squats allows athletes to use "compensatory acceleration" whereby
they can complete the entire movement at high velocity (Hatfield, 1989). In comparing heavy
weight training with the use of lighter weight and explosive jumps, most studies have found the
latter to be more effective (Hakkinen & Komi, 1985b; Komi et al., 1982; Wilson et al., 1993).
When traditional weight training is combined with plyometric training, vertical jump height is
increased (Bauer et al., 1990; Blakey & Southard, 1987; Clutch et al., 1983). This combination
of training methods may provide a greater stimulus to vertical jump performance than either
weight training or plyometric training alone (Adams et al., 1992).
 

TRAINING WITH OLYMPIC LIFTS

The Olympic lifts (snatch, clean-and-jerk) and related lifts (hang pulls, hang cleans, power
snatch, power clean, push press, power jerk) have been proposed as effective exercises for the
development of vertical jumping ability (Garhammer, 1993; Garhammer & Gregor, 1992).
Olympic lifters, on average, exhibit exceptional vertical jump scores, either because of their
training or their genetic endowment. Furthermore, the movement pattern of Olympic style lifting
is similar to that of a vertical jump. Power output during Olympic lifting is extremely high, and
the speed of movement is fast, with an accelerative-velocity profile. Thus, Olympic lifting
exercises are more specific to the vertical jump than are traditional weight training exercises
(Garhammer & Gregor, 1992; Garhammer, 1993).
 

HEAVY VERSUS LIGHT LOADS

There is considerable controversy over the optimal load for the development of vertical jump
performance (Wilson et al., 1993; Young, 1993). In truth, there is perhaps no optimal load. Both
heavy (greater than 80% 1 RM) and light (less than 60% 1 RM) loads can be used in the training
of vertical jump, with each affecting different components of explosive muscle action. Young
(1993) has suggested the superiority of heavy-load training over light-load training for the over-
all development of vertical jump performance; however, several studies have found heavy squats
to be ineffective for increasing vertical jump (Hakkinen & Komi, 1985a; Komi et al., 1982),
whereas lighter loads are effective (Berger, 1963; Hakkinen & Komi, 1985b; Wilson et al.,
1993). It has been argued that using heavy loads produces an adaptation specific to the slow
velocity used in lifting those loads so that there is no improvement in the rate of force
development (Young, 1993; Young & Bilby, 1993). However, Behm and Sale (l993a) suggest
that it may be the intention to move explosively that determines the velocity-specific response
and the even isometric training can increase muscle power. Regardless of the final verdict, it may
be prudent to train for vertical jumping by trying to be as explosive as possible, whether using
light or heavy loads.
 

DESIGN OF TRAINING PROGRAMS

Various training methods have been effective in improving vertical jumping capability,
presumably because each method may overload a different muscle group or a different
component of vertical jump performance. The most effective type of training for a given athlete
may depend on which component of jumping ability is most deficient in that individual. Testing
of these components can help elucidate individual needs. Targeting a weakness should produce
the greatest overall gains. Table 2 provides a summary of the various training methods and the
aspects of vertical jump performance that they will most affect.
 

Light Load,
Heavy Load Isokinetic or
Explosive Olympic
  Weight Plyometrics Hydraulic
Power Lifting
Training Resistance
Training
Maximal Strength excellent fair poor good good
Maximal Rate of
good excellent good good* fair*
Force Development
Stretch Shortening
poor good excellent poor none
Cycle Ability
High Velocity
poor excellent poor* good* good
Force Production
Maximal Mechanical
good excellent fair excellent* good
Power
Jumping Skill and
poor good excellent good poor
Muscle Coordination
preparation late
pre- pre- preparation
pre- pre-
Periodization competition competition early
competition competition
competition competition rehabilitation
competition competition

* Indicates no training study available.

Table 2. Projected effects of the common vertical jump training techniques on aspects of vertical
jump performance based on the available literature. Included are suggestions for scheduling in a
periodized model.
 

PERIODIZATION

Although no longitudinal studies of the periodization of vertical jump training are found in the
literature, it is reasonable to assume that traditional periodization concepts would be appropriate.
The preparation phase should involve weight training to increase muscle mass and strength.
Mass is better maintained than are neural adaptations (Hakkinen, 1989), so mass can be
developed early in the training cycle and maintained through competition. The preparation phase
may involve general exercises of squats and leg presses as well as isolation exercises for the
gluteals, quadriceps, hamstrings and calves.

During the pre-competition phase, heavier and more specific weight training can be initiated to
emphasize maximal strength. This will serve as a base for the more explosive type of weight
training and for plyometric training. Exercises such as the front and back squat and leg press are
appropriate. It is important that the concentric phase of each lift be performed explosively, with
the athlete attempting to accelerate the load as quickly as possible. However, the eccentric phase
should be performed in a slow, controlled manner to reduce the risk of injury.

Just prior to the competition phase, more specific neural training is desirable. Heavy-load weight
training should be reduced and alternated with methods that emphasize rapid force development,
high contraction velocities, use of the stretch-shorten cycle, and skill-specific movements, i.e.
light loads, explosive movements, Olympic lifting, and plyometrics should be introduced.

During the competition phase, maintenance of all aspects of vertical jump performance is
important. Plyometric training should be reduced or removed from the training cycle. Heavy
weight training performed one session per week should be mixed with Olympic lifting and light-
load jump training. It is important to maintain strength and power training through the
competition phase because of the transient nature of the training adaptations. One should
maintain strength and power status by performing two training sessions per week
(Schmidtbleicher, 1992). To obtain maximal performance, the athlete should not cease training
before 5-6 d prior to the competition day (Schmidtbleicher, 1992).
 

SUMMARY

Vertical jump performance is determined not only by the strength of the muscles of the lower
body, but by the rate at which the muscles can develop force, the speed with which they can
contract and still maintain force output, the ability to utilize the stretch-shortening cycle to
maximize the jump height, and the degree of coordination and skill in performing the
movements. Traditional weight training strength will only increase jump height in athletes who
exhibit low initial strength. If the athlete is already strong, training should concentrate on
improving rate of force development and muscle power output. This is best achieved through
explosive jump training with fairly light loads (30-60% of 1 RM) in which the athlete can
complete the jump movement in a rapid and accelerative manner. Plyometric drop-jump training
should also be included to develop the athlete's ability to tolerate high stretch loads. Due to the
multi-faceted nature of vertical jump performance, a single training method approach may not be
as effective as combining training methods to provide variation in stimulus and to increase the
overall training adaptation.

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