Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Linguistic Thought
Rice University
© 2005
Foreword
tween 1926 to 1975, and we have inherited many of those ways of thinking.
Since the 50+ years covered in HALT are the founding period of “modern”
linguistics, I believe that it is important to be familiar with the orientations
toward language that were established then. It is important to reflect on how
we do things now, to understand how much of it is just historical accident, and
to identify what is worth keeping and what, not.
If all these qualifications and amplifications were encoded in the title, it
would be something like Sketch of the History of American Linguistic Thought
from Some Time before 1926 until about 1975 with an Eye towards
Evaluation. Clearly, not as catchy as HALT.
1. Introduction
There is something in humankind that abhors chaos, the absence of
pattern; and ‘theory’ and ‘science’ are one kind of response to that malease.
So is language a response of that sort to chaotic experience. The sensitivity to
chaos, the cognitive attraction to that which does not fit what we know and to
that which is different, is present in all living organisms as the biologically
universal orienting reflex. The equally universal capacity of intelligence to
habituate provides a way of imposing pattern and of removing chaos from
experience. The attraction which chaos has for all organisms is a concomitant
of intelligence, which exists to create pattern, the antithesis to chaos.
Intelligence ‘factored’ into ‘capacities’:
The application of these capacities ... which are not exclusively human ...
creates identities which are recurringly attributed to novel (chaotic because it
is novel) experience and which assimilate the experience to extant pattern.
The precipitate of the engagement of intelligence with experience yields a
‘memory’ of that activity. That residue is knowledge. Language is
knowledge. And science is knowledge. Being able to find my car this
afternoon and drive home is knowledge. But is language science; or is science
language?
Not all knowledge is the same.
Not all knowledge is susceptible to our in(tro)spection. We do not (cannot)
always know/be aware of what we know. Some of what we call language is in
this way overt; but most of language is not overt. It is covert. We can obtain
2 HALT
1 Some of the terms used in linguistics to label this desired quality have been ‘rigorous’,
‘explicit’, and ‘formal’. And the negative/absence of this has sometimes been called
‘mentalism’, ‘fuzzy linguistics’, or simply ‘not linguistics’.
Introduction to Thinking about Language 3
from language. So that any knowledge that will be scientific must meet those
(some) methodological standards. To be a scientist you must act like one.
But if the method fails, so the knowledge fails. Whatever it may be, it
becomes not science ... If linguistics (‘the science of language’) is to be a
science, it requires a methodology, and it must work with what all can see.
But if much of language is covert, the information that the science of language
accumulates may not be testable/repeatable under the same conditions. But is
there an overt?2 To find an answer, for example, to the question about the
number of sounds in a language, we must know when two utterances are
repetitions. Consider the question of whether a speaker can ever repeat
exactly the same [the reduction of chaos to pattern again] word? How will we
decide what counts as a repetition?
[ ]
and this pair:
[ ] vs. [ ]
(i) I sprained my [
].
2 Linguists lack the mechanical equivalents of the cyclotron or the Hubble telescope. There
is no tool external to language itself which may stand as semi-neutral witness to the
otherwise ‘covert’. Positron emission tomography (PET) “can give quantitative information
about the function of the nervous system” (Sid Gilman & Sarah Winans Newman. 1987.
Manter and Gatz’s Essentials of Clinical Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology7.
Philadelphia: F.A. Davis & Company. P. 242), and some now may suggest that PET
technology can fill the observational gap for language. Earlier, the technique/exercise of
phonetics promised to be the observational tool for language.
4 HALT
made anomalous, e.g. a red six of spades and a black four of hearts. Each
experimental run was constituted by the display of a single card to a single subject
in a series of gradually increased exposures. After each exposure the subject was
asked what he had seen, and the run was terminated by two successful correct
identifications.
Even on the shortest exposures many subjects identified most of the cards,
and after a small increase all the subjects identified them all. For the normal cards
these identifications were usually correct, but the anomalous cards were almost
always identified, without apparent hesitation, or puzzlement, as normal. The
black four of hearts might, for example, be identified as the four of either spades
or hearts. Without any awareness of trouble, it was immediately fitted to one of
the conceptual categories prepared by prior experience. One would not even
like to say that the subjects had seen something different from what they
identified. With a further increase of exposure to the anomalous cards, subjects
did begin to hesitate and to display awareness of anomaly. Exposed, for example,
to the red six of spades, some would say: That’s the six of spades, but there’s
something wrong with it — the black has a red border. Further increase of
exposure resulted in still more hesitation and confusion until finally, and
sometimes quite suddenly, most subjects would produce the correct
identification without hesitation. Moreover, after doing this with two or three
anomalous cards, they would have little difficulty with the others. A few subjects,
however, were never able to make the requisite adjustment of their categories.
Even at forty times the average exposure required to recognize normal cards for
what they were, more than 10 per cent of the anomalous cards were not correctly
identified. And the subjects who failed often experienced acute personal distress
[Emphases mine, PWD]. One of them exclaimed: ‘I can’t make that suit out,
whatever it is. It didn’t even look like a card that time. I don’t know what color it
is now or whether it’s a spade or a heart. I’m not even sure what a spade looks
like. My God!
Pattern centers upon identity and recurrence. The identity may that of
the same thing on different occasions, e.g. identifying the North Star,
recreating a property line, or in repeating a word. In these cases, the context
for asserting identity is a matrix of time. The time is different while the
substance is the same. The difference between the two experiences is
removed from the perception and located elsewhere; and in order to do that
we have to create time (a ‘now’ and a ‘then’).
The problem of identity will arise in a different way, e.g. in seeing the
Morning Star and the Evening Star as the same entity, Venus. Or in seeing
Korean [s] and [ ] as the same. In addition to different times, there is now
difference in substance between the things equated. After all, a bright light in
the morning is not a bright light in the evening, and a [s] is not a [ ]. The
sameness now lies in the constancy of the context in which these appear. The
sameness is not directly ‘in’ the two experiences, but in their circumstance.
For example, [ ] is joined to a position before front vowels and [s] is not. In
place of internal sameness, the sameness is in the conditioning
environments.3 What matters is not the presence of difference but of the
recognition of systematic patterned difference. This ‘systematicity’ is what
allows us to perceive distinct experience as ‘same’.
The outcome is that pattern exists as a creation, an abstraction. An
actual difference is systematically ignored/removed leaving no difference. The
identity is the link between two experiences which lies in neither, but in our
relation to them. In that the link is in neither experience itself, it lies outside
them and in its own context. In the context of language, this yields naming,
e.g. {book}, that must be in discourse ... that must be in our experience as this
book, a book, some book, any book, etc. What we call ‘language’ — before we
get to it as linguists — operates in terms of ‘abstractions’ of this sort.
Dealing/reacting to experience in this way — whether covertly and
unaware or overtly and self-consciously — effectively allows us to transcend
the moment. We are no longer held to the immediacy of perception; we can
now reference other times and spaces, and other experiences. We gain in
generality. Generality, here, means fewer ‘units’.
A second consequence derives from the systematic and non-random
property of pattern (however we see it):
3 The distinction between the two contrasting examples is, of course, not discrete and is a
matter of degree. All perceptions of sameness are similar to those of the second sort.
6 HALT
(3) 13 39 5
Looking at the first three numbers in (1), we may be able to guess the next
three (and any others as long as we know what position in the series they
occupy). That is, X/2 yields the number following X if X > the number
preceding X; otherwise, 3X yields the next number. In (2), it is simpler. We
do not need to know where in the series a number falls; given any X the next
is X + 2. But (3) is different. We would be hard put, given just those three
numbers, to guess the fourth, or the fifth. The sameness/pattern of (1) is that
‘abstraction’:
There is a superficial difference between examples such as (1) and earlier ones
such as the North Star. Given a visual glimpse of the night sky, we may react
rapidly to the question “Is what you see the North Star?” whereas if given the
number 30.375, it will take us some time to answer whether it is part of the
whole series of (1) or whether it belongs to a different series. 4 Not all series
will require a great amount of time; for example, in (2) we know immediately
that any even number will belong to it. The nature of such abstractions as (1)
and (2) — the sameness which holds them together and allows them to exist,
whether ‘slow’ or ‘fast’ — seems to allow us to predict or calculate possible
experience. And we seem to have grasped them as patterned only when we
can satisfy ourselves that such prediction is possible. If you cannot
predict/calculate whether 30.375 belongs in (1), you have not ‘understood’ it.
The same condition appears in (4):
Knowing what constitutes the first word, the second, and the third predicts
such utterances as
4. Theory
To begin to express any experience in a self-conscious way, we require an
inventory with which to represent those perceptions, e.g. numbers off dials,
photographs of the events within a cyclotron, or a phonetic transcription. We
need to fix our experience so that we can make it overt and manipulable.6 For
convenience, we may call this the observational language. In the schema of
abstractions, there are two types: assumed primitives and created definitions.
For our example in (4), Det, Noun, and Verb may be taken as primitives; and
in (1), number will appear as a primitive. They are given. Definitions may
consist of expressions such as ‘Det + Noun + Verb’ or ‘3X’.7 A third type of
element may be necessary to constrain definitions. For example, Det and
Verb may be adjacent, i.e., although there is no *Noun + Verb + Det, there
may be Verb + Det + Noun (e.g. Catch the dog) in English. Further, elements
not be simultaneous: they have only linear relationships. Examples of such
limitations/ constraints are:
“No rule can move any element out of a Complex Noun Phrase Clause (i.e. no
rule can move any constituent X out of the bracketed clause in any structure of
the type ... [NP ... [N – [–S ... X ...] ...]”
6 This first ‘fixing’ of course can have a determining effect upon what we say about the data,
for it, in fact, determines what the data are. In that way, there can be no such thing as ‘raw’
data; nothing is baked from scratch. It is all somehow been prepared for us.
This third type of conceptual tool is the axioms. Formally then, a theory is a
set of primitives and any axioms and the definitions that are based upon the
preceding.
5. Dimensions of theories
A theory is usually a theory of something, i.e., it is derived from (or
applied to) some data (experience), although it need not be in order to remain
a theory. Thus, empirical theories are distinguished from non-empirical
ones. An empirical theory is recognized as one that has a relation to data via
the observational language, e.g.
decide that the phenomenon is the same, then the theories are in some sense in
competition. And if these are scientific theories, then the issue is what is
truth?8 They must in some way be evaluated so that we can determine, at
least, which is better (if not which is true). The evaluation may appeal to
various measures:
THEORY
Grammar1 Grammar2
8 In the example of the mosquito, there is no competitive evaluation. The first explanation is
labeled as not scientific (It’s a ‘myth’.), and it does not enter into a comparison with the
biological explanation.
10 HALT
(13) Simplicity: The theory which can do the same with less is
preferred.
This level of delicacy has not been reached for theories of language and
Simplicity is not yet an independent criterion; but Simplicity plays a role in
conjunction with Degree of Fit and with Generality. For example, pursuit of
the fewest number of phonemes (an example of Simplicity in a grammar) is a
desideratum limited by Degree of Fit.9 Simplicity will co-vary with Generality
so that the more general will be the simpler. Theories may be constructed so
that the more general grammar is also the simpler (manifested as the
‘shorter’).
The idea of evaluation is directed towards overtly and objectively
resolving the question ‘Is it right or is it wrong? Is it true?’ If the link between
Generality and Simplicity can be maintained, then the answer is made
objective. We simply calculate which theory (or grammar) is the simpler, and
that one theory (or grammar) must also, therefore, be the more general, the
better, and the more true. But can a theory still be wrong if it works? We may
decline to submit to evaluation, but admire the product of our theorizing on
other grounds. One way to avoid this evaluation is to claim that the theory is
simply a mechanical tool to aid in the manipulation of the data. This attitude
has been aptly called instrumentalism. Galileo in his de Revolutionibus
Orbium Coelestium espoused this approach:
... it is not necessary that these hypotheses should be true, or even probably; but it is
enough if they provide a calculus which fits the observations ...
9 The retreat from the abstract phonologies illustrated by Chomsky & Halle 1968 (which
were sanctioned by appeals to Simplicity) to more concrete ones (Kiparsky 1968) was
motivated by an appeal to Degree of Fit. The latter began to outweigh the former again.
Introduction to Thinking about Language 11
directionality.
Alternately, in place of trying to define pattern by a set of procedures, we
may assume it, using our best guesses and then weed out the competitors
using the evaluation criteria introduced above. Theories which result from this
practice are explanatory. They take on a top ––> down directionality. The
statements which they generate are called explanations while the operational
theories produce descriptions. In an explanatory theory, the data follow
deductively and categorically from the assumed best-guess theory. Other
possible explanations, in addition to the deductive-categorical, are statistical,
teleological, and historical.
The opposition between operational and explanatory theories magnifies
the variety of scientific practice. A final addition which needs to be mentioned
here is the opposition between taxonomic and nontaxonomic. While these
are characteristics of the component patterns of theories, they may also be
taken as prior attitudes to constrain the theories themselves. A taxonomic
theory is one which is limited to such patterns as those typically found in
biological classification. A nontaxonomic one is not so limited; it may contain
a taxonomy, it but may also exhibit patterns which are not stated in terms of
classes (or categories) and members.
6. Conclusion
All of the identified positions have been espoused at some time or other in
some theory of language. But this variety is not limited to linguists; it is not
solely our doing. Given these attitudes, it can at least be understood (in part)
why there are so many theories for us to deal with ... so many kinds of
linguistic thought.
Chapter 2
Remarks
on
Hockett’s
“The Changing Intellectual Context of Linguistic Theory”
&
Kuhn’s
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
1. Introduction
Hockett and Kuhn are both interested in the history of science.
Comparison of the two approaches provides some insight into our own
interest in linguistics and language.
2. Hockett
Hockett (1983) finds several themes which allow one to follow the flow of
intellectual activity in the nineteenth century. Two of these themes, which he
introduces with Pierre-Simon Laplace, are the notions of progress and
determinism. The latter forms the primary criterion for the distinction
between two allocations of phenomena. “There are two categories of science
because there are two fundamentally different kinds of things to be scientific
about” (Hockett 1983:14). The two categories of science are termed
Naturwissenschaft Geisteswissenschaft
Precise characterization of the opposition between the two changed during the
nineteenth century as more data became available (more discoveries were
made, aided in part by improving technology), and as conceptions of the data
were altered. Hockett (1983:20-21) identifies several oppositions as forming
the basis of the two kinds of science:
Physical Mental
Determinate Indeterminate
Synchronic Diachronic
2 HALT
Nomothetic Idiographic
In the realm of nature one can make timeless assertions: the valence of oxygen is
two, always has been, and always will be, whether the oxygen is on someone’s
bloodstream or in an interstellar cloud. But in Geisteswissenschaft there can be no
such generalizations. The way things are in the human world is constantly changed
by the willful actions of people. Therefore only a particularistic approach is possible
— whereupon the Geisteswissenchaften were also called the historical sciences, or
just history ... Perhaps it was not so foolish, after all, to propose that plants, animals,
and languages, all as then conceived, are sufficiently alike to merit assignment to a
single larger category.
But the boundary of this division shifts throughout the nineteenth century
and the character of the boundary is changed as well. In the initial state of
affairs, Geisteswissenschaft appears to have included all the life sciences, and
the contrast was nearly one of organic (Geisteswissenschaft) versus inorganic
(Naturwissenschaft). Geisteswissenschaft was guided the doctrine of by
vitalism (Hockett 1983:13):
The vitalist view had held that “organic” compounds, meaning those found
characteristically and exclusively in organisms, could not be built up out of raw-
materials except under the direction of the posited vital energy.
The first realignment followed from the discovery that organic results can
originate from inorganic sources. The synthesis of urea demonstrated that
such a vitalist view was incorrect, and then “it was demonstrated that the laws
of thermodynamics hold in organisms just as they do in nonliving organisms”
(Hockett 1983:13). The effect was not to change the way of working within
the Geisteswissenchaften; it simply resulted in the establishment of
physiology as a Naturwissenschaft and the removal of some phenomena from
one category to the other, leaving minds and the phenomena associated with
Hocket & Kuhn 3
... the gulf between living and nonliving seemed narrower, [but] that [gulf] between
human and nonhuman yawned as unbridgeable as ever. It did not matter that human
physiology is much like other physiology. Obviously human beings have bodies,
which behave like matter because that is what they are ... But we also have minds,
and mind is a different sort of substance, obedient perhaps to different laws.
The place of language in the division depended upon whether one saw the
phenomenon as subject to individual will or whether the relevant phenomenon
was beyond the reach of that will. If we look at the data then emerging from
comparative study, it may appear that there are a succession of stages which
— because they seem to show a progression — are determinate in their
behavior. In particularistic observations on the behavior of individuals, the
conclusion must be that there is no determined shape to the data and it is
indeterminate; but in the aggregate and over time, there is determinate
behavior. Hockett (1983:16-17) cites William Dwight Whitney as
exemplifying the first view, and August Schleicher as maintaining the second
... with his proposed diachronic progression of languages from isolating to
agglutinative to inflecting. Ultimately, they represent two complementary and
noncompeting views of the same phenomenon; one does not have to choose
between them. However, it is the viewpoint represented by Schleicher which
first carries linguistics from the domain of Geisteswissenschaft to
Naturwissenschaft with the establishment of laws, which “showed a pervasive
regularity”, and which “seemed not to have any connection with the human
will”, and which were “in a sense, a mass phenomenon, affecting many people
at once” (Hockett 1983:22).
The viewpoint which Whitney represented remained subject to Geistes-
wissenschaft until two additional notions were made prominent and finally
united into one perspective: granularity (Hockett 1983:24-26) and pattern-
ing/arrangement (Hockett 1983:26-29). In the Naturwissenschaften, granu-
larity appeared in the form of molecules in chemistry, as cells in physiology,
and finally as the quanta of light in physics. The granular mode of thinking
was in the air and in linguistics as well; the grammatical tradition spanning
two millennia in which sentences were seen as composed of their parts, and
the longer experience with alphabetic writing systems made the extension of
particles to phonetics a natural one. Patterning in Naturwissenschaften is
identified with “the arrangement of parts” (Hockett 1983:26), and not with the
substance which implements that pattern. Such substance may in this view be
4 HALT
replaced completely without damage to the pattern; “in the course of time
every constituent atom of a person’s body is replaced, but the pattern persists
and continuity of identity is unbroken” (Hockett 1983:26-27). Within
linguistics, we can now see such pattern in syntax — if viewed as an
arrangement of words into hierarchical forms — and in the concept of the
phoneme. Patterns such as these may stand beyond the behavior and will of
individuals forming a constant identity, which the will and vagaries of the
individual may not touch. Pattern in this view is exclusively equated with
‘arrangement’ and ‘structure’, and ‘Gestalt’. Structuralism replaces
vitalism. The possibility of there being another mode in which pattern may be
present is no longer possible (Hockett 1983:29 and 32):
In syntax, Gestalt plays such a crucial role that if one takes it away there is nothing
left –– and this has been so from the very beginnings of the discipline in classical
antiquity ... the structure [pattern, PWD] of a thing, event, or system, if I understand
it aright, is nothing other than the pattern [structure, PWD] it manifests.
3. Kuhn
Kuhn (1970) proposes a different and more general scenario intended to
allow us to understand the ways in which scientific study is pursued. He
distinguishes several states of such activity:
... anyone examining a survey of physical optics before Newton may well conclude
that, although the field’s practitioners were scientists, the net result of their activity
was something less than science. Being able to take no common body of belief for
Hocket & Kuhn 5
granted, each writer on physical optics felt forced to build his field anew from its
foundations. In doing so, his choice of supporting observation and experiment was
relatively free, for there was no standard set of methods or of phenomena that every
optical writer felt forced to employ and explain. Under these circumstances, the
dialogue of the resulting books was often directed as much to the members of other
schools as it was to nature. That pattern is not unfamiliar in a number of creative [i.e.
not scientific, PWD] fields today, nor is it incompatible with significant discovery
and invention.
his major works, attempt to build his field anew, starting from first principles
and justifying the use of each concept introduced” (Kuhn 1970:19-20).
Textbooks come into existence.
At the paradigmatic stage, the subject matter becomes more textured; the
perspective provided by the paradigm brings certain questions to the fore and
places others in the background (Kuhn 1970:15):
In the absence of a paradigm or some candidate for paradigm, all of the facts that
could possibly pertain to the development of a given science are likely to seem
equally relevant. As a result, early fact-gathering is a far more nearly random
activity than the one that subsequent scientific development makes familiar.
The emergence of a paradigm does not require that the victorious view be
comprehensive (Kuhn 1970:23 & 24):
Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors
in solving a few problems that the group of practitioners has come to recognize as
acute ... Normal science [emph. mine, PWD] consists in the actualization of that
promise, an actualization achieved by extending the knowledge of those facts that
the paradigm displays as particularly revealing, by increasing the extent of the match
between those facts and the paradigm’s predictions, and by further articulation of the
paradigm itself ... Mopping-up operations are what engage most scientists
throughout their careers.
... the puzzles that constitute normal science exist only because no paradigm that
provides a basis for scientific research ever completely resolves all its problems ...
every problem that normal science sees as a puzzle can be seen, from another
viewpoint, as a counterinstance and thus as a source of crisis.
... once it has achieved the status of paradigm, a scientific theory is declared invalid
only if an alternate candidate is available to take its place. No process yet disclosed
by the historical study of scientific development at all resembles the methodological
stereotype of falsification by direct comparison with nature ... The decision to reject
one paradigm is always simultaneously the decision to accept another, and the
judgment leading to that decision involves the comparison of both paradigms with
nature and with each other ... To reject one paradigm without simultaneously
substituting another is to reject science itself. That act reflects not on the paradigm
but on the man. Inevitably he will be seen by his colleagues as ‘the carpenter who
blames his tools’.
1 “Though history is unlikely to record their names, some men have undoubtedly been driven
to desert science because of their inability to tolerate crisis. Like artists, creative scientists
must occasionally be able to live in a world out of joint — elsewhere I have described that
necessity as ‘the essential tension’” (Kuhn 1970:78-79).
8 HALT
... by proliferating versions of the paradigm, crisis loosens the rules of normal
puzzle-solving in ways that ultimately permit a new paradigm to emerge.
To a very great extent the term ‘science’ is reserved for fields that do progress in
obvious ways ... we tend to see as science any field in which progress is marked ...
But nothing that has been or will be said makes it a process of evolution towards
anything. (Kuhn 1970:160,162 & 170)
2 Kuhn (1970:161) sees the return (retrogression) of “art” to “primitive models” as the source
of the cleavage between “art” and “science”:
For many centuries, both in antiquity and again in early modern Europe, painting was
regarded as the cumulative discipline. During those years the artist’s goal was assumed
to be representation. Critics and historians, like Pliny and Vasari, then recorded with
veneration the series of inventions from foreshortening through chiaroscuro that had
made possible successively more perfect representations of nature ... even after that
steady exchange [between arts and science as illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci] had
ceased, the term ‘art’ continued to apply as much to technology and the crafts, which
were also seen as progressive, as to painting and sculpture. Only when the latter
unequivocally renounced representation as their goal and began to learn again from
primitive models did the cleavage we now take for granted assume anything like its
present depth.
3 This returns us to Laplace and his two characteristics of science: progression and
determinism. And now it is the former which appears the more important as a criterion of
science, but that ‘progress’ is now different. Hockett (1983:10) portrays it as a conscious
“collective march” having begun at least with the Enlightenment in the 18th century. This is
not the same as the revolutionary, eclipsing progress which Kuhn proposes.
Hocket & Kuhn 9
the social sciences” and from (iii) the “natural sciences”. Education in these
three fields from (i) to (iii) relies increasingly upon the use of textbooks until
the last stages of instruction because the essential content is confidently
encapsulated in texts. In arts, “the practitioner gains his education by exposure
to the works of other artists”. In the mid-range areas of social science,
textbooks are employed, but “even in these fields the elementary college
course employs parallel readings in the original sources, some of them
‘classics’ of the field, others the contemporary research reports that
practitioners write for each other” (Kuhn 1970:165). In the natural sciences,
“the few [curricula] that do assign supplementary reading in research papers
and monographs restrict such assignments to the most advanced course and to
materials that take up more or less where the available texts leave off” (Kuhn
1970:165). The strength of this “confidence” in or “commitment” (Kuhn
1970:100) to one’s paradigm is evident when it has to be abandoned (Kuhn
1970:151-52):
4. Conclusion
Using Kuhn’s paradigm for the history of science, linguistics has not just
recently become a science in the twentieth century. 4 It has had a long history
with its own paradigms (sometimes shared with other fields). This blending,
in which several distinct scientific interests can have a common notion, e.g.
the breadth/use of vitalism or structuralism, recurs within linguistics and
4 But consider the age of our own journals, societies, and curricula/departments. Hockett
(1948:566) asserts that “Linguistics is only in its beginnings”, whereas Whorf (1940:232)
describes linguistics as “a very old science” although in “its modern experimental phase ...
[it} could be called one of the newest”.
10 HALT
permits a wide range of activities ... all the while sharing a single paradigm.
Cf. Figure 1 from Southworth & Daswani (1974:8).
Returning to Hockett’s themes in this light, the transition from nineteenth
century to twentieth century science in the fields identified as
Geisteswissenschaft is the transition from the paradigm of vitalism to that of
structuralism (Hockett 1983:33):
...in the middle of the present century there was –– and perhaps still is –– a whole
complicated ‘structuralist’ movement, in fields as diverse as ethnology, literary
criticism, and mathematics some of whose participants proclaim their
methodological indebtedness to Prague.
This paradigm, for the moment at least, behaves as normal science (Hockett
1983:34):
... I am convinced that the full impact of the Gestalt view has not yet been felt. If we
can learn to take that approach in a consistent way, I believe many of the problems
that beleaguered us in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s (and that have been largely
neglected between then and now) will turn out either to be spurious or to have simple
and satisfying solutions.
Hocket & Kuhn 11
Linguistics Linguistics
as as
Naturwissenschaft Geisteswissenschaft
Action Thought
Social Individual
Practice/Communicative Theory/Rehearsal
Ferdinand de Saussure
Introduction
1. Introduction
If Saussure is responsible for the establishment of a linguistic paradigm, it
is his description of the linguistic sign that is the basis for such a claim. If
there is any single unifying concept among the varying schools and theories
of the twentieth century, it is the tacit assumption (no one finds it necessary
anymore to cite Saussure as the original source) of the dual, Janus-like nature
of language, facing in one direction towards phonetics/sound and in the other
direction toward meaning/semantics/content, etc. It is his derivation of the
sign and the attendant attributes that has provided unity to linguistic theorizing
over the past eighty-plus years.1
1 I know of only one widely accepted view of language which escapes this generalization. J.
R. Firth and the London School of linguistics elaborated a concept of language from which
2 HALT
2. Orientation
Saussure develops his ideas from examination of a speech act — what
happens when (minimally) two people talk — and ironically perhaps arrives at
a characterization that is completely other.2 Saussure’s schematicization is
presented in Figure 1. It is symmetrical in that both A and B act as speaker
or listener indifferently, but asymmetrical in that at a given time the two roles
are complementary. Assuming that A is speaking, several components of this
event can be identified. First, there is a point in A where a ‘concept’ is
associated with a ‘sound image’; that point is delimited from the remainder as
psychological. Second, that portion within A wherein the sound image is
converted into muscular activity (articulation) is physiological; the remainder
is not. Third, that portion of the speech act that consists of the sound itself,
independent of both A and B, is physical. Fourth, that portion within B
wherein the sound is converted back into a sound image is physiological,
lying between the ear and the point described next. Fifth, that point where the
sound image is associated with a concept is finally psychological. Figure 2
adds this partitioning to Figure 1. That portion described as physical is op-
posed to the remainder in both A and B as outer (physical) to inner (physio-
logical and psychological). Those portions described for both A and B where
the ‘association’ is accomplished is contrasted to the remainder as psycholo-
gical to non-psychological. Those portions where A associates a concept with
a sound image, then converts the image into articulation, and finally the
the Saussurean sign is absent. The Prague School, Hjelmslevian glossematics, the work of
Bloomfield and the American Structuralists (or Post-Bloomfieldians), Pikean tagmemics, and
Transformational Generative Grammar in its various forms are all the direct intellectual
inheritors of Saussure.
resulting physical sound are collected to comprise the active portion of the
chain. The remainder — lying entirely within B — is passive. The psycho-
logically active is finally opposed to the psychologically passive as executive
to receptive.
As it turns out, Saussure finds language (langue) to be completely
other/different from these distinctions and elucidates his concept of language
by opposing its attributes to those he finds in this schematized speech act.
Language is above all a social phenomenon while the speech act of Figure 1
is not, and it is from the social property that several additional characteristics
arise.3 Although the speech act would appear to be ‘social’, it is not, given
Saussure’s particular use of the term social, by which he intends the
collectivity of individuals. And language is social to the degree that it is
common to that collectivity. It is the average. It is, as Saussure says, not
complete in an individual, but is identified as the ‘overlap’ that unites
individuals into that collective whole. The speech act, then, is not social
because it is unique and particular. It is individual and thereby opposed to the
collectivity wherein language is found. There is no collective speaking;
“execution is never carried out by the collectivity” (Saussure 1959:13).
The introduction of social allows Saussure then to distinguish language
(langue) from speech or speaking (parole), and it is just the latter which is
represented in Figure 1. It is from this conception of a social language that
additional differentiating properties arise. They are that:
3 Recall Hockett’s (1983) associating with Schleicher the idea that pattern may arise from the
social nature of a phenomenon.
4 HALT
Langue Parole
Nonwillful Willful
Passive Active
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Both langue and parole may show their respective properties in several ways.
... reflection enters [language] only for the purpose of classification (Saussure
1959:14).
The masses have no voice in the matter ... speakers are largely unconscious of the
laws of language; and if they are unaware of them, how could they modify them?5
Hockett (1965:191) sees the regularity of change in sound change itself and it is the social
context which produces any contradiction to the regularity. This view is the inverse of the
one described in the quotation just below from Hockett (1983).
6 HALT
7 Cf. Bloch (1947) and the description of the variants of English have: hǽv, h æ̆v, and v.
Saussure: Introduction 7
3. The sign
The implementation of Saussure’s socially homogeneous language
depends upon his use of the sign, which is a composite of a concept and a
sound-image held together by a bond of mutual implication.8 This relation
establishes the concept as a signified and the sound-image as a signifier (cf.
Figure 3 from Saussure 1959:114). Neither exists independently of the
other as there is no up without the opposed down ... no left without the
contrary right. Both derive their existence relationally, rather than by their
own content.
The word-unit is not constituted solely by the totality of its phonemes but by
characteristics other than its material quality [emp. mine, PWD].
Signs acquire their existence and their character not from their content, but
from their place in a system, by their opposition to one another. The
matter/material that realizes them or the opposition is irrelevant.
The separation of the signs of language/langue from material expression
implies a second property of signs, the famed arbitrariness of the bond
between the signifier and signified. Given that language/langue exists
independently from its manifestation and that a signifier and signified take
their status from that mutual relation, it matters not what signifier bonds with
8 But notice that the ‘bond’ may experience degrees of necessity (Saussure 1959:75):
Latin necāre ‘kill’ became noyer ‘drown’ in French. Both the sound-image and the
concept changed; but it is useless to separate the two parts of the phenomenon; it is
sufficient to state with respect to the whole that the bond between the idea [i.e.,
concept/signified] and the sign [i.e., sound-image/signifier] was loosened [emph. mine,
PWD].
8 HALT
Language then has the strange, striking characteristic of not having entities that
are perceptible at the outset [i.e., abstract] and yet not permitting us to doubt that
they exist [i.e., not abstractions] and that their functioning constitutes it.
12 This recalls Hammarström’s (1978) distinction between internal and external and the
direct seizure of language through introspection (Hammarström 1978:20 & 22):
A linguist can study language externally. He may have to do so, or he may choose to
do so, but in both cases his description will be at least somewhat wrong and incomplete
... I have previously suggested ... that this kind of scrutinizing [of an internal object]
involves intuition or introspection. Intuition would imply a more direct procedure: one
can immediately tell that in English the definite article always precedes ... the noun.
Third, the discovery techniques would yield a list and not a system, thus
missing the structural essence of language/langue. And fourth, signs match
no entities of a fixed size in speaking. They are not uniquely equivalent to
‘words’ (e.g. porte-plume), nor to ‘locutions’ (e.g. s’il vous plait), nor to
‘sentences’. Beginning with one or the other, then, will not produce consistent
identification of the signs of the language system.
The theory is therefore explanatory. Saussure underscores — implicitly
— that the explanation is a deductive one, not historical, and seeks to establish
a synchronic linguistics. The explanation is not one of cause-and-effect, that
Hammarström (1978:26) attributes to the natural sciences but the ‘weaker’
deductive one. The system which Saussure suggests exists independent of
time ... it is unchanging ... thus cause-and-effect explanations can have no
home in language/langue. Given a sign relation as in Figure 3, the replacement
of the content of the signifier, or the replacement of the signified will have no
effect upon the system as long as the system, i.e., the structural relations
remain unaltered (Saussure 1959:94):
... these transformations are basically alien to words and cannot touch their
essence.
One can see additional properties in language change which set the history of
language off from atemporal language and which void historical explanations.
First, change affects only one term of the sign. It is phonetic or semantic, as
when the pronunciation of Germanic gast/gasti ––> Gast/Gäste without
changing the semantics. The history of language does not deal with signs, and
“to try to unite such dissimilar facts in the same discipline would be certainly
a fanciful undertaking” (Saussure 1959:85). The patterns of language are not
those of change (Saussure 1959:93 & 104):
... if one speaks of law [i.e., pattern] in synchrony it is in the sense of arrangement
[i.e., static], a principle of regularity ... [whereas] ...Diachrony supposes a
dynamic force through which a thing is produced, a thing executed.
Second, change like speaking is active; both are events. There will be no
‘events’ in language/langue, only “the momentary arrangement of terms”
(Saussure 1959:80 & 81):
The first thing that strikes us when we study the facts of language is that their
succession in time does not exist insofar as the speaker is concerned. He is
confronted with a state. That is why the linguist who wishes to understand a state
must discard all knowledge of everything that produced it and ignore diachrony.
Saussure: Introduction 11
Saussure
The Theory
1. Introduction
First, further on the data. In his conceptualizing language, Saussure has
already excluded a class of phenomena from consideration, namely, all that
associated with speaking. Saussure eliminates — or at least seems to —
additional realms from inclusion within language. This further exclusion rests
on two assumptions: first, the primacy of language over parole and second,
his insistance that language is a system of signs. Since a sign is a mutual
implication of two terms — a signifier and a signified, neither without the
other has status within language. Absent its existence in the sign, a signifier is
not linguistic; and the same is true of signifieds. To study a signifier
independently of a signified is to engage in a study of physiology; and a
similar attempt at independent study of a signified takes us into psychology
(Saussure 1959:103):
Thought
Signs
Phonic
Substance
2. The theory
Saussure suggests a different kind of existence for thought and sounds, an
interrelationship based on difference, whereas the relation which maintains
the language system is the opposition of values (Saussure 1959:117 & 121):
Instead of preexisting ideas then, we find in all the foregoing examples values
emanating from the system [of signs]. When they are said to correspond to
concepts it is understood that the concepts are purely differential and defined not
by their positive content but negatively by their relations to other terms of the
system. Their most precise characteristic is in being what the others are not
[Emphases mine, PWD] ... When we compare signs — positive terms — with
each other, we can no longer speak of difference; the expression would not be
fitting for it applies only to the comparing of two sound-images, e.g. father and
mother, or two ideas, e.g. the idea ‘father’ and the idea ‘mother’; two signs, each
having a signified and signifier, are not different but only distinct. Between them
there is only opposition. The entire mechanism of language, with which we shall
be concerned later, is based on oppositions of this kind and on the phonic and
conceptual differences that they imply.
1 The American interpretations of Saussurean value do, however, allow one to incorporate
the observation that there nevertheless appears to be some similarity between the two
signs/morphemes. But to do so requires an amplification of levels beyond the single one that
Saussure maintains. The similarities between mother and father are lodged first in the
phonology that allows one to state a common occurrence of , , and /r/, and second in a
semantics that permits one to recognize a common presence of <parent> in both mother and
father. Yet, on the level of morphology, mother and father remain absolutely unlike. They
are unitary and not internally composite in exactly the same way that Saussure’s signs are.
SAUSSURE: The Theory 3
Semantics
Grammar
Phonology
designated as the sentence, but Saussure notes that the most characteristic
property of sentences is their chaoticness (Saussure 1959:106 & 124):
If we picture to ourselves, in their totality the sentences that could be uttered, their
most striking characteristic is that they in no way resemble each other ... diversity
is dominant ... it [the sentence] belongs to speaking, not to language.
such that there exists a fixedness (Saussure 1959: 124 & 125):
The line is not drawn by ‘size’, but by the degree of fixed conventionality, and
not all utterances satisfy this criterion. “Speaking is characterized by freedom
of combinations” (Saussure 1959:124). Apparently, most of syntax exhibits
this freedom and is therefore excluded from Saussure’s theory of language.
There can be no ‘creativity’ in Saussure’s concept of language/langue. It is by
the removal of this property — by grammaticization — that a combination
crosses the boundary from speaking/parole and enters into language/langue.
2 “These idiomatic twists cannot be improvised; they are furnished by tradition” (Saussure
1959.125).
3 A form like indécorable “already has a potential existence in language; all its elements are
found in [other] syntagms” (Saussure 1959.166)
SAUSSURE: The Theory 5
Being unable to seize the concrete entities or units of language directly, we shall
work with words. While the word does not conform exactly to the definition of the
linguistic unit ... it at least bears a rough resemblance to the unit and has the
advantage of being concrete, consequently we shall use words as specimens
equivalent to real terms in a synchronic system, and the principles that we
evolve with respect to words will be valid for entities in general [Emphases
mine, PWD].
SIGN
2.2 Value
There are several properties that may be attributed to words, but the
primary one is still value. Saussure has used value to characterize the
relationships between signs and Saussure reapplies value to words. As noted
above, value is analogous to the more familiar notion of contrast or non-
identity. Saussure continues with the notion and reaches an extreme result.
Words form a system by their being distinct from other words. It is value that
interrelates words and yields the system he so insists upon. Saussure has
already said that all content/matter is/functions as the manifestation of words/
signs. How then to get at these words/signs if they have no content? A word
exists simply by its opposition to other words — a word is defined by what it
is not. Consider Figure 4. In (a), we see three geometrical shapes, each not the
other. We can understand (‘grasp’) them in that way by their contents as
‘circle’, ‘square’, and ‘triangle’. In this version, they are unconnected unless
we somehow add that relationship, e.g. ‘closed geometrical figures’. We can
build a connection into (a) by converting it to (b), where each is designated by
being not the others. We now know that ‘(not , not )’ is ‘ ’, that ‘(not ,
(not , not )
⇒ ⇒
(not , not ) (not , not )
(d)
Figure 4: From substance to form.
... elements hold each other in equilibrium in accordance with fixed rules, [and]
the notion of identity [e.g. ‘ ’] blends with that of value [e.g. ‘not , not ’]
and vice versa ... whatever distinguishes one sign from another constitutes it.
Version (c) may now be replaced with (d), in which reference to different
types of lines is removed. The version of (d) is now maximally efficient
(‘simple’) in requiring no positive primitive at all, no ‘ ’, no ‘ ’, no ‘ —’, no
SAUSSURE: The Theory 7
‘- -’, etc. Just ‘not’ ... value. Language/langue is “a system of pure values”
(Saussure 1959:111), pure relationships. According to Figure 1, language/
langue “serve[s] as a link between thought and sound” (Saussure 1959:112)
while partaking of neither (Saussure 1959:113):
Linguistics then works in the borderland where the elements of sound and thought
combine; their combination produces a form, not a substance.
This conclusion is the lauded one, which Hockett (1983) identifies with
granularity and pattern. Having divorced langue from substance and the
individual speaker, its science attains the stature of Naturwissenschaft.
Theories of language can be further characterized as to whether they
assume as primitives things that occur in their theory-free observation of
language, primitives which contain positive ‘real world’ content, e.g.
phonetics or any portion of the human sensorium. Some do and some do not.
Those that do have been called empiric (n.b. not empirical), and those which
do not are non-empiric (n.b. not non-empirical).5 This opposition is one that
allows us to distinguish between and group conceptualizations of language,
both American and other:
Non-Empiric Empiric
5 Cf. the relevant chapters in Davis 1973. Stratificational grammar has evolved into
‘cognitive-stratificational’ grammar (cf. Copeland & Davis 1980), ‘relational network’
linguistics (Lamb 1994), and finally into ‘neurocognitive’ (Lamb 1999.). It has retained the
non-empiric character identified here.
8 HALT
that some words are now complex by their entering into an associative
pattern, others will be simple. Complex words reveal a second, internal
patterning between their parts, a syntagmatic, both-and relationship. They
constitute syntagmatic solidarities (Saussure 1959:127).
Figure 5, of course, will require a reworking (or elaboration) of Figure 4.
These samenesses will have to be constituted as additional signs within the
system or the nature of system will have to be altered. Consider the following
set of data:
Figure 6 represents a possible partial description of the data, but not the only
slow th
s
cloth
Root
Stem
Noun
merry er
slow est
Adjective
one because there are uncertainties both in the data and in the theory.
Assuming that the patterns are to be attributed to English, we can first focus
on how to incorporate the patterns composed by the curly braces. Cf. Figure 5
and the slanted lines that radiate out from dé-faire. Does there exist in the
system of signs the associative pattern that collects the stems that may occur
before {th}? Or is there one that is the summarized occurrence before {s},
whether complex six-th or simple cloth-? Or before {er est}? Notice that in
Figure 5 dé is present four times and faire is also present four times ... and that
is without counting the potential of the two “etc.”. The depiction of Figure 5 is
10 HALT
... to base the classifications on anything except concrete entities — to say, for
example, that the parts of speech are the constituents of language simply because
they correspond to categories of logic — is to forget that there are no [Emphasis
mine, PWD] linguistic facts apart from the phonic substance cut into significant
elements [e.g. Figure 2.].
Our memory holds in reserve all the more or less complex types of syntagms,
regardless of their class or length, and we bring in the associative groups to fix our
choice when the time for using them arrives. When a Frenchman says marchons!
‘(let’s) walk!’ he thinks unconsciously of diverse groups of associations that
converge on the syntagm marchons! The syntagm figures in the series between
marchons! and the other forms determines his choice; in addition, marchons! calls
up the series montons! ‘(let’s) go up!’ mangeons! ‘(let’s) eat!’ etc. and is selected
from this series by the same process ... In reality the idea evokes not a form [i.e.
no sign, PWD] but a whole latent system that makes possible the oppositions
necessary for the formation of the sign.
Saussure
Limitations and Uncertainties
1. Introduction
There are several areas in Saussure’s conception/theory of language in
which we may see limitations and uncertainties. We have already seen that
Saussure appears to restrict the patterning of language to that of signs ...
roughly equivalent to what we would now call morphology (including
lexemes). Second, where pattern, i.e., associative pattern, is recognized within
language, it is expressed, seemingly, by clustering the signs which enter into
that pattern into one location within the system so that the relevant signs are
adjacent to one another. This, however, leaves a problem in how this
expression works more precisely. If the system of signs is created by the value
of signs, i.e., their being distinct from other signs, is the one sign in which we
are interested distinct from all signs equally? That is, is it the intersection of
contrasts with every other sign in the language? Compare the entry of Darn!
into the system of English langue. There would appear to be no one sign to
which it has a closer relation than any other. Where the sign of our interest
clearly has recurrences in complex signs, e.g. contaminat(e), contamination,
contaminant, contaminator, recontaminate, etc. is the relation of contaminate
to excite as direct a one as is the relation of darn to excite? Or is the relation of
contaminate to excite mediated by contamination and excitation? If not, then
how is the fact of associative relation registered into the system of signs that is
language/langue? And if the mediated alternative is the case, then how will
darn be integrated into the system such that its relations will recognize the
absence of any associative relation?
The key to the distinction seems to be the recognition of the syntagmatic
solidarities. A sign may be the mutual implication of one signified with one
signifier or it may be the mutual implication of two (or more) signifiers with
two (or more) signifieds. Darn will then have no relation with such a
syntagmatic solidarity. But then what is it related to directly? The only answer
would seem to be every sign in the language/langue. Contamin would then be
2 HALT
Any pair seems as related (or unrelated) as any other. But if we accept this,
then how can we distinguish the local presences of clusters of associative
relations from their absence? We must answer this question keeping in mind
that our own intuitive recognition of signs by their positive manifestations as
concepts and sound-images, e.g. [ ], is not available within language/
langue. That naive recognition must have some systemic equivalent (formal
expression) within language/langue, but Saussure does not give us explicit
answers to such problems, and we are left to work them out for ourselves ...
perhaps by extending the theory or, ultimately, by abandoning it for some
other.
Notice that the introduction of paradigms, or disjunctive classes, would
provide the basis for such a response. But that response would violate
Saussure’s constraint of theoretical realism in that such formal devices go
beyond the pattern which such a constraint will allow (Saussure 1959:137-38):
We can say that the sum of the conscious and methodical classifications made by the
grammarian who studies a language-state without bringing in history must coincide
[Emphasis mine, PWD] with the associations, conscious or not, that are set up in
speaking. These associations fix word-families, inflectional paradigms, and
formative elements (radicals, suffixes, inflectional endings, etc.) in our minds.
2. Uncertainties
One substantive area of uncertainty in this theory centers upon the extent
to which associative relations are to be attributed to language/langue.
Speaking of the Latin forms , , and (Saussure
1959:138):
1 I leave it as an unresolved problem just how we recognize that contamin is the first
member of the syntagmatic solidarity contaminant, but the second member of recontaminate.
SAUSSURE: Uncertainties 3
The sounds of the three endings offer no basis for association, yet the endings are
connected by the feeling [!, PWD] that they have a common value which prescribes
an identical function. This suffices to create the association in the absence of any
material support and the notion of the genitive takes its place in the language
[Emphasis mine, PWD].
This may establish a single, simple sign and not an associative series because
the signified is also simple, i.e., ‘the notion of genitive’. Cf. Figure 1. The
suppletive relations between signifiers are no problem within this theory.
Since the theory is non-empiric, the positive association of a signifier(s) of
identical, similar, or completely different sound images is irrelevant for the
constitution of a sign, although methodologically it may be important.
Although the example in Figure 1 is an ‘inflectional ending’ and may
therefore be cast as an associative relation rather than a sign relation, such
variations as go ~ went would almost certainly involve a common sign. The
uncertainty here is that between pattern as an associative relation or pattern
as a sign.
Figure 1: Suppletion.
Take the two French phrases laf rsdüvã (la force du vent ‘the force of the wind’),
and abudf rs (a bout de force ‘exhausted’; literally ‘at the end of one’s force’). In
each phrase the same concept coincides with the same phonic slice, f˛ors; thus it is
certainly a linguistic unit [i.e. sign, PWD]. But in (il me force a parler
4 HALT
‘he forces me to talk’) f˛ors has an entirely different meaning; it is therefore another
unit [i.e. another sign, PWD].
The semantic distinction of ‘noun’ : ‘verb’ is the basis for the “entirely
different meaning”, and it is sufficient here to maintain a distinction between
two signifieds and therefore between two signs. But (Saussure 1959:108):
In the same vein, a word can express quite different ideas without compromising its
identity (cf. French adopter une mode ‘adopt a fashion’ and adopter un enfant
‘adopt a child’, la fleur du pommier ‘the flower of the apple tree’ and la fleur de la
noblesse ‘the flower of the nobility,’ etc.
Figure 2: Polysemy.
... there is identity because the same slice of sound carries the same meaning in the
two sentences. But that explanation is unsatisfactory, for if the correspondence of
slices of sound and concepts is proof of identity ... [as in the noun senses of force in
SAUSSURE: Uncertainties 5
Figure 3], the reverse is not true. There can be identity without this correspondence
[e.g. Figures 1 and 2].
The boundary between the two cases, however, must be established in each
case (Saussure 1959:138):
... we never know exactly whether or not the awareness of speakers goes as far as
the analyses of the grammarian. But the important thing is that abstract entities
are always based in the last analysis on concrete entities. No grammatical
abstraction is possible without a series of material elements as a basis, and in the
end we must always come back to these elements.2
Figure 3: Homonymy.
In practice, the semantic side of the sign leans more heavily on the
“awareness of the speaker”, and the phonic side relies upon the presence of
“material form”. Together, they suggest resolutions to these problems, but
2 This reliance upon ‘concrete’ appears to be literal and not just confined to ‘awareness of the
speakers’ (Saussure 1959:139):
In English, the man I have seen apparently uses a zero-sign to stand for a syntactical
fact which French expresses by que ‘that’ (l’homme que j’ai vu). But the comparing of
the English with the French syntactical fact is precisely what produces the illusion that
nothingness can express something. The material units alone [Emphases mine PWD]
actually create the value by being arranged in a certain way ... a meaning and function
exist only through the support of some material form.
because the theory is not an operational one, the product of their application
must finally be judged as to the accuracy of the representation of
language/langue which the linguist perceives; the correct one will “coincide
[Emphasis mine, PWD] with the associations, conscious or not, that are set up
in speaking” (Saussure 1959:138).3 The correctness of the grammar cannot be
recognized internally to itself.
There are without doubt uncertainties in the Saussurean paradigm and
areas to be worked through. As Kuhn suggests, this may be counted a
desirable aspect of a paradigm; it is suggestive of issues which require further
thought. Three areas of ambiguity in Saussure’s theory are:
(i) Size-levels within the one level, e.g. morphology versus syntax.
(ii) The amount of pattern within the size-levels of grammar that are
recognized, e.g. form classes.
(iii) Levels, e.g. phonology versus grammar versus semantics, etc.
We have discussed (i) and (ii). With respect to (iii), Saussure has claimed that
the only relationship among both the signifieds and among the signifiers is
difference, by virtue of their participation in distinct signs. Yet (Saussure
1959:126):
... the association [i.e. associative relation, PWD] may spring from the analogy of the
concepts signified (enseignement, instruction, apprentisage, éducation, etc.); or
again, simply from the similarity of the sound images (e.g. enseignement and
justement ‘precisely’). Thus there is at times a double similarity of meaning and
form, at times similarity only of form or of meaning. A word can always evoke
everything that can be associated with it in one way or another.
Cf. Figure 4 from Saussure (1959:126). Such a statement gives a strong indi
cation that there is an associative pattern to be found within the signifieds and
within the signifiers, a pattern which follows after their establishment in
those respective capacities by their participation in the sign. Such patterns —
while common sense from our perspective — are only suggested within the
Saussurean theory.4 Notice that, from the examples given, the phonological
3. Conclusion
In Davis (1973:36-37), I attempted to summarize the accumulated
observations on Saussure in a more formal way:
Primitives:
1. Nonidentity, value relationships
2. Linearity
3. Conjunction
4. Mutual implication
Definitions
1. Word system: Defined in terms of mutual implication holding
between conjunctions of two systems that are in turn defined
5 This peripheral presence of associative relationships among the signifieds and the signifiers
such that each is dependent first upon their involvement within the system of signs gives an
even more Saussurean cast to Transformational Generative Grammar (cf. footnote 3), which
similarly begins with the syntactic component (system of signs) and then interprets the output
(signifieds and signifiers) by mapping a part (signifieds) onto a semantic reading (concepts)
and another part (sound image) onto a phonetic transcription (phonic substance).
8 HALT
1. Introduction
Bloomfield’s (1933:22-24) interpretation of the speech act is derived from
a ‘typical’ scenario in which two individuals engage in a short conversation
one requesting the other for an apple and the second complying ... not
responding linguistically ... with the request:
Suppose that Jack and Jill are walking down a lane. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple
in a tree. She makes a noise with her larynx, tongue, and lips. Jack vaults the fence,
climbs the tree, takes the apple, brings it to Jill, and places it in her hand. Jill eats the
apple.
Note that there is no record of what language Jill speaks ... or even whether
the point of view that creates the object is acted out again here ... but the point
of view is decidedly different.
There may be many reasons for this turn. It is common to cite the
experience of linguists in North America with the indigenous languages,
especially Franz Boas (1858-1942) and his students (notably Edward Sapir
[1884-1939] and Alfred Kroeber [1876-1960]), who each worked on several
indigenous languages.1 Boas worked on languages of the northwest coast, e.g.
Bella Coola (Salishan) in the 1870’s and later, Nootka (Wakashan). Sapir
worked on languages of Canada (Sarcee [Athabaskan] and Cree [Algonkian]),
1 There were a complex of forces which produced the concentrated investigation of American
Indian languages. In 1840, James Smithson bequeathed $500,000 to the United States
government to establish an institution “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men” (Hinsley 1981:17). It was called the National Institute until Congress created the
Smithsonian Institution in 1846. Circumstance contrived to cast a significant portion of its
research on the American Indian. Expeditions by amateur scientists yielded collections that
demanded museums to house them. Second, ethnologists of the time focussed on what seemed
to make the country unique. In 1846, “the respected ethnologist” Henry Rowe Schoolcraft
advocated development of (Hinsley 1981:20):
... an American scientific and literary tradition: “No people can bear a true nationality,
which does not exfoliate, as it were, from its bosom, something that expresses the
peculiarities of its own soil and climate”. In constructing its “intellectual edifice”
America must draw “from the broad and deep quarries of its own mountains, foundation
stones, and columns and capitals, which bear the impress of an indigenous geognosy”.
The native American Indians had borne this distinctive “mental geognosy”, and the
present tribes, “walking statues” of their progenitors, were monuments far more worthy
of study than the antiquarian remains of the Old World.
Scientific study of the aboriginal tongues ... rewarded the comparative philologist by
showing not only analogies with other languages of the world but fascinating
peculiarities as well, by disclosing “new and curious phases of the human mind” ... the
study of Indian tongues, even without their literature, provided the same kind of
“delight and instruction” that the naturalist enjoyed from a new species of plant or
animal.
The Institution supported expeditions, notably those by John Wesley Powell to the West and
Southwest and George Gibbs to the Northwest. In 1879, Powell successfully lobbied
Congress to establish the Bureau of American Ethnology within the Smithsonian, and “the
BAE was the only institution in the country willing to underwrite and publish the work in
linguistics and mythology that Boas considered integral to a complete science of
anthropology” (Hinsley 1981:251). Boas, himself, had a varied career which began in the
United States in the mid-1880’s as geographical editor for Science. Before he finally settled
in 1895 in New York at Columbia University and the American Museum, he engaged in
fieldwork, taught at Clark University (1889-1992), did museum work in Chicago until spring
1894, and for the eighteen months before the Columbia appointment was apparently
unemployed (Hinsley 1981:250-51).
BLOOMFIELD & SAUSSURE 3
in California (Yana), and in the southwest (S. Ute). And Kroeber, primarily
2 “Even before receiving his doctorate at the age of twenty-four, he had worked with several
American Indian languages (Nez Perce, Nitinat, Chitimacha) and had collaborated with Sapir
on a monograph ... The early 1950’s were painful years for Swadesh. In his brief
probationary appointment at CCNY (1948-49), he had embarrassed the administrative
powers by vigorously championing student demonstrators. Being a man of powerful
convictions, he was inclined to be as uncompromising in battle for social or political idea as
he was in advancing a linguistic theory. As a result of this episode and of other less
publicized ones, he became labeled unambiguously as a ‘leftist’ during the noisiest period of
the McCarthy Era, and university administrators were unwilling to take the risk of hiring
him” (Newman 1967.948, 949).
4 HALT
emphasize the fact that the linguist is approaching the task as an ‘outsider’. It
is this perspective which inclines one to take language as the external act of
speaking rather than the internal knowledge which enables it.
Another source of this alternative view lies in these remarks (Bloomfield
1933:34):
Because we cannot expect to gain insight from the speaker’s knowledge of the
language (Saussure’s “awareness of the speaker” , the speaker’s “feeling”, and
Hammerström’s “intuition” of the linguist), there is a resultant emphasis upon
how we go about working our way into the language. Here, Bloomfield
becomes programmatic, and it is left to other workers in this model to
elaborate the techniques (Bloomfield 1933:78 & 79):
In the case of a strange language we have to learn such things [whether two instances
of forms are the same, PWD] by trial and error, or to obtain the meanings from some
one that knows the language ... [A] little practice [Emphasis mine, PWD] will
enable the observer to recognize a phoneme when it appears in different parts of
words.
... there is another and simpler way [in addition to the statistical] of studying
human action in the mass: the study of conventional actions [Emphasis mine,
PWD] ... Here the linguist is in a fortunate position: in no other respect are the
activities of a group as rigidly standardized as in the forms of language. Large
groups of people make up all their utterances out of the same stock of lexical
forms and grammatical constructions. A linguistic observer therefore can describe
the speech-habits of a community without resorting to statistics.
The mechanism which governs speech must be very complex and delicate. Even if
we know a great deal about a speaker and about the immediate stimuli which are
acting upon him, we usually cannot predict whether he will speak or what he will say
... The materialistic (or, better, mechanistic) theory supposes that the variability of
human conduct, including speech, is due only to the fact that the human body is a
very complex system ... We could foretell a person’s actions ..., only if we knew the
exact structure of his body at the moment ... at birth or before –– and then had a
record of every change in that organism, including every stimulus that had ever
affected the organism.
PRACTICAL PRACTICAL
EVENTS EVENTS
A B C
(1) S ––––> R
‘S’ is the practical stimulus for some activity and ‘R’ is the practical
reaction to that stimulus. But (Bloomfield 1933:24):
Instead of struggling with the fence and the tree, she made a few small movements
in her throat and mouth, which produced a little noise. At once, Jack began to
make the reactions for her; he performed actions that were beyond Jill’s strength
and in the end Jill got the apple. Language enables one person to make a reaction
(R) when another person has the stimulus (S).
In the ideal case, within a group of people who speak to each other, each person
has at his disposal the strength and skill of every person in the group. The more
these persons differ as to special skills, the wider a range of power does each one
person control. Only one person needs to be a good climber, since he can get fruit
for all the rest; only one needs to be a good fisherman, since he can supply the
other with fish. The division of labor, and, with it, the whole working of human
society, is due to language ... The gap between the bodies of the speaker and
hearer –– the discontinuity of the two nervous systems –– is bridged by the sound-
waves ... The term society or social organism is not a metaphor. A human social
group is really a unit of a higher order than a single cell. The single cells in the
many-celled animal co-operate by means of such arrangements as the nervous
system; the individuals in a human society co-operate by means of sound-waves.
Rather than language depending upon society for its character, in the manner
of Saussure, the relation is now reversed, and language is here the source of
the integrity of society. 4 The position between the two is altered so that it is
language which is prior to society (Bloomfield 1933:29):
Again, the relation between language and its context is just the reverse of
Saussure’s. With the interposition of speech, r · · · s, (1) is amplified into (2):
The gap between the bodies of the speaker and the hearer — the discontinuity of
the two nervous systems — is bridged by the sound-waves.
And this finally is where the linguist finds his/her data (Bloomfield 1933:32):
... the linguist deals only with the speech-signal (r · · · s); he is not competent to
deal with problems of physiology or psychology.
4 Compare Saussure's projection of language onto 'thought' and 'speech'. Bloomfield projects
it onto 'human society'.
8 HALT
worthless in itself
it has a meaning
When anything unimportant turns out to be closely connected with more important
things, we say that it has, after all, a ‘meaning’; namely, it ‘means’ these more
important things’. Accordingly, we say that speech-utterance, trivial and unimportant
in itself, is important because it has a meaning: the meaning consists of the important
things with which the speech-utterance (B) is connected, namely the practical events
(A and C).
3. Conclusion
We come around to a position, finally, similar to Saussure’s, yet with a
clearly different Bloomfieldian character:
6. Def. The vocal features common to same or partly same utterances are forms; the
corresponding stimulus-reaction features are meanings.
Thus a form [sign, PWD] is a recurrent vocal feature [signifier, PWD] which has
meaning [signified, PWD], and a meaning is a recurrent stimulus-reaction feature
which corresponds to a form.
BLOOMFIELD & SAUSSURE 9
To study this co-ordination of certain sounds with certain meanings [i.e., forms,
PWD] is to study language.
Bloomfield
The Shape of the Theory
1. Introduction
Similar to Saussure, Bloomfield (1926) sets out a series of statements
which identify an initial conception of language.1 His initial primitives derive
from an act of speech, which Bloomfield accepts from the fields of
psychology and anthropology.2 Even so, to begin with, we do not know
which acts represent speech and which do not. That is resolved only when
some of acts are determined to be forms and some are not.
2 Cf. Chapter 6.
3 In Bloomfield (1933), this assumption is stated more specifically as follows (p. 144):
And Bloomfield remarks (1933:145) that “our fundamental assumption implies that each
linguistic form has a constant and specific meaning”. It is the failure of this implication (i.e.,
the absence of a constant and specific meaning) which may be the most serious weak point
of this and similar theories. Bloomfield recognizes the limitations of this assumption as well:
“... our basic assumption is true only within limits, even though its general truth is
presupposed not only in linguistic study, but by all our actual use of language”.
2 HALT
There are two points here. First, the relation of ‘same’ (né ‘alike’) and
‘different’ are assumed and not defined. There is no definition of ‘alike’;
it is a primitive applied to vocal features and to stimulus-reaction
features without instruction on how to recognize it. It is either there or it
is not. Since there are no techniques presented for introducing it, and it
must be assumed that we can recognize ‘alike’. The elaboration of the
missing techniques and their incorporation constitute much of the later
activity in developing this theory. Second, language is identified here
with the totality of utterances that can be made. It is not equated with
the patterns which the utterances exhibit, and which, when expanded,
account for (generate) those utterances. It is the forms themselves.
Language is not thought of as a system, pregnant with all the potential
forms of language. This is similar in outline to Saussure’s notion of a
system of signs in which all information is represented without removal
of redundancies.5
4 Note again that ‘community’ is constructed from (and depends upon) the constancy of
language (i.e., “successive utterances are alike or partly alike”) and note that this reverses the
progression that Saussure proposed, in which ‘community’ was prior.
5 Notice, also, that this conception of language (as equivalent to the totality of its possible
utterances) is consistent with the outsider’s approach to the phenomenon. This attitude again
mirrors the American encounter with languages alien to Indo-European. There is an implicit
emphasis on corpus and linearity.
BLOOMFIELD: The Shape of the Theory 3
This series takes the morpheme as its domain, and then projects a second —
and different — segmentation upon the same vocal features that have been
organized into forms.8 Cf. Figure 2. Phonological organization presup-
poses the morpheme segmentation, for it works within the segmentations pro-
g r æ n s e n z k l a y m d d a w n
8 By Def. 9, morpheme is equivalent to (a kind of) form; and by Def. 6, form is reduced to
vocal features. Therefore, phonemes organize a range of predelimited (morpheme ‘size’)
vocal features, but require nothing in addition to that.
6 HALT
work ‘though’ grammar to reach phonemics, nor does one work through
phonemics to reach grammar. There is, therefore, no necessary hierarchical
connection between the two patterns. Each is an autonomous projection of
pattern upon the same vocal features. When Bloomfield (1926:157) writes:
Sememes
|
Morphemes
|
Phonemes
Morphemes are projections of content, i.e., sememes, upon the vocal features;
and phonemes are a second, parallel projection upon the same vocal features.
But nothing which Bloomfield writes requires that morphemes ‘pass through’
phonemes on their way to the data, the utterances.
If there is a one-to-one correlation of meaning (i.e., sememes) to forms
(i.e., morphemes), then the top half of Figure 2 (above the continuum of vocal
features) is simultaneously a projection of content (Saussure’s signifieds)
upon vocal features, and the bottom half of Figure 2 is a projection of the
shape of expression (Saussure’s signifiers) upon that same stream of vocal
features. The congruent intersection of the two projections now stands as the
Bloomfieldian equivalent of the Saussurean sign. The isomorphism between
content/sememes and form/morphemes compels us not to distinguish a
grammar from a semantics, for the one is the other. To describe the grammar
of minimum and non-minimum forms is to describe simultaneously the
9 If the sememes could be further analyzed, the units of that analysis would parallel (in the
domain of ‘stimulus-reaction features’) the simultaneous components of Hockett’s (1947)
‘componential analysis’ (in the domain of ‘vocal features’). Although Bloomfield’s position
recognizes the associative relation that Saussure saw between enseignment, clément,
justement, etc., there is nothing which recalls the associative relation suggested by
enseignment, apprentissage, éducation, etc.
BLOOMFIELD: The Shape of the Theory 7
semantics of language. And at this point there seem to be only two kinds of
pattern within language. Only when the techniques for establishing the units
are worked out more explicitly will the patterns be hierarchicalized as in
Figure 3.
Note first that Bloomfield begins with “the order of the constituent forms”.
For Saussure, it is the presence of associative patterns (recognized by the
repetition of signs) which places the syntagmatic presence into relief. But here
it is partial sames of order (not of forms, but of position. Cf. Def 29.)
corresponding isomorphically to sames of stimulus-reaction which is the basis
8 HALT
for this pattern ... just the reverse of Saussure. This alternative emphasis upon
the syntagmatic at the expense of the paradigmatic is characteristic of
American structuralism. But given the prior emphasis on the r ··· s portion of
the speech act (as well as the common experience with analyzing spoken —
sequentially represented — samples of unfamiliar languages), this bias is not
surprising. Throughout, each formal construct maintains its one-to-one
relation with meaning:
Form Meaning
Forms Positions
Phonemes
The taxeme of selection (of the noun form-class and the verb form-class) plus
the taxeme of order combines to effect the contrasting tagmemes of SV and
VS. SV will have one episememe which contrasts with the episememe of VS.
Finally (Bloomfield 1933:184):
The free forms (words and phrases) of a language appear in larger free forms
(phrases), arranged by taxemes of modulation, phonetic modification, selection, and
order. Any meaningful recurrent of such taxemes is a syntactic construction.
10 A tactic form will always be a grammatical form, for it is the presence of meaning which
delimits the taxemes as a tactic form. Without meaning, taxemes are like vocal features
without accompanying stimulus-response reactions. Neither is an utterance.
but if languages (some or all) do not work in this way, then TGG is weakened. The issue here
is expressed in terms of configurational languages and nonconfigurational ones. Hale
(1976) suggests that Warlpiri (Walbiri) may be a nonconfigurational language
Chapter 8
American Strucutralism:
Psychological Reality
1. Introduction
Bloomfield (1926:157) characterizes a phoneme as “a minimum same of
vocal feature”, and in his 1933 book, Language, he illustrates with the
description of phonemes for English while referring to “a moderate amount of
experimenting” (Bloomfield 1933:78), which will “reveal” (79) “replaceable
parts in the word” (79). And then when the phonemes in one part of the word
are determined by this replacement, “a little practice will enable the observer
to recognize a phoneme even when it appears in different parts of words”
(Bloomfield 1933:79). Such a statement may suffice when working with one’s
own language, but one’s intuitions (or “a little practice”) will not be adequate
to discover the phonemes of a language such as Chitimacha (a now extinct
member of the Gulf languages, which included Tunica, Natchez, and Atakapa;
formerly spoken in southwestern Louisiana). A more explicit statement of
how ... practically ... to proceed will be necessary (Swadesh 1934:117):
As we now expect, the initial impulse to make phonology more explicit is the
practical one of language description ... description of an American Indian
language. The techniques then turn back upon the theory to reshape it in light
of the application. The direction of influence, from description to theory, is
clear in Sapir’s (1933/1951:23) remarks:
phonemes.
The phonemes of a language are not sounds but merely features of sounds [emph.
mine, PWD] which the speakers have been trained to produce and recognize in the
current of actual speech-sound — just as motorists are trained to stop before a red
signal, be it an electric signal-light, a lamp, a flag, or what not, although there is
no disembodied redness apart from these actual sounds.
The phonemes of a language are, in a sense, percepts to the native speakers of the
given language. If they hear a foreign tongue spoken, they still tend to hear in
terms of their native phonemes ... If the phonemes are percepts to the native
speakers of the language, they are not necessarily percepts that he experiences in
isolation. They occur ordinarily as the elements of words or sentences. Phonemes
are perceptive units [Emphases mine, PWD] in the sense that the native can
recognize as different, words different as to one of the component phonemes, e.g.
bid and hid or bid and bed or bid and bit. The phoneme is the smallest potential
unit of difference between similar words recognizable as different to the native.
There are two points on which Swadesh, Sapir, and some others differ with
Bloomfield. First, a ‘percept’ or ‘perceptive unit’ is not ‘feature(s) of sound’.
And second, it will make a difference whether we choose to restrict the ability
to hear a difference to the domain of morphemes, as Bloomfield (1926:157)
appears to do with his Assumption 4 followed by Def. 16. In practice,
Bloomfield (1933, 1935) operates with words, minimum free forms. 1 Swadesh
allows the domain within which that sameness is perceived to be much larger.
The issue is context, how much and whether it is relevant to the recognition
that “morphemes may be alike or partly alike as to vocal features”
(Bloomfield 1926.127).
Swadesh’s teacher, Edward Sapir, exemplifies both of these alternatives:
phonemes are ‘percepts’ and the domain for the application of these percepts
is larger than the word. Note this statement concerning the difference between
phonetics and the phoneme (Sapir 1933/1951:22):
... no entity in human experience can be adequately defined as the mechanical sum
or product of its physical properties.2
3. Phonology at Work
The principle of complementarity is illustrated in these data from S. Paiute
(Sapir 1933/1951:25):3
In Sapir’s analysis, there are two contrasting phonemes /p/ and /p·/ with these
variants:
/p/ [p ]
/p·/ [p· p]
Only /p/ occurs initially, and both /p/ and /p / occur in V –– V. For /p·/, [p·]
appears after a voiced vowel (and it is also aspirated before an unvoiced
(1935:98) claims that “The existence of these phonemes is established by 136 such pairs as
pit : pet, look : luck, cam : calm, bomb : balm, see : say”. They are all words and
simultaneously, morphemes.
2 Sapir (1933/1951:22) continues: “These physical properties are needed of course to give us
the signal, as it were, for the identification of the given entity as a functionally significant
point in a complex system of relatednesses; but how many of these physical properties are, or
may be, overlooked as irrelevant, how one particular property, possessing for the moment or
by social understanding an unusual sign value, may have a determinedness in the definition
of the entity that is all out of proportion to its ‘physical weight’”.
vowel as in [3]); and [p] appears after an unvoiced vowel (i.e., [A] in [4]). For
/p/, [p] appears initially; and [ ] and [ ] medially, with the latter before
voiceless vowels, the former before voiced. A form such as [ ] ‘at the
water’, when taught to a native speaker “of average intelligence” was rendered
... unguided by Sapir ... as “ ” (Sapir 1933/1951:24):
Tony was not ‘hearing’ in terms of actual sounds (the voiced bilabial was
objectively very different from the initial stop) but in terms of an etymological
reconstruction: pa·- ‘water’ plus postposition *-pa' ‘at’ ... a theoretically real but
actually non-existent form ... *pa' does not actually exist as an independent
element but must always be actualized in one of three possible postvocalic forms.
With regard to the apparent ‘homonyms’ of (5) and (6), Sapir (1933/51:26)
notes:
In the early stage of our work I asked my interpreter, John Whitney, whether the
two words sounded alike to him and he answered without hesitation that they were
quite different ... When I asked him what the difference was, he found it difficult
to say, and the more often he pronounced the words over to himself the more
confused he became as to their phonetic difference. Yet all the time he seem
perfectly sure that there was a difference .... The one tangible suggestion that he
himself made was obviously incorrect, namely, that the -ní of ‘it makes a sound’
ended with a ‘t’. John claimed that he “felt a t” in the syllable, yet when he tested
it over and over to himself, he had to admit that he could neither hear a ‘t’ nor feel
his tongue articulating one.
Discovery of the additional forms of (7) - (10) show that there is a basis for
the speaker’s perception of a difference.
Nootka (Sapir 1933/1951) has these data:
PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 5
In such cases the long consonant is not felt to be a mechanical lengthening of the
simple consonant but as a cluster of two identical consonants ... Here again we
have objectively identical phonetic phenomena which receive different phono-
logic interpretation [Emphases mine, PWD].
/i/ [i ] /u/ [u ü]
6 HALT
/e/ [e ] /o/ [o ö]
/a/ [a ä]
The pretonic vowel system has a four-way contrast, and the atonic system has
three distinctive vowels:
/i u /i u
e a/ a/
The pretonic vowels are assigned as allophones to one of the above phonemic
vowels as indicated by the transcriptions below:
The vowel [ ] in (32) is analyzed in the same way as the [ ] in (30) and
different from the vowel [a] in (31). Even though (31) and (32) contain the
same morpheme, “this [ ] [of (32)] cannot be distinguished from the other [of
(30)]”.
4 Note that phonemic notation is surrounded by [square brackets] in the same way that
[phonetic notation] is. Only with Hockett (1942) are /solidi/ conventionally used for
identifying phonemic transcriptions.
PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 7
5 “Examples of atonic e are materi, gen. of matj mother, [m'atjirj i]; budjte, imperative pl. be,
[b'utjtji]; velikan giant [vj iljik'an], where the first [i] is pronounced [I], according to the
regular rules for atonic and pretonic [i] phoneme; etc.” (Trager 1935:338).
8 HALT
The rule for voiced stops and spirants is this, then: the etymological voiced sounds
... retain their psychological identity and distinction from the corresponding
voiceless sounds in final position or before a voiceless sound in all words in
which at least one inflectional form retains the original sound, even though they
are, objectively, completely voiceless in the positions indicated; but in
derivations under the same conditions, where the original voiced sound does not
reappear in any inflected form, we have complete psychological identification
[Emphases mine, PWD] of the original voiced sound with the new, voiceless
sound, and their merging into the voiceless phoneme, despite the presence of the
voiced sound in the original of the derivative, or in some other derivative. (Trager
1934:341-42)
... the linguist deals only with the speech-signal (r ··· s); he is not competent
[emph. mine, PWD] to deal with problems of physiology or psychology.
... the paradigm exists in the mind of the speaker as a psychological reality ...
PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 9
awhit patu
hopuk kite
arum
tohu
maur
weroh
C –––> Ø/ ––#
And additionally:
V –––> Ø/ V –– V
But there is a causative marker in Maori, whaka, which when added to verbs
requires the additional presence of what appears to be the passive marker (to
indicate the causee). And when this appears, we find a pattern distinct from
(57) - (64):
Generalized throughout, the shape tia appears in the causative. The tia shape
also is used in making passives of borrowed words, and in compounds, and
when nouns are used as verbs, and finally in forgotten words. They all exploit
the shape tia. This suggests that the pattern in (57) - (64) is misleading and
that the two regularities which drop consonants finally and vowels
intervocally are mistaken. Rather than the neatness they express, there is a
pattern in which some verbs take tia, others take kia, still others mia, ria,
hia, etc. And some use a. Our techniques guide us to the simplest, most
regular solution; but the behavior (and psychology) of the speakers indicates
this is mistaken and that the less simple solution in which the matching or
affixes with roots is effected by grammatical/lexical information (on an
idiosyncratic morpheme by morpheme basis) and not by phonological shape.
5. Conclusion
Several issues emerge from the analysis of these examples. The over
arching concern is how one discovers the presence of phonemic identity or
recurrence. Given the initial encounter with an unknown language, the first
impression is one of almost endless phonetic variation. Little seems to recur,
and the first demand is to find repetition. There must be some pattern in this
chaos, and it will be discovered by recognizing samenesses in spite of the
objective differences. How that is accomplished produces distinct notions of
what phonemes are like and of the character of language.
First, is the constancy of phonemes to be lodged in objective, physical
noise (articulation)? If so, how do we (or can we) discover some physical
sameness where we have decided a sameness of phonemes exists? If it is not
possible to discover a constant physical same for a phoneme in each of its
occurrences, where then does that ‘same’ reside?7 Contra Bloomfield,
7 Bloomfield wanted to maintain the phoneme as a physical concept while Sapir, Swadesh,
and Trager proposed the phoneme as non-physical, a “percept”.
PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 11
American Structuralism:
Responses to Psychological Reality
1. Introduction
Patterns which are manifest in phonetic variety are attributed to several
distinct portions of language. We recognize these now by the names:
morphophonemics, phonemics/phonology, and phonetics. Morpho-phono-
logy was first thought to include (Swadesh 1934:128)
Structurally conditioned, e.g. Tunica disyllabic words of the form CV V have that
form only when spoken in isolation; in context they become CV as: ri i ‘house’,
context form ri.
1 Free variants include variation of the familiar sort, e.g. economics / / and
/ /.
Swadesh (1934:123) provides the following as statement as the first of his
‘methods’ for inductively discovering the phonemes of a language:
1. The criterion of consistency of words. Except for word variants [such as the
Tunica example, PWD] different occurrences of the same word have the
same phonemes.
2 With the introduction of “morphophonology” into the terminology, there is already some
indecision as to where it should apply. Cf. Figure 1. Swadesh (1934) follows Prague school
usage in using it to label such variation as /liyf/ ~ /liyv/, but he (1935:249) also classifies the
Sarcee example of [dìní'] /dìní/ ‘this one’ and [dìní'] /dìnít/ ‘it makes a sound’ as an instance
of morphophonemics, writing that it “seems actually to demonstrate a morpho-phonological
rather than a phonemic difference”. It is not morphophonological by Swadesh’s (1934)
characterization of morphophonology. If the example is not one of phonemics, it would
appear to parallel Swadesh’s Tunica example, so that [dìní'] ‘it makes a sound’ and [dìnít'i]
‘he who makes a sound’ constitute word variants. That is, in place of the representation being
/dìnít'/ and /dinít'i/, it is /dìní/ and /dinít'i/. The only difference between this example and one
such as the Russian /rab/ ‘slave’ is that one of the allophones of Sarcee /t'/ would be [ ] ...
silence.
RESPONSES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 3
The Russian ‘seven’ example and the Russian ‘city’ example fall into this
category. The Tunica ‘house’ and the English leaf/leaves examples exhibit
phonological distinctness, but the second also falls into the class of morpho-
phonology.3
Figure 1 summarizes that array of variation and the interpretation of it. It
is the adjustment of the boundaries within Figure 1 which become the subject
of debate. Where is the boundary of pattern attributable to allophonics or
phonemics? Where is the boundary between phonemics (same representations
of words or morphemes) and morphophonology (different representations of
words or morphemes)? The issues which figure in that debate are the
invocation of psychological (‘mentalistic’) data/criteria and the imposition
of purified technique upon the theory.
Phonemic
Tunica [ i] and Ø Word Variants
English [f] and [v] Morphophonology
3 The Maori example of awhi ‘embrace [active]’ ~ awhitia ‘embrace [passive]’, although it
involves an alternation of [t] with Ø as the Tunica involves an alternation of [ i] with Ø,
would be considered differently. The Maori difference would be a phonological sameness
on the order of the Russian [d] ~ [t] in ‘city’ because the conditioning environment is not
“position in the sentence” (Swadesh 1934:119), but its phonetic position in the word, i.e., the
presence of following morphological (bound) material and not word (free) material.
4 HALT
... physical events [of the relevant sort] are the material of linguistic study,
however, and accordingly the first step in linguistic study must be the establishing
of criteria for determining which of the innumerable physical differences are also
significant linguistic differences. Until those criteria have been established, the
use of the terms ‘linguistically same’ and ‘linguistically different’ is unjustified.
Such a [‘mental’] definition is invalid because (1) we have no right to guess about
the linguistic workings of an inaccessible ‘mind’, and (2) we can secure no
advantage from such guesses.
Sapir’s speaker of S. Paiute exemplifies the first sort (i.e., [p] and [ ]), and his
speakers of Sarcee and Nootka exemplify that of the second sort (i.e., Sarcee
[i'] as i or it' and Nootka [s·] as s or as ss).4 In the first case involving S. Paiute
[p] and [ ], Twaddell (1935a:11) is troubled because “Sapir is obliged to
present negative evidence”; that is, the speaker fails to distinguish the two.
4 Of course, ‘distinct as same’ and ‘same as distinct’ are the interesting cases and the ones
focussed on.
RESPONSES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 5
If Sapir’s Paiute guide had been trained to record one variety of labial consonant
as [p]; if he had been requested to pronounce all other varieties of ‘the same
sound’; if he had then without hesitation and without duplication responded with
examples of all these other varieties –– we might then concede that he appeared to
have some mental concept of a unified [p]-phoneme which was variously
actualized in his speech.
But the ‘sameness’ requires precisely that a speaker cannot accomplish the
task Twaddell describes; that is what a ‘perceptual unit’ means.5 It is a unit
(unity). Twaddell’s reservations concerning the examples of (ii) — Sarcee and
Nootka — refer to the information which the speaker exploits for his response
of same-as-different (Twaddell 1935a:13):
In so far as this incident [the Sarcee speaker’s assuring Sapir that “dìní ‘celui-ci’
and dìní ‘cela fait du bruit’ ... ‘étaient totalement differents’”] may be interpreted
as evidence of any mental reality, it would appear to be a morphological class or
lexical [Emphasis mine, PWD] unit than any phonetic or quasi-phonetic class or
unit.
5 The proposed test is one that could only be seriously entertained by someone who has never
engaged in ‘field linguistics’. Twaddell was trained in German and in linguistics (Ph.D. 1930
from Harvard). He seems never to have encountered a non-Indo-European language in a field
situation (Hill 1983).
6 HALT
whether those data in themselves suffice. Sapir is not wrong; he is not right
enough.
Twaddell is equally skeptical of Bloomfield’s attempt to capture the
notion of phonological sameness in terms of a minimum same of physical
phonetic feature (Twaddell 1935a:23 & 24):
The phonetic events ‘Light the lamp’ as produced by two different individuals are
objectively very different; in so far as those events evoke similar responses in
We must operate with the abstracted forms and their relations but these
forms are not themselves susceptible of operation. Accordingly we
observe the utterance-fractions which correspond to a form; we study the
abstracted form which corresponds to utterance-fractions.
RESPONSES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 7
similar social situations [Talk about promissory notes! PWD], the two events are
phonetically significantly alike.
What occurs is not a phoneme, for the phoneme is defined as the term of a
recurrent differential relation. What occurs is a phonetic fraction or a
differentiated articulatory complex correlated to a micro-phoneme. A phoneme,
accordingly, does not occur [Emphasis mine, PWD]; it ‘exists’ in the somewhat
peculiar sense of existence that a brother, qua brother, ‘exists’ — as a term of a
relation.8
Concern with practice, which initially colored the approach to language, has
become technique, a monster, taking the theory further from the data, ending
here with a kind of instrumentalism. Continued emphasis upon technique
results in its refinement and in its increased consistency and ‘logicalness’, but
often with unwanted results. Cf. Pa’d go below.
Beginning with what one can observe, i.e., phonetics and some
information concerning stimulus-response correlations, one begins a series of
abstractions. And one must be logical in this. A technique cannot employ
what it does not have available. Joos (1958:96) comments:
It was the present article by Bloch [Bloch 1941] that made clear, as it never had
8 This is not what Bloomfield had in mind. Compare Twaddell’s 1935a statement about
‘brother’ with Bloomfield’s then recent (1933.80) claim about ‘redness’:
The phonemes of a language are not sounds but merely features of sounds [emph.
mine, PWD] which the speakers have been trained to produce and recognize in the
current of actual speech-sound — just as motorists are trained to stop before a red
signal, be it an electric signal-light, a lamp, a flag, or what not, although there is no
disembodied redness apart from these actual sounds.
8 HALT
been before, that phonemics must be kept unmixed from all that lies on the
opposite side of it from phonetics: kept uninfluenced by the identities of the items
of higher rank [Emphases mine, PWD] (morphemes and so on) which the
phonemes ‘spell’, and hence free from all that their identities entail, such as their
meaning and their grammar.
And Hockett (1942:20 & 21) further narrows the purview of phonology:
No grammatical fact of any kind is used in making phonological analysis ... There
must be no circularity; phonological analysis is assumed for grammatical analysis,
and so must not assume any part of the latter. The line of demarcation between the
two must be sharp.
Why is it that “The line of demarcation between the two must be sharp”? Why
must phonemics “be kept unmixed from all that lies on the opposite of it”?
And how can it be that meaning and grammar are “on the opposite side” from
phonetics? What sense is there in that? Where did this idea of “opposite side”
come from? Clearly, the model implied by Bloomfield’s work has been
altered. It is all base technique driven to be “consistent”.
Circumstance forces us to consider phonetics first because that is what
we first encounter with an unknown language. Correct technique (‘scientific’
technique) forces us to describe phonetics and phonology without reference to
morphology, grammar, semantics, etc. The process of analysis is linear, one
step at a time; therefore language must be constituted to reflect this linearity,
and a hierarchy of sorts is created. Having done phonology, we can then
safely move to analysis of grammar, perhaps morphology. The constant and
“same” reactions of Sarcee speaking John Whitney and S. Paiute speaking
Tony are disregarded, and the practice of consistent analysis forces us to begin
with what we perceive ... phonetics ... and pretending that neither we nor the
speaker knows anything more than the phonetics, we must complete the
phonemic analysis before we proceed further. The conditions in which we
practice linguistics, our concern with description and technique, and our
concern with being consistent so that the results of our description can be
confirmed (or rejected) move us from the non-hierarchicalized concept of
language of Bloomfield (the patterns of form, construction, and phoneme) and
away from the psychological concept of Sapir to one which is abstract and
separate from either sort of our data. Cf. Figure 2.
The earlier, and more interesting, problems concerning the psychological
reality of the phoneme are now redrawn in a logico-formal mode. Unlike
Sapir marveling at John Whitney’s ability to hear differences which Sapir
cannot, Bloch (1941) worries whether there is a complete overlap in the anal-
RESPONSES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY 9
Stimulus-response relations
{Morphemes}
/Phonemes/
Phonetics
Figure 2: The beginning of layering of patterns of language.
ysis. Cf. Figure 3. Partial overlap is permitted because the distinct phonetic
environments of the phones [x1] and [x 2] allow them to be distinguished
/A/ /B/
[x1] [x2]
Partial Overlap
/A/ /B/
[x1] [x2]
Complete Overlap
4. Some Outcomes
There are two further effects of note to follow from this change. First, the
/ [ ]
(b) bud /b d/ [ ]
only by the fact that the vowel in the second group is longer than the vowel in
the first. The long vowel of balm, father, and starry reappears in
Pod and Pa’d are both [ ], yet the previous statements incline us to write
pod as /pad/ (cf. [1] - [4]) and Pa’d as /pa:d/ (cf. alms, palm, pa, star, and
card): a case of complete overlap. What to do? Bloch’s solution appears to be
this (Bloch 1941:284):
We are left, then with the other alternative. By classifying the vowel of pod —
and consequently also the vowels of rob, nod, bog, fond, and the like — as
members of the phoneme of balm, we destroy the neat parallelism of the pairs bit
bid, bet bed, bite bide, pot pod: the words in the last pair, instead of exhibiting
shorter and longer allophones of the same phoneme, have totally different
phonemes. But by sacrificing this symmetry we are able to account for all the
facts of pronunciation, which is sure the more important requirement
[Emphases mine, PWD]. The resulting system is lopsided; but the classes it sets
up are such that if we start from the actual utterances of the dialect we can never
be in doubt of the class to which any particular fraction of utterance must be
assigned.9
Thus,
etc.
American Strucutralism:
Preeminent Methodology
1. Introduction
From the period of 1933 (Bloomfield and Sapir) to 1942 (culminating with
Hockett 1942), we have seen preoccupation with practical methodology and
with the derivation of theoretical notions such as the phoneme control the
discussion of language to the point where analytic technique now dominates.
Method is no longer the application (guide and refiner) of the theory; method
is the theory.
2. Method as Theory
I abstract here as PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION , OBSERVATIONS, and
PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS what would have been considered ‘good’
linguistic practice with regard to phonology at the period following its
codification by Hockett (1942). We may call this the period of Classical
American Structuralism.1
1 ... with respect to phonology. Other aspects, e.g. morphophonemics, morphology, and
syntax, follow later. Hockett (1942:9) provides a more schematic characterization in terms of
six criteria for determining whether phones constitute a phoneme: similarity, non-
intersection, contrastive and complementary distribution, completeness, pattern congruity,
and economy.
2 HALT
Stage I. Any pair of phones that are related by free variation and/or
by complementary distribution and which are phonetically similar
are to be considered members (allophones) of the same class
(phoneme). Definition: Phoneme — a class of sounds/phones
which are in free variation and/or complementary distribution and
which are phonetically similar. The phonetic members of the
phoneme are allophones. Phonemic notation is by slant line
(solidi), i.e., / /; allophonic, like phonetic, notation is by square
bracket, i.e., [ ].
Any pair of phones related by contrast (in minimal pairs or not)
belong to separate phonemes, and the phonetic property(ies) that
distinguish(es) them is/are phonemic or distinctive. For
example, voice is phonemic/distinctive for English obstruents.
Stage II. If Stage I yields more than one possible grouping into
allophones, choose the grouping that yields the simplest statement
of phonotactics; that is, maximize pattern congruity.
the description, and whenever the analyst is required to select the better (or
‘the’) description of the language, thus identifying its structure, the theory
reveals itself as less that maximally ‘scientific’. Hockett (1942:9) notes “the
danger of arbitrary procedure” and introduces the last two of his criteria (cf.
footnote 1) to avoid arbitrariness. The concern with this is shared by both
sides of the psychological – material disagreement.2 Swadesh (1935:1) states
his position:
Is phonemic procedure arbitrary? It can be, but I submit that it need not be. If one
defines a phoneme as ‘one of an exhaustive list of classes of sound in a language’,
one admits an endless variety of treatments and the choice of one or another
treatment is arbitrary. The ideal of exhaustiveness is not in itself sufficient to
define a unique scientific procedure. But if we also take the ideals of simplicity
and self-consistency, we have the basis for a non-arbitrary method ... To attain this
ideal [Emphasis mine, PWD], it is necessary to consider always the totality of
phenomena in the given language.
... intuition may or may not be ‘correct’; the fact remains that an intuition has no
business in a science [Emphasis mine, PWD], if we can get along without it.
In that the techniques are now mechanical applications, they should determine
without intervention of the linguist what the description of the language is
like.
3. Evaluation Procedures
There are two evaluation procedures within the theory. They are pattern
congruity and simplicity (or economy). But arbitrariness was not only the
result of ‘incomplete’ techniques; it could also arise from the conflict between
procedures. An example from Swadesh (1935:246) will illustrate this conflict
briefly:
2 There was a series of exchanges between Twaddell and Swadesh: Twaddell (1935a),
Swadesh (1935), Twaddell (1935b,which includes a final note with Twaddell recording some
interim comments of Swadesh from personal correspondence), and Swadesh (1937).
4 HALT
For Hockett (1942:9), pattern congruity is one of six criteria for determining
whether a class of phonemes constitute a phoneme (“a class of phones”): 4
4 The relation of α-phonetics and β-phonetics to each other and the other terms of language
can be represented as follows:
PREEMINENT METHODOLOGY 5
Morphology
| <–– Morphophonemics
Phonology
| <–– β-Phonetics
α-Phonetics
THE PHONETICS.
I. [ ] pit [ ] put
[ ] pet [ ] putt
[ ] pat [ ] bought
[ ] pot
/i/ [ ] /u/ [ ]
/e/ [ ] /o/ [
/i/ [ ]
/e/ [ ] /o/ [
Swadesh (1947:146) questions whether the /y/ and /w/ of Trager and Bloch
behave like consonants in positions other than in the monosyllabic frame CVC
... it is necessary to ask if the diphthongal second elements are like consonants in
still other positions. If the following syllable is unaccented and the preceding is
accented, it has a different treatment, one that had been described by Trager and
Bloch as ambisyllabic ... In any event there is a difference, which we can
symbolize by the placing of the hyphen, as between spi-túun, di-lém- , ti-r n- -
kl, si-nít-ik, d -kèid, hí-tàit, sé-rèit (spitton, dilemma, tyrannical, Sinitic, decade,
Hittite, serrate) and pép- r, wík- r, míl- t, pén-ii (pepper, wicker, millet, penny).
The diphthongal elements follow the second type of treatment (with preceding
syllable or indeterminate) even before an accented vowel: kei-áat-ik, mii- n-d r,
dai- , pou-ét-ik, duu-ét (chaotic, meander, Diana, poetic, duet). Thus they are
seen to divide in a manner that is clearly diferent from consonants.
... It cannot be said that the unit treatment is basically wrong or inadequate. Yet
there is a difference, which can be described as one of simplicity. The analytic
treatment reduces the syllabics to a smaller number of primary units –– between
five and nine, instead of between fourteen and more than twenty. Moreover, the
basic units are relatively uniform instead of falling into two fundamentally
different classes (short-bound and long free).
/i/ [ ] /u/ [ ]
/e/ [ ] /o/ [
Pike’s alternative relies upon native speaker perception of the diphthongs and
the reproduction of pure long vowels by these speakers (Pike 1947:151):
... my colleagues and I have observed the following fact: It is relatively easy to
teach these students to notice that [a ] is phonetically composed of two parts –– a
vowel somewhat similar to the [a] of father and an [ ] somewhat similar to the [ ]
of bit or the [i] of beet; [ ] and [ ] act like [a ] ...
On the other hand, practically without exception, the students have
considerable difficulty in learning to recognize two elements, or a glide, in the
[ ] of boat, toe, and similar words ... A similar situation exists for the [ ] of bait,
may, and the like, except that the difficulty is possibly a bit greater ... For [ ] and
[ ] as in beet and boot, even greater difficulty exists for the students, presumably
because the diphthongization is phonetically less pronounced than for [ ] and
[ ].
From this evidence we draw the following conclusions. (1) The set [ ], [ ], [ ]
acts differently from the set [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ] in that the first set retains its
strongly diphthongal character even in the rapid part of the intonational contour,
while the second set tends to lose most of its diphthongal character in such a
position. (2) In the set [ ], [ ], [ ] , each sound is a sequence of two units, of
which the second does not disappear even in rapid pronunciation; but in the set
[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], each sound is structurally a single unit (phonetically
7 “Primary contours begin on ... syllables ... as indicated by the degree sign [i.e., º] under
them ... The numbers indicate relative pitch of the voice. Pitch 1 is the highest, pitch 4 is
lowest, pitches 2 and 3 are intermediate. Syllables which have no number beneath them need
not occur on one of these relative levels but are more or less evenly distributed between the
pitches preceding and following them” (Pike 1947.153).
PREEMINENT METHODOLOGY 9
This is just the kind of psychologizing that has been condemned by Twaddell
and others. The generally accepted system is that of Trager and Bloch.
4. Conclusion
By 1942, reliance on a speaker’s subjective reaction as earlier advocated
by Sapir, Swadesh and others is now not the accepted way to do phonology.
There is consensus on the use of the objective (hence, more scientific) notions
of contrast, complementary distribution, free variation, and phonetic
similarity. They are the way to go. However, a second or third, etc. application
of the techniques to the same data may produce alternative conclusions.
Assuming that only one can be “correct”, some have to be discarded.
Everyone agrees that it is not scientific to select arbitrarily among the
competing descriptions, and the debate turns on the elimination of
arbitrariness, i.e., how to finalize the description where the techniques yield
more than one. Refining the techniques, e.g. the idea of relative phonetic
similarity, is one way of reducing the number of possible descriptions.
Retrospective comparison of competing analyses with respect to some
evaluative criteria is another, and one that is standard in other sciences. The
fact that some linguists could react to evaluation as if it were “circular” is a
measure of the degree to which sanitized technique has substituted for an
understanding of language