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co
Answers m

1 Cell structure
I Trarufcrd~(respir:,tiof\l.fredingornutrilloo,mctabolism,
excrcdon,moverncni andlo.ornooon, re5PJmivencsoorsensi---
1Mcy, rcproductm, growth and devclopmcnl
2 a) l mm•IOOOµm

·-·
SincelOOO+ l OO· IO. l Ocdbol l OOµmwiUJi. r along

t,) The dr:,wing of E. c-Oli is 64mm in lenglh.

hsae1uallengthis2.0pm.
Therefore, magnification • 64 "(1000 + 2) • ><32000
1/f/-~~~~----'~ - --"....i-
- - wi:h

"-"'""*"...)
-·.:<··--
""'loclu, onddvomatw,

(_,...,...,.._
<hloropl••

AN
·-thll-11<.
Plant cells Anlm•lc.ils
Cellwilll Cellulose cell wall Nocelluk>secellwall<
~:,:::,g, ...
Manycelficontain
chloropl;r;ts,siteol
photo,;ynlhe,is
Nochlo,opl•sts:
a.nimalcellsc;orn>t
photosynthesise ~--
...r<h .............

~«n..,....,_..,_
~.,.-n>ilo<hor,:lrio,-

12 See 'ATP- the universal energy cu=rtey' pages 236-7.

KH
U a) AceUwallischaractemticofplanrcells.ltisentirely
Acentrosornep,....ent
e,m,maltothecell,surroundingthe cellsurf3ce
ootsidetl>enu,deu,
membrane. TI>e wa ll is nol an organelle. Plant cell wall,
areprimarilyconstructedfromcellulosc.anextremdy
strong material. When a growing plam cell divides. a
cell wall is laid down across tbc, old cdl. dividing the
<I CellsV'J,Y greatly in size and in ck-gree o f specialisation of contenu. This primary cell wall has more layers o f
M.rudureassociatedwiththeirvariousfunclioru. celluloeeadded. formingtht--secondarycellwalJ . Jn some
S Lengthofcd!is90mm•90000µ m. plam cells the tc<:On<lary layers of cellu lose become very
JF

Magnifiouion•400
Actuallcngthis90000/400•22Sµm.
6 Magnlfinrionis><W(6>< 10)
7 See'Thcrn:l8"-ificar.ionand re>olutiooofaninugc',pa~ ll .
9 The dcctron microi<cope has paw~ of magnlfiation
andretOlution th.alatt-greater1han tho8ed an optkal
m icroKOpC. The wavelength of visible light is about SOO run ,
whereas that of a be-am of elcctron.'l used is 0.005nm. Al
best the light microscope can distinguish two points which
are 200 nm (Q.2 µm) apart, whereas the transmission electron
microscope can resolve points Snm apart whe n U'ICd on
biologicaJ5P(!'Cimem.GiventhesiZ<.-sofcellsandofthe
org:,nellesthcycontain.itreciuires1bc,magnifica1ionand
resolution achie"Vttl in trarwni.ssion electroo mlcroeropy IO
observecelluhnsttucture - insuit.1blyprq,ared,specimeru,.
10 S1ainingisrw:,cess;,ry toprovidecon11'2Rber,.·ecnthecyt.-.l
andthenudeus inanotherwi,;e nKlfeor lesatr.uuparent
cell. llo,,,evct",thenudeuscanlhcnbe secn. Rilx,i,ome,,,
however, are too small m be detected b y ligh, microscopy.
thick indeed. Cell Wlllls are abserii from animal cells.
Prokaryoteshavecellw:ills,butthey arechemicaUy
different from t~ of planu.
llle cell surface membrane is the membrane that
5urroundsandconu.ins thecytopb.smofallcells. h is
con.str1.1e1ed alrno1nentirdyofpro1einandlipid. llle
lip;d ofmernbr2nes ispho:spholip;d , arrnngedasa
bilayer. The prolcins of cell surface membranes are
globularpro(einswhkh areburiedinandacro55 lhe
lipid bilayer. with most pro1ruding above the su rfaca
The who le S(ructure is described as a nuid ffiO,!ak. Sec
Figure4.). page76.
b) See page l6.
e) See page 16.
d) See Table l .2.p:i.ge23.
e)Seepagesl-20
0 See figure 1.14.page IS.
2 Biological molecules
I Non-organic for= of carbon are found in the biosphere
as carbon dioxide intbc, atmosphere; di580lved ln fresh and
...-a w3ter a.s hydrogennrbonate Ions and as c-•rborutles.

492

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e.g. c.ilcium c.irbon:i te and magnesium carbon:ue, in the
Mlells of non-vcnebr:ue animals. mostly marine but some of
fresh water and terresuial habit:iu, and aa ch:iJ.k and Jimc..-
.,1ene nxks. which are formed from foei!i,cd shclli.
2 Sec &ic~nd chemiwy for biologists on the ID.
3 SecDi.'laccharides.page}S.
4 Sec Polysaccharides,1»3cs36-9,pank\J larlyF',gurc2.9
5 Sec The function:d group, of sugars, page 32.
6 A polymer L!; a large organic molecule nude of repea ting
subunits known as monomers, chemically combined
togcthcr. Among the carbohydnucs. starch, glycogen and
cellulose arc all poly men buill from a huge number of
molecules of glucose (the monomer, combined together in
different ways in the three. disdnci: ivc polymers)
7Secpage32andFigurc 2. 18,page45
8 Given the n~turally occurring pool of 20 differcru type'! of
amino add5. In a polypepdde of only S amino acid rcoidues
there can be 20'diffcren1 typcsofpolyp<..-ptide, or 3200000.
In a polypcpi:ide of 25 amino acid rc•iduc• there can be 2(!S
different type•.
In a polypcpi:ide of SO amlno acid rcoiducs there can be 2~
different type•. A polypeptide o( more than SO amino acid
residue•i•.byconvention. callcdaprotcin
So.thcrc<!;virtuallya!mostunlimitedstnxturalvariation
po61libleintheprotcinsofccl!s. Rcmember. aa thescqucnce
ofaminoacidrcsiducschangcs.socloco thestructureand
KH
propcnieaoftheresultingl)l'OO!in.
9 Sec page3SandFigu re2.19.pagc46.
10 Sec Figure2.22,page47.
11 1he term macro,nolcci;le means 'giant molecule'. We have
.1Cfflthat polysaccharidc,(e.g.ccllulosc)andpra:cins(e.g.
l)'!IOZ}m,c)arcmadcu p ofv.utnumbcn:ofrepcating smaller
molecules (glUCOi5C, in the case of cdlul05C", cliff= amino
acid! in the case of proceiru:). Lipids. on the other hartd,
arc compo:5Cd of trigly,:eridcs - relatively mud, smaller
JF
moleculcs. Ho,,,·cvcr,aathcscarchydrophobic,thcymay
d u mp togelher and give the appearance of being huge
12 See Background chemistry for biologists on the ID.
l j Jn ga.,,e,,.moleculesarcw;dc!yopaocdandfrcetomovearo.J1
independently. lnliquido;,moleculcsarcdosertogefher. lnthe
case of water, hydrogen bonw pull the moleoiles very dose to
each OUlcr. which is why ,,,atcr i• a liquid at the tempernrure.
andpres.mreth:n cxist<1overmucho(1heE:nth'•surface.Asa
result, we have a liquid medium which life ~loits
3 Enzymes
I Enzymes work by binding to their •ub.ltrnte molecule at a
specially formed pocket or crevice in the enzyme - the aci:ive
site. MOM enzymes are large molecules and the active sire
ukcs up a relatively ..-nail part of the !Otal volume of the
enzyme molecule. Nevertheless. the active 5i1e is a function
oftheovetallWpeoftheglobularproieinand,iftheshope
ofanenZ)'l'm"changesforwhatcvcrf'C2.!,0n,thec:ualytic
propcniesmaybelost.
Answers
2 a) Acaulysii.oasub11t:once tlu1 a!1ersthera te ofachemlcaJ
reaction. bu1 remains unchanged at the end.
Typiulyamet~,suchas
pL,tinum,inllfinely-dMded
_,.
s1a1 ...... g.uplitinisedminer;,I
Abletowithsundh igh Prote111ist.rsilydenaured
t,,mper.itur.s, highpressures byhighte<nper.llurl'.for
;,nd .. xtremesofpH,if
=""'·
E~melysi,K•llc-most
a,esi,Killc \oonetypeof
subs\utemolecule
',) ,nrtoalme
AN
b) 96/40•2.4crn's-•
4 Pre--incub:1.1ion is required to ensure that when the reaci:ants
att" mixed the re,mioo occurs at the known, pre-selected
temperature.
5 a) p H isa measureofthcacidityoralk:a linityofa
sol ution. (Strictly, pH i1a measure dthe h ydmgen
ionconccntn1tion.) AbuffersolutionKIS IOreslstany
ch:mgeinpHwhenthc solutionlsdiluted orif a little
acid or alkali isadded. Manybuffers uscdinlaboratOI")'
experiments conuin a "'Cak acid, sud, •• eth.anoic acid
(vinegar)anditssolublesah (e.g.50diumethanoate). ln
thiscasc,.if:acid isadded, 1heexceu hydrogenioruarc
immediately removed by being combined with ethanoate
ioru to form undiMOCia1ed cthanok acid. Alternatively,
ifalkaliisaddcd.thceiccess hydroxylioruimmediatcly
combine with hydrogen ioru fonning water. At the same
time. more of the ethanok add diMOCiaTc•. adding more
hydrogcnion.stothesol ution. ThepH doC!ln<){ change
in either case.
b) In the body of the mammal, the blood is very pctl''C1"fully
buffercdbythe prcsenceofa mlxturc ofphosphare
ioru. hydrogencarbonate ioru and blood proteins. 1he
blood is hdd at a pH of between 7.35 and 7.45. pH is
ve,-yimpor1:u11in!ivingorganlffll!lbeoi u:,e itaffects
the Wpe of enzymes. almost all of which arc proceim.
For the same reasons. buffers arc dtcn u:,ed in enzyme
experiments. See also &ickground chemiSl:ry for
biok>gist50fltheID
493
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 Answers
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m
6 :,,) Secfigure J. IJ.p:i.gefi6.
h)SeeEnzym,:, concentr.1.1ion,page 67.
4 Cell membranes and transport
l In perlo:ls of seasonal or prolonged low temperature,
theproportionofunsaturatedfatty3cidsin1heplamccll
mcmbranesonbcexpectedtoincreasc.
2 A lipid bilayer iii shown in F,gure 4.2 (!X'ge 75). In the p=xr
dsufficimllip;d,rnokculesoflipidamingc~"""asa
bibyer, wilh the hydrocnbcx\ tail,; &dog logcdler. This latter is
the situa1ioninthecell.surfacrm=ibr.u,c.
Scvff:11 otg:andl ""' of cuk:uyooc cdls have a dou~
mcmbnne, in.eluding chloropl:L51s and mi1ochondri.i, in
which there are present an outtr and an inner membrane,
bolhofwhichconsistd!ipidbilayers.
Soanimponamdifferencebecwcenalipidbilayeranda
double membr.me lies in the number cl lipid bilayers present.
:'I:,)
01,,..,-.lon(mm) 1 >< 1 ><1 2><2><2 4><4><4
SA(mm'l
b) Plot the graph d SA/V using an F.xccl spread6hcct.
c ) As a cell increases in size the SA/V dcaea.5e5.
KH
d ) As a cell incr= in size diffusion becomes progreMivdy
less efficient as a mech:mism for removal M1S1c, such as
001 from the interior of the cell
4 " ) r:,---,----,----,,,.,,-,,---,-----
JF
h) l lydrogffliomenterthegelatinblocks bydiffusionand
there cause the obs=.·ed colour dungc. Rclati~ly large
blodca(the 10 >< !Ox !Onuncubcs ) have a lowSA. / V
ratioso little oftheirueriorm:1.ner is d osc to the external
environme nt and the diffusion p<1th is a long~- Here.
oolour chaf18C is .slowes1.Thcre\lffscl5 trueoithc
smal!es1gda1inblock.s(!he2.5>< 2.5>< 2.5nuncubes).
5 Gompare Figure4.6,page61 andFigure 4. 9.pase S2. 11,e
difference is !he mechanism of the permeabmry of the
membrane tmnsversed; in fadlim1ed diffu sion this is duc ro
!he propcrtiC8ofthesubstanccthatpus!iCS -ittrigger11the
opening of pores !hrough which diffusion occun,
6 \l'a1er can diffusc CI011S a partially permeable mernbranc and
,ocanaome-solutes,butnoiothtts.
7 Thc C'OOCt'fl1r.1tcd,olutionofgloco,c (9,-hercthc <XX"ttrV>ltion
r:I free water molccules is low) will show a g.ain r;1,., ter
molcculcsattheexper,seoithec:liluteglucosc lol1.11ion.
494
A 'nc{' g;,in oi v.-:itermoleculcsreftt5tothefadthatve.y
many more "'"llter molecules diffusc into thc conccni:r:ued
.!Olution1handiffusc 0lll .
.!I The water po(e.W.ial d !he ;:,m is much lower dun that of the
fungal cytoplasm. A rapid fll""I oudlow of water occurs from
the fungal hyphac. inactiwtingthc fungal spore.
9 a) TI,edilutcsucrrucsolution
b) Theconcen!tatedsucrosc solutiOfl
c) The solu1ion with the lower water potcn1ial (concentr:nccl
sucrosc K>lution)
10 a) Thedilu1c .!Olu1ionofglucose
b) Thc dilute .!Olu1ion of gluco:o;c
c) Thcconccmr.,tcd.'IO!utionofgl""'°"'"'
11 Sccfigure 4. 16, p;,ge88.
12 Morew:>1ermolecules willdilfuscinthanoo1. U11bmtely
rhcinresrityofthe oell surfacemcrnbrane 15 threatened and
surviwloftheanimalcdl isnoiensured
In a plant cell, however. as upiake of water continued the
AN
cell would become cxcremely turgid. The pressure potential
would l'\l<.'ntually dfset !he water po(ential of the cell and
netwaterupiake wouldccase.
I} The l[l o fccll M • -560 + 410 * -170 kPa.
The l[lofcell N • -64o +420 • -220kPa
Net v., ter flow will be from cell M to cell N, bcou,c ,-.,er
flows from a lcf6 nesaci>-.. to a more negative water pocen:W.
14 Upuke of ions is by active transport in\l()[ving metabolic
er><:18)' ( ATP) and procein pumps loc i.led in thc cell surf.ice
membr:i.nes of ccll~ Aswi!hallaspccts ofmctaboli5m.this is
arernpcr.uure-scnsitiveproccssandoccun!TIOl"Crapidlya1
25"Cthanltdcie1a15"C.
Ion• are cransponcd aero..,, the membrane by spc-cilk.
dedicatedprotcinmolccules.Bccausetherearemanymore
$0<liwn ion pump.! than chloride ions pump.!. more of the
former ion ls absorbed.
15 Phagocytlccclls ofthe lungs and of the airways serving the
!ungs, engulfbactcria, bacterial spora and dust pg.rticlcs- in
fact, any small particles of foreign matter that reach tho5e
.surf.iccs. renderingthern ....... harmful.
16 ,i) Scc Theoellaufucemcuir.rne.1"'8""' 74-7.
b) SccFigure4.5. p;,ge78.
c) SccFigurc4. l}.p;,ge66.
J) Sec Movement by bulk cran.spon, page 9 }.
5 The mitotic cycle
1 S..-..Chrom<»ornesoccurinpairs,J)"ge98.
2 The =uh of 1he opposite charges i• a Slrong attraction and
high binding affinity between the DNA strand as ~ wraps
around thehlsione-pnxeincon,ofthenucleo,omc.
j a) A hapk>id cell conuim one .1e1 of chromo,omea , the
t.uicset.
b) 0 For example, inthela)..,,-r:lccllsformingsperm,in
the!este.s
ll) For example. in the bone marrow where red blood
cdls are formed or in thc generm:ive layer of the skin
atthe bascoftheepidermis
fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m b)

TheprodllCti 2idenliulcells,
effliwiththe
di!)loidch==
numbe,.
Producesidenbcal
4non-identialcell:s,Nchwith
thehaploidchromo50ffll!rumber.

Proouceshaploidcells.Contribvt"'
1 11
.... __.. ,...................
. ,-..""v""'"-...-*
4&-.;,Fig urc 6. ll.pagel20.
SSeeFigurc2.19.page46.
__
... . ,

di!)loidcells togenetkva,iabHityby
P«mitsyrowth • redocingchromosomenumbe< 6 RNAlnvolv.dlntHnoaiption
within multicellular byl.alf,permittingfertilisation, mel5efl9e<RNA Seelhe~ofprotein"Yf'thm.Sugeone

--
aganisms,.ind andthecombiNtionofgene, (mRNA) tril~tion.p•ge120
asew.ol~roduction fromtwol),llrents; RNAlnvolv.dlntr.n.i.tion
• pem,ittng r a n d o m -
of l),lltemaland matem;il
me55enget RN.A mRNA is ro.v a linur molecule in tht cytoplnm
(mRNA} K>ngwhichribosornesrn<l'>'e,·!Nding'the
• recombinatiooofsegmentsol
g,entticcodeardlm1'cri>ingthtinforrniltlOll
indMduolimatefNlindp,itemal
Into• ~ne.tr""luence of alTWIO ;icid residues
(,,primarystructureofth tproteio}
homologol,schromosom"'

AN
duringcrassingover. lransfe,RNA Seelhesl"'Jl"ofproteinsynthtsis.Stagetwo
(tRNA.) aminoKmactivation.page121
S Sec Table S.2 Common carcinogens known to increaac muta-
(lon ratcs and tM likelihood of rnn«'r, page lOS. 7 See alsoFigurc6.IO. page 119andFigurc 6.t6. page 124.
6 46><2•92 a) Gly(glyclne),Asn(asparagine),Pro(proline),
7 :i) See 1able under pan (b) Phc (phenylabnlne), V..I (vallne), Thr (lhreonine),
Your pie' chan ~houkl compri,e 9eCIOnl "'ith the His(histidine),Cya(cy.sieine)
follO'•dng angles at the centre: Prophue 2S2". Meo.phase b) CCT, TIA, GGA. MA. CAA, TGA, GTA, ACA
36°.Aruipha5cl8", T ~ S4o. c) SeeTriple1:codes.axlonsandanricodons.page 122.
KH
h) S"9e ofmitosis Pe-ag• of Tlmet•hnby each
dMdingcello a ,p1m1n11c.. 7 Transport in plants
Prop hue I The shape of the ccllul05e polymer allows dose packing imo
Met. phase longchairu (11Cel'igute2.8,page37)held 1oge1herbyh)'Q"ogen
Anaphase bond!. The cdlul05e fibres are laid down in porous shee,s and
Telophase have great K·mile .5trcngth. 1be monomer fr,:,m which cellulOJe
is assembled. by a condensation rea.ction, is glucose, cl which

6 Nucleic acids and protein synthesis

,,,grccnplamstypicallyhaveancxcellentsupply.
JF

I The nitrogenous b:ues are organic compounds. 1be

carbon 'backbone' of nitrogenow ba$C5 ia a ring molec,.,lc
containingtwoorrnorenitrogen atom,inthcring.ooYalently
lx>ndc<l togedier. They are derived rrom one of t'<'o'O parent
compound,. purine (a double ring compound) ot pyrimidine
(a single ring compound).
Anlnorganicbaseisasub.stan«'tharcanaccepta hydrogen
ionandsoneutmHseanadd.Strongbascsare substmccs
like sodium hydroxide. They arc ionised compounds.
2 The m06I likely reason why many replication foriu arc
required in 1hc replication of a single .strand of ONA may be
thatthcrearc(typically)80millionbHep11 lrstoberopicd.A
single replication fotk woukl seem to be inadequ.ne.
3 a) Afterrhrccgenerations,7SperccntoftheONAwouldbe
'Ugh<'.
,M l I medium I large smal medium l8rp
h) Asthesi1.cofanobjectincreases,sodocs1hesuiface
area.llowcver,theincreaseisverymuchgreaterinaflat,
thin oblcct compared to in a compact objca.
c) The suiface area/volume ratio decreases as the slze of an
objcalncreasesbu1thedecreaseisverymuchgrea1erin
compact oti;e,::1 than in flat, t h i n ~
d) Mcwcmcn1sofnutricnt.1intoanorganismandof"'l1Ste
productsoutofan~bydiffusionaloncisonly
likely tobepoaible insmallorganisms(dfcctively,
unicellular organisms). Ho...=er it may be a possible
mechanism fa 1r.1nspon in small muhkcllular ag;:,ni.sm,
ofa fhuthinshape

495

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.~
m
T5 of a sunflower stem (low power)- plan diag ram
'"~~-rn
~a/trace
..
vascular
"""'
Iscale:10mm
-.,-' ""
cambium
4 Your answer should refer to the features of their Slructure
(see The movement of water through the plant . pages 135--8,
panirularlyFigure7.8),theirintimatecontactwiththesoil
solution and to their position on the growing roots. lbe
signifieanceofagmdieruinwaterpcxentialbetweensoil
solution and the root cortex is expbined in Upmke of
water - therolesoftheroothairs(pagel36).
5 The casparian strip blocks the apopla.st pathway of water
movement across the cortex at the endodermis.
6 As temperature i = = , evaporation of water from the
KH
surfaces of the cells in the leafi==· Al the same time, the
==tofmol.ecubofwaterisincreased(t:heirkinetic
energyi.srai.sed),sodiffusionoccursmorequickly.Also,as
temperaturei==,thehurnklityoftheairisdecreased
becausewarmairholdsmon,w:itervapour.Sothegradiernin
watervapourbetweentheinterioroftheleafandairout.sideis
increasedanddiffusionofwatervapourisenhanced.
7 SeeThetranspirationstream,pages 140--1.
8 Transpimtionisadirectconsequence ofplamsa-ucture,plant
JF
nutritionandthemechanismofgasexchangeinleaves.ln
effect,thelivinggreenplantisa"wick'thatsteadilydriesthe
soilaroundit.Putlikethis,transpirationisanunfonunate
o:insequenceofplantstructureandmetabolism,ratherthan
avaluableprocess.ltmeansthatao:irutant,adequatesupply
ofwateriscriticaltoplantgrov,th: ifthewatersupplyfails,
plants cannOI: move elsewhere, as animals tend to do.
9 a) Plant growth is dependent on a supply of chemically
combined nitrogen (for protein synthesis) of which
nitratesaretypicallythemostreadilyavailable.However,
nitrates are also taken up by microorganisms a nd may
be released in the soil at times cxher that when plant
demand is at its peak. They are also very soluble and
are easily leached away into ground water in heavy rain.
Bytakingupnitrateswhenevertheyareavailable(and
storing them in cells). plantgrowthcanbemaintained
b) Plant rootsaremetabolicallyveryactiveandrequire
oxygen for aerobic respiration and ATP formation (for
ion uptake, for example). Waterlogged soil Jacks soil air
and the essential gas, oxygen
496
I O Cultivation and cropping of plants to supply focxl for !he market
placeinvolvesthe"harvesting'dorganicmaner(andthenutri-
entionsbuiltintoi!duringgrowth).lfthesupplyofessential
mineralsthatplantsrequireisnotmaintainedinthesoil,the
producrivityofthe land wm rapidly fall. Consequently, Jargely
solublenutrientsareaddedasanificialfertilisers spread on the
soil as granules at the timed pe-:,k crop groMh. Alternatively,
farmyard manure is applied to the soil at the timed ploughing.
This decays slowly and releases nutrients more steadily.
I I Mitochondria produce ATP (the energy currency molecule)
ATP transfers energytoenabletheactivetransportofsolutes
in the sieve tubes. The presence of mitochondria o:infi.rms
thatphloemtransponisanactiveprocess,u.singenergy
transferred during respiration.
12 a) lbe functioning o f living ceUs (e.g. in the phloem tissue)
wouldbeimpairedasproteinsweredenaturedandcellsur-
face membranes disrupred Translocation would stop. 'W-ltet
flow in the xylem vessels would be unaffected.
AN
b) The concentration of sugar might be lower in a sieve
rubenearthebaseofthestem,ifstarchisbeingstoredin
thecellsatthat poim.
l .l a) Sugardeliveredbythephloemfrcmtheleavesisstored
as starch(insoluble)onarrival. l>fany oftheions absorbed
fromthesoilareusedinthemetabolismdtherootceUsor
arecarriedtothestemandleavesinthexylem.
b) Sugarsproducedinthelightinthechloroplasts
accumulareinthecellsoftheleafbeforebeing
translocatedawayto"sink'sites.
8 Transport in mammals
I For =ample. it means that blood cannot be directed to a
respiratorysurfaceimmediatelybeforeoraftersen>icing
tissuesthataremetabolicallyactive(andsohaveahighrate
of respiration). Rather, the blood circulates randomly around
the blood spaces and blood vessels.
2 Sx 106 cellspermm3 isequivalentto5>< 109 cellsperlitre.
So, inSlitres(i.e.thewholebody),thereareSx(Sx to9:> -
2.S>< 1010cells.
If a red blood cell lasts for 120 days, divide the total number
of cells by 120 to find how many. on average, need to be
replaced each day:
2.5>< 10 10 + 120 - 2 x 1,Jlapproximarely
Pulmonary circul ation Systemiccin:u lation
Carriesdeoxygenatedbloodunder Carriesbloodooderhigh
highpressurefmmtherightside pressurefromtheleftsideofthe
ofthehearttothelung, hearttotheall thebodyorgaos
Retumsoxygenatedbloodunde, Retumsdeoxygenatedblood
lowe,pressuretotheleftsideof unde,lowerpressuretothe
the heart rightside oftheheart
Coosistsofpulmonarya,teries Consistsofaortaandarter"-'S
deliYelingbloodtolung,.cap;ll ary deliver;r,gbloodtothebody
netwmksseMngtheai,sacsof orgaos.capillaryr,etwo,k,;
the lungs. and pulmor,ary ve;m seMng all the tiss\ll'S and cells
carryingbloodb.ad:totheleft oltheorgansofthebody.and
side of the heart venacavacarry;ogbloodback
totherightsideoftheheart
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4 ..) lhcvdodry:ondpr=,urc<Xthebkxxla.1itCl'IICflltheaort:a
arcbodthign,bu:asitisabouttore-cntcrthehcanthe
pre55Urc lsv.,ry low. Ho,,,._....~,do8e 1othe hea/1, lhe vdoc-
i1y ofthe bkxxl in the vciru is •imilar io1h:u ofthe main ar-
1~leavi",1:thehean.Thisisncc,,ssary1ocruurcadequate
Vt.'l'IOusrt.•(urntobalanr<."therardiacoutpot
b) 11-.e blood speeds up on leaving the caplllarie•because
thetotalc!'OU-sectionalareaofthevenu lesismuch leM
than thecapillaries. lhetotalcross-sectional area of the
venous sy,i:em further decreases as venulcs join up to
form the veirn.
c) The velocity a the bkxxl is at its lc"":est in the capillaries.
Capillaries are the suwles1 blood vessels bu1 their tOOll
~are:i.isl)-l'ically800timesgre:i.t~than
thatofthcaorule:aving the hem(diametef"ofabout
25mm). The slow bkxxl flow in !he caplllaries alLOW5 for
effidente:,:change
5 a) The components of the blood that are nol found in ti...ue
fluid arc the blood prolein,, mainly a lbumin, and red
Answers
7 Tuexnon-daakstrand<kttptheheanvalvcflapspointing
inthediredionclthebkxxlflow.They..wpthevalvcsturnin8
inside<>u1whenthe~risesabrupdywithinthe,'mlride;,
8 a) The pressure in the aorta is alwaf!i significantly higher
than that In the a tria lxcause blood i, pumped under
high prCMureintothe aorta and, during diastole and
atrial systole, the semilunar valves prevent backflow from
the aort:i. Meanwhile, blood emers the atria under low
prcs..,urcfromthevciruand thepumpingactionofthe
atria is slight rompared to that a the ventricle. which
gcneri,tesour'pul.,e'.
b) Pressure falls abruptly in the atrium ~ ventricular
,y,i:ole is underway a.1 :mial cliaMole begins then.
c) 1be.K'lllilunarv.ilveintheaortaonlyopenswhenthe
~ure in the ventride,r e:,:c=d,, th:1.1 of the pres5Ure in
""'·=
d ) Attheendofsystole,prcssurcinlhevemridcsishigh.
When ventricular diastole rommencc5 the bicuspid v.1ke
will only open when pressure in the, ventricles fal[g

AN
blood cell• and platelets. (White blood cdb arc found in below that in the atria.
1he(issuefluid - seepagel5J). c) About 50 per cent of the cardiac cycle is given O\'Cf
mdiastolc-the resting phase in each heanbeat. The
heart beats throughout life and takcs limited rest at !hC$C

Resp~•toiy Contfflseo<ygN1but Cootilfflsyrbondioxide

g- nocarbondioD butnoorygen 9 Gaseous exchange and smoking
Reducedtoprodum
I F3cton1affectingther:ueofdiffusion:mdthcireonsequences
ofbpoddogesu:>n-•nd
KH
:1rCidentifiedande,<plainedinTable4.L
,nth proteins in lymph
2 Amou111 of oxygen ln 1 litrc of blood • :b:) >< 10 • 200cm'
dtimingfromtheM,
Amou!ll of oxygen ln 1 litre of,,,,.,~ •0.025 >< 1000 • 25cm'
lbcrefore, 175 cm'more oxygen i, carried by a litre of blood
6 Afallofabout2Spercem rompared with 1he same quantity of water.

}-
JF

~ ~ ~ . /'.. / .. / ' ...

~~~)\
I

497

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 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
4 About 10-15%. Land-living organisms obtain oxygen from the
air,butdiffusionwithinanorganismoccursinsolution,so
thefirststepinoxygenuptakeinthelungsisthedissolving
ofoxygeninthesurfacefilmdwaterattherespimtory
surface. As a consequence, the respiratory surface is kept
moist and water vapour will evaporate as gaseous exchange
occurs.SeeFigure9.6,page176.
5 Gasexchangeistheexchangeofrespimtorygases(oxygen
and carbon dioxide) between cells of an organism and the
environment:cellularrespimtionisthecellularprocessby
which sugars and other substances are broken down to
releasechemicalenergyforothercellularprocesses.Gas
exchangeisaconsequencedcellularrespimtion.
6 Sec Movement by bulk transpon page 93
, ~~~,'--,
,ffoct
~ ,-, o~
d ,~oo-,.~,=
~M- ,-, ~ ~ ~ ~
Su,fa.c:eareaof Ahugesmfaceareaforgaseousexchange
alveoli (Approximately50m 2,abouttheareaofa
doo~estenoiscourtl)
Verythin,llattened(squamous)epithelium{Sµm
thicklsothediffusioopathwayisshort
Capilla,ysupply Anetw00:Colcapilla,iesa10<1ndeac:halveolu,
toalvl'<>li rnppliedwithdeoxygenatedbloodlrom
thepolmonarya,teryandd,a;nir,ginlothe
pulmooary ""'"' majnta;n, the cement, atk,n
gradientsoloxygenandcarbondKJxide
Oxygendissolvesinthewate,l;nir,gthealveoli
KH
aOOdiflu=intothebloodinsolutioo
E!astic:fib,esin Stn>tcheddufinginspj,ation,theythenrecoil,
walls lac:ilitatir,gexpiration
8 Carbond,oxide,sanac,d,cgaswh,ch.,fnwereto
accumulate in the blood. would alter the pH of the plasma
solution. The normal pH of the blood is 7.4. For life to be
maintained it must remain within the range pH 7.0-7.8. This
is largely because blood pH affects the balance of essential
ions which are transported in the plasma solution. Efficient
JF
removalofrespiratorycarbondioxidefromthelungsisas
importanttolifeasefficientuprnkeofoxygen
9 ln1950theincidenceoflungcancerinmenwashigherthan
in women , in keq,ing with the fact that the percentage of the
adult female population that smoked cigarettes was lo wer,
about 40 per cent compared with 6o per cent cl males.
lntheperiod194S...-1 975thepercentageofmalecigarette
smokers declined slowly whilst the percentage of female
cigarette smokers increased slowly. Associated with these
changingpattemsincigareaeuse,theincidenceoflung
cancer in males staned to decline after 1985. whereas in
females the incidence of lung cancer was slowly increasing
throughouttheperiodthisstatisticwasrecorded.
10 Acontrolgroupinamedicalinvestigation:
comprises the same number of people as a patient group
selectedforan=perimentaltreaunent
is as comparable with the patient group as possible, as
regards age, gender, health, occupation and general life
experiences of its members
consistsofpeoplehavingthe'condition'forwhich
treatmentisbeinggiventothe=perimentalgroup.
498
The fate of the control group is followed in comparable
detailtothatofthetreatedpatientsinordertoevaluatethe
efficacyofthe=perimentaltreaunent.NO!ethattheuseof
such a control group means that a treatment is withheld from
people who might have benefited. This raises obvious ethical
l l • Life expectancy has greatlyincreasa:1 - inthepast, people
• The development of antibiorics has led to a decrease in
deaths from infectious diseases
• Improvements in knowledge and training of medics means
that symp1oms are more correctly attributed to actual
• Dietarychanges
Peoplehadlesssedentarylifestyles
12 • Deliverscarcinogenstotheairwaysandairsacs
• Delivers carbon monoxide to red blood cells where it
combine-sirreversiblywithhaemoglobin,preventing
oxygen transport
AN
• Raises blood pressure
• Triggers va.soconstriction cl blood vessels
• Stimulatesthesecretionofviso:iusmucusbygobletcellsof
airways
• Inhibits the beating movements cl cilia in the epithelium
of the airways
• Leadstoblockingofairwaysandtheaccumulationofdust
and carcinogens in bronchioles
• Causes loss ofnaruralelasticityofsmallestbronchioles and
• Jnflamesthebronchiandcau.sespersisterudestructive
coughing up of phlegm
• Leadstonarrowingofairwaysandeventualdestructioncl
airsacs
• Leads to the pos.sible formation of a rumour - Jung cancer
10 Infectious disease
I Present in the wall of the stomach are millions of tiny pits
called gastric glands. The cells in the gastric glands make and
secretethecontentsofthegastricjuice.About6oocm3 of
gastricjuiceissecretedpermcal,secretionbeingcoordinated
with the presence d food. One of the components of gastric
juiceishydrochloricacid(strength0.15M)ataboutpH I.
This is sufficient to create an acid environmeru of pH 1.5--2.0
for the contents of the bolus, the optimum pH for the protein
digesting enzymes of the gastric juice. 1be hydrochloric acid
alsokillsmanybacteria,amongorherusefuleffects.
2 In cholera, chloride ions move from epithelium cells into
the lumen of the gut by active transport caused by prO!ein
pumps in the cell membrane, driven by ATP. Water moves
byosmosis(aspecialcaseofdiffusion),inwhichmetabolic
cnergyisJX>tinvolved.
} The insecticide DDT is harmless to humans at concentrations
thataretoxictomosquitoes,butappliedatthese
concentrations it rapidly collects in body fat and is
transferred from prey to predator through the food chain,
steadilyincreasinginconcentration. ltaccumulatesatthetop
of food chains at concentrations that may cause harm. The
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stability of the DDT molecule means that it only very slowly
biodegradcs. This persistence is why it is so effective, but is
also why it is a health threat. By means of her book Silent
Spring. it was Rachael Carson who publicised this problem.
4 These figures show us that, wha!ever the level of TB
infection in a region, about 10 per cem of those infected die
from the condition. Also, almOllt twice as many people in
Africa are infected with TB as in Asia and the proportion af
the population of Europe with TB is far lower than in either
oftheothertworegions.
ThesedifferencesinprevalencearemOlltlikelytobe
accoumedforbythreemajorfactors:
Housing,whichisrelatedto agenerallevelofpoverty
and unemployment. Where the prevalence of TB is high
theenvironmentalandsocialconditions(panirularly
housing)arelikelytofavourtransmissionofthe
bacterium. Countries with high unemployment and low
wagesandcountriesexperiencinglocalorcivilwarsare
more likely to have a major pan of the population living
incrowdedandunheahhyconditions.
Access to medical care. lbe levels of diagnosis and
treatment of illness vary substantially. More of the
populations of African countries are without access ro
effectivehealthinfrastructuresthanintheothertwo
regions, for example. Where there are fewer doctors
or care centres perheadofthepopulationorinrural
communities that are widely scattered, the chances of
diagnosis,treatmentandpreventativemeasuresare
KH
minimal.
lbe cost of health provision. Some countries cannot
affordrobuymedicinesorvaccines,oronlythe
relativelywell-offcanaffordthem.fowcountrieshave
the equivalent of a health service so the poor do not get
5 HIV/A!Ds cause:s pank,.1lar problems for the people and the
economies of less-developed countries such as Zimbabv,e or
Zambia because it almOllt exdusively handicaps the young
JF
adult population at their time of greatest economic activity
and family building.
6 The pathogen is able to survive within only one specific hos!
andthereisnoreservoirofthepathogeninod>erorganisms
(forexample.anyofthesurroundingwildlife). By contrast
the TB bacUJus =ists as a reservoir in wild manunals (such
asbadgersintheUK)
7 When two events (A and B) regularly occur together, it
may appear to us that event A causes event B. This is
not necessarily the case, there may be a common event
thatcause:sboth, forexample,oritmayanentirelyfalse
correlation. An =ample of the latter are those infants (very
few) who develop the symptoms of autism shortly after
the normal time in childhood when the M.'dR inoculations
is administered. It was scme time before detailed studies
established that MMR inoculation and the onset of autism
were not causally linked.
Becausecorrelationdoesnotprovecausewasjustonerea-
son why Richard Doll's amassing of statistical evidence of a
link between smoking and iJJ health was successfully resisted
Answers
by the tobacco industry for an =cep1:ionally long time. Now
we know the various reasons why cigarerte smoke triggers
malfunctioning of body systems, ill health and diseases of
varioussorts.So,statisticalconfidenceinthepossibiliryofa
causallinkisaspringboardtofunherinvestigation,notproof
of a relationship.
8 The full range of reasons are contained in the text, How
eradication came about, on pages 210. Individually they can
be shown not to apply to one or more of the other diseases
discussed in this topic.
9a) Expo.,ureofpathogenicbacteriatosub-lethaldosesof
antibiotic may increase the chances of resistance devd-
oping inthatpopulationofpathogens.
b) Byvaryingtheantibioticsusedthereisincreased
likelihood of killing all the pathogens in a population
including any now resistant to the previous antibiotics
used. This approach works umil multiple-resistance
strainshaveevolved,suchasinstrainsofaosrridium
AN
difficile and Staphylococcus a!lreus, for example.
10 Antibioticsareaddedtothefeedofintensively-rearedlive-
stocksuchaschickensandpigs. Heretheyreduceorprevent
theincidenceofmanydiseases, andtheanimalsarefound
to grow better with them. Possible dangers arise from the
over-exposure of bacteria to antibiotics see Figure 10.29
(page21S).
11 Immunity
I SeeWhatrecognitionof'selrentails, page220and
Figure11.4,page221.
2 Antigens may be present more or less anywhere in the body
that can be contaminated from outside the body. Antibodies
exist in the blood and lymph and may be carried in the
blood plasma anywhere that blood 'leaks out' to, including
sites of invasions. They also occur on B-lymphocytes.
}SeeFigure8.2,pagelS}.
4 Spleencellsandrumourcellsculruredseparatelyandthen
mixedtogether.Mixtureisculruredtoproduced'hybridoma'
cells. Resulting cells are separated and tested for antibody
required. Positivehybridcmacellsareculruredfurtherand
produceamibodyinsignificantquantities
5 a) The =istence of memory cells avoid the steps to the
production of activated T-lymphocytes. The particular
memorycell,oncere-activatedbythere-invading
antigen, switchestoproductionofan=cessofthe
appropriate plasma cells and helper T-lymphocytes.
b) The initial response to an amigen by the inunune
system is slow. For sufficient antibodies to overcome an
infection takes weeks rather than days. When memory
cells are present, many stages of the initial response are
omitted and antibodies are quickly assembled.
6 lmmuniryistheresistancetotheonsetofdiseaseafter
infection by harmful microorganisms or internal parasites.
Long-livedspecificimmunityisaresult oftheactionofthe
immune system and may be acquired naturally by previous
infection,butcanalsobeinducedbyvaccination. SeeA
summary of the types of immunity, page 2}1.
499
fardeen khan
 Answers
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m
Mltibodies,eceivedvia monoclotllllantibodie-;
7 a) ln ll:5pnlion. all the hyaogen alOm.1 arc gr;,duaUy fCITlO\'ro
from glueo5C, catlly5cd by dchy<rogenax enzymes. The
h}'Q'08Cflaloms2"':odckd!0hydrogenaccep(On,WWlly
lmm ,..... lty theplac:enta NAD (nicotlnamlde adenine d inudaitidc. page 23S),
forming reduced NAD. NAD i, a coenzyme 1hat wofks
Immunity with specific dchydrogenasc enzyme,, in the oxidation of
sub6tra1c molecules by the removal of hydrogen.
h) Dcc:arboxylationistheremoval ofcarbonfromorganic
12 Energy and respiration
compounds by the formation of carbon dioxide. For
example.gluCO!ICcoruisuofsixcaJbonatoms.All
six carbon a\Onl$ are removed at differcm M.agcs of
ro:spir~tion. ooc :u a lime. and given off a.s carbon
dioxxie. A specific decarb=ylax- nlZ)TilC i5 involved ln
c:och case. The 6m: decarboxybtion ln aerobic rcspir:uion
2 The illlpOflant fe:aturn of ATP ~ !Nt it is:
ocrursinthcrcactionlinkingglycolysiswiththcKrebs
cycle, when pyn,wtr i,, convened IO a "'-"a-carbon
• a aubslan«" dt:ll moves ~ily wilhin cells and organisms -
molecule . The other decarboxylalion reactions of aerobic
byfacilit:ueddiffusion
respir:llionoccurinsiepsintheKrebscyclc.
• formed in cdlular respiration and takes pan in many 8 a) A subinratc is a molecule that i5 thc starting point for a
reactions of metabolism

AN
biochemical reaction; it forms a complex wi1h a specific
• ablelotTansferenergyinrelativclysmallamount.,, cnzymc. An intcrmediatc is a m o lecule formed as a
suffidenttodriveindividualreactions. component of a metabolic pathway.
J Sec Extcn$ion: The r~piration of fats and proteins, !)"ge 239, h) Sec Glycolysi.5. pagc 243, and The link reaction and the
andExcrction,bloodwaterbalanccaodmctabolic""'5te, Ktcbscyclc.pages24}-5.
pwticularlyFigur-, 14. 14.p:ige?:97. c) SccExtcnskln: Respir:uiona.sascricsofrcdoxrcactioN.
4 C,5I IJ1COO H • C,(il-!3,0, page 238.
C,6' 1.w):+ 2302 -4 16CO,+ 16H,O + Energy 9 a ) Glycogen

RQ•:::::
b) Starch
KH
10 ~onlcrcactiorurcquire=ergyinput,bcca usethc
produc.u have more poteruia.l cnergy man !he reactants - !ICC
RQ • l 6+2J•0.696 FigurcJ.l.page57. Note: 1healtemative1ypcofrcactionls
5 ;,) onc in which the products have ]es., potemial energy than
thcrcactan1s.11tcsercactionsuan sfercncrgyas hcatand
work andarccallcdexergonic reactions.
11 Glyrolysis(thcconvcrsionofglucosctopyruvate)which
occuf"!linthccytosol(theaqueouspartofthccytoplasmthat
surround., organdies such as the mitochondti.t) docs no(
JF

time ahergemiinitionldays
b) s«dlingAh:asapatterndRQch:ingelnCllrly
S<"Tmination typia,l of sccd.s with a food store
«lnSUting m3inJy d carbohydrate. (Actually. tin., cbta
isfrorng,:nnin:i.tinawheatfruitswhkhoontain7ffll>
carbohydr.m,,2'*'lipid(oil)and 12'*.pro!Cin).
SecdlingBhasapattemciRQch;,ngeincarlygcrmi=tion
1yp;c;,J ofSttcls with a f<xxl .w.., consisting mainly dlipid.
(Aaua!ly, dtis cbta is from germinating !bx 5'eCd.1 wluch
contain 2'K carbohydrnre. 55% lipid (oil) and 20% pmtein)
6 Thcfollowingareproduceddw-ingglycolysl!:,rcduccdNAD
(c), ATP(c)and pyruvate(g).
rcquireoxygcn rotcornpktion.
12 U..C of a single wa.ter bcuh :u a favour:i.bk tcmper:uurc -
pcrhapis ~ oe; rcpc!ition of the expcrimml vdth a range of
dilutcglUC06CK>lutions(thcsub:5u:r.1c,).
13 l.aru,te and a fflla.U amount of ATP""' the fiNI products of
an.acrobicrcspir:Uioninmusclefibres.
14 In the a ~ of oxygen rcduccd NAO accumula1cs and
oxidisedNADrescrvcsareusedup. Inthc ab.!cnceof
oxidisedNAD,pyruv:n eproducrionbyglycolysi.sslows and
.stops. .so subscqucnt stcp, in respiration must stop too.
15 Presence of aercnchyma tissue of .stcm. lcafand root: ability of
roots1orespircan.acrobica!ly - withrclativelyhightoleraocc-
ofcthanal.
16 lnthcrcspiromctcr.thcfarsideofthcU-1ubc1Nnomctcris
1hecon1rolmbc(A). Hcre,conditionsareidcnticalto!hose
in thc rcspiromctcr tubc, but in thc former. no living material
i5presen1. Hov,cvcr,anychangeincxtcm:al1empcraturcor
pressurciscquaUyexpcricncedbyboth 1ubes,andthciref-
fecta on 1he level d m.anome1:rk fluid arc equal and opp<>
sitc.andtheycancclom.

500

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13 Photosynthesis
I Sec ~1gure ll. page 57.
m 11 A thermometer is required in the g1au tube with !he pond
2 O,lorophyllisamixtureofpigmenuthatabsorbsm:u,yof!he
componern. wavelengths of while light excq,t grt."'il.'n, which it
transmlu a reflects (hence the green colour of chlorophyll).
.\ Knowing the R1 value of a metabolite or pigment hclp.'l in the
identiftcadon d that substance when the compo.sition d a
differcn1 mixture is investigated. However, R1 valucs depend
upon 1hc same composition and ronccntr:ition of 90!""1lt
being u.ied and also the Sime type and grade of chrom:uog-
r:iphy paper.
4 The hydrophobic 'tail· of the dtlomphyll molecule is unabk
to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. makina
chlorophyU insolubleinw:uer.
5 Chrom:itogr:iphy allows the rompkte separation of romponencs
dmixturcs.hisanide-a!techniqu,,for,epar:itinsbiologic:ally
aaive molecules obrnined from .5amples of tissue since bk>.
chcmisu arc often able to isolate only very small samples.
6 Reduced NADP and ATP are the produas of the light-
dcpendcm smge of phOl:osynthesis required (and promptly
u5ed) in the light-independent stage. The Hght-lndependent
Slage occurs in the, stroma, so the fonna1ion cl reduced
NADP and ATP on the side of thylakokl membranes that face
the Slrom.i makes them instandy avaibble.
7 lhercare1hrccwaysinwhlchthegn,dicntinprou:1n,
~·= the thybkoid 5f>'ICC and the woma is geoer.ued:
KH
• !he splitting of water on the thylakoid membr:inc on the
thylakoid space side isa source of hydrogen ions there
• the energy made available :,s excited dectrau from
photosystemUarepassedalongtheelectroncarrlerchain
to phOl:osyM~'fll I is used to pump hydrogen iom from the
Slrom.itothethylakoidspace
• the forntatiott of reduced NADP on the mana side d
the thybkoid membrane remm'II.'$ hydrogen ions there
(rcducing;theirconceruralioninthewoma).
JF
8 :i) The ultintate fate of dearon,; di.<pbced fran the
re:iaioncentreofphcxosy,neml innon-cydic
phocopho,iphorylatiooistoben:t:1incdinreduced NADP.
h ) The uhimate fate of dectrons displ~ fran the re:,ction
centreofpholosyMem l incyclicphcxophosphorylationis
lo be reiumcd IO the place in pholosyMCm t from which
they came.
9 In this dcmonSlr:uiott d the HUI reaction, the isolated
chloroplasuar.,providedwithanelectronacceprordye
(DCPIP). The chlorophyll at the reaaion centre is oxidised by
lightcnergyandinthisstateisabletospli1wa1erbyrcn1oving
electroru. So OCPJP i, the dectmn acceptor In 1his dernonscra-
tion of the Hill rcaaion and the electrons come from wzer.
10 AutotfO\XUC nutrition of plants suppofU not only the plant,
butalso(indirectly)theprimaryoonsumcf'Sthatfeedonit
and any highc,"-~cl = = that are in the same food
chainorwcb.Coru.e<juently,1hecarbonatomsmakingup
almostall livingthingsh:i.ve been in a carbon dioxide mol-
c,c:uletha1 h:n beencatalysed bynibisroa1.somestage.
Answers
wced(inapositionth:i.tdoesnotinterf'"1'ewiththesupply
ollight1otheplan1).sothat1he1emperarurea1which
pho!osynthcsis is measured is known. Also, ii is advisable
to chc,c:k that the pond weed sample is nOI: subjcc!cd to an
unplanocdrioointemperarureastheimcnsitydllghtis
increased.for example.
12 a) The biochemical steps ofplxxruynthesis are depcndem
on the aalon and aaivity of numerous en7.ymC!I, AJ these
aremadcofprou,in,theyareprogrcssivl.'lyderuuured
and ll:1ldercd inaaivcat highremper.uures.
h ) M water evaporates from the surfac.,,, of mc,ophyll cells
during tr:tnspir:.tion,coollngocnir,i
l j a) Prcvcn1ionofau1olysisolcelloqpnelles(pa11icularly1hc
chloroplasts) as hydrolytic enzymes. held ln prcvk,usly
intaC'I ly5050lllC!I. are rde:i.sed imo the homogenised
cytt,pl•=
h) Room temper:uure was ""kcted as the working tcmper:.ture
at which the Hill reaction was inveMigated al.
AN
c) To maintain a constam pH favourable for the enzymes of
theehloroplast
tl) Tube I - colour change from blue to colourless
Tube 2 - colour remain• blue
e) Tube 3 - confum• tha1 chloroplasts are required fa the
Hill reaction
Tube 4 - conl'inn,, the role of DCPIP as the hydrogen
acccp1or.
14 Adapr pan of !he diagnm of the chloropla,u (diagr:.m,ruuic
view)ln Figure 1l22.Selec1}'0lll':mnotation1fromTablc
1~2(p;,ge 280).
15 SttcWha1h:ippcruinphoros}'mhesis:rndFigurcl}6(page266).
16 The ,tatting materials (carbon dioxide and water) arc in an
oxidised (low energy) atate. The end product of phOl:osyn-
thesis - glucme, is in a reduced (higher encrgy) Slate
17 SccPhotosyn1hcsis in oometropkal plants(pagcs 28)-l)and
Figurel3.24(page282).
14 Homeostasi1
Ia) Carbondioxidcisanacidicgaswhich.ifitwereto
accumulate in the blood. would :i.lter the pH of the pbsma
!lolu1ion. The normal pH of the blood ;g 7.4. For life 10 be
m:1intaincd il mUSt: remain wilhin the range pH 7.0-7.8. Thi.,
i,slargclybccau.K'bkxxlpHaffect.sthebalanceofes-
.K'ntial ion~ which are transported in the plasma solution.
Efficient removal of respiratory caroofl dioxide from the
lungs is as importam to life as efficient uptake of oxygen.
b) Rl'C'Cplor:chemoreceprors inthemedullo.,carotld attery
and aorta
c.o-onlln:11a:irupiratocyandexpir:.1oryccntresofthe
rcspiratorycentrcinthemedulb
Effce10n:musdC!loftheribs:rndthedi:iphragmtlu1
bring about ventilo.tionofthethor:u:.
2 Blood fran the gut via the hep:uic portal vein. as well as
oontainlng1hcabsorl>edproduct.sofdiges1ion.willbelowin
~andrelativelyhig.hinCO,.Soi1i5thesupplyofoxygen
1ha1thehlg.hlymetabolklivercellscorutan!lyrcquirc1/utis
delivercdbythehepaticartery.
501
fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
3 The following org::melle1 would be directly involvrd in
hormone production and diKharge,
• thenudeus -thesilecithcgencforthe~(aprorein)
15 Control and co-ordination

ooncemcd. together wl!h the enzyme machinery for the Recervesimpukesviao

Rec.......impulses Rtceivesimpulses
produclion of relev:!111 messenger RNA vi•m•nyden:lrites WlrNny(typally rrl¥Tf(typic,;lllyshort)
• pord in the nuclear envelope- cxil points for the long)dend,ons.each nervefibres,whi,:t,
~ e r RNA on its way to the cyco,ol protectedby•rrl)ehn •renotmyelin•u.d
• ribosomcs anached to the endopl:umk reticulum (RER) - ~NS
the site of the formation of the hormone p....,.impulsttD p....,.~ukttD P;,ssesiml)W5eto
• veiidescutdffromtheRER-traru;portofthehonnoo.. •musdefibrtor dtndriu!sof.arelay dendrite'l0tthecel
u-rOM the cyiOitOI to the cell sllmlcc membrane gl•ndWl•single neuronorit:scellbodyboclofof~ne,,ons
• the cdl wrbce membr:tne - to which the vmcks conmining axon.which is vi.l.asingleaxon, vi.lmany5tiorl""""'
1hc, hormone fuse a llowing discharge of the hor~ protected by a v.t.ich ispl'otected by ~b,es.v.+,i,:ha,en<:t

--
4 When a diabel:ic patient aucsscs their blood glucooe by myeli11sheath imy,elil1shtath ~inated
means of a bioscnsor, 1hc measurement is d the a mount of 2
glucose prc-sem at 1he moment the reading is taken. When
readingsaretakenofgluoosclevelsintheurine,thereha.,
Stimulusdet.ct.d ] Reu pto,
l la<atlonof

Mechanoreceptor1
bee,, an inevitable lag time before blood glue°"" level is
I

AN
Stretch receptors, Sl<eletalm,,sde
rcflcctcdinthe urine.Golorimetricreadingsinvolvealevelof
subjcaive judgment that the bioscnsor a=ids, too.
5 u) 1b: force that drlves ultrafiltration in the glomerulus
posilioo
I e.9.musclespindles,
propr10Ceptors
is th<- blood pressure generated by the muscles of the Bloodpressuie I Saroreceptors
ven1rides. Thispressureishcightencdbytheefferem
am,riolc of the glomerulus being of a smaller diameter Thermon,cepton
than the afferent arteriole.
b) Water, useful ioru, glucoec and amino aci<b, along with lnternaltffllpe<ature l~,~=us
KH
6 a) Brush border is made up of mkrovilli. Microvilli provide
Che..-eaoptor1
a v.ully increucd Mlrface area ol cell •urfacc membrane BlcodO,,CD_i,H' I Ca,ot,dbody l ca,otid-..y
in comact " 'ith the fil!r.ue. In the membrane, there arc
proccin pumps which actively and selectively absorb
usefulmeiabolitcs.
b ) Sccl'acilitatcddlffusion.pages8l-2,and l'igurc 14.19,
p;ige3()1. J lnpositi,,-..:f~theeffcctof adcviationfromthe
norrnalor5elconditioniatocrcatea tcndcncytorcinfc,rc.,
7 lna cou111cr-cun'efllflowsystcmflui<bflowinoppo0<ite
thedeviation.PoliitivcfcedbQckintcnsificsthcoon-ective
direcrions in parallel and adjacent tubes. So the limbs d the
actiontakenbya control systcm,lcadingtoa"Vidousciocle'
JF

loopofHenleandthcv:asarcctailll ilocc:ur,ibcside,ithc
loopofHenlcarcbo<hoounter-currcnrsysicrru.Exdtange
o.eur,ibe!ween1hesesysiemsandagr:1.dlenli,,m:1.i111ained
along the entire exchange Jllffacc.
8 a) A negative feedback sy~cm consist< of a receptor, a
coordinator and an effcctor. ln osmorcgulation we have:
Re<:cptor:osmorcccp(onin thehypotl,alamus
Co-ordinator:hypothalamu5andpo11tcriorpituitarygland
from where ADH i.s released
Effcctor:collcctingduct5 of the ncphron•inthemcdulla
ofthekidnt.-ys.
b ) 1bc osmorccep(cn ln the hypod,abmu•. together with
the rec,,pror•in thea01taandcarotidancrie,idetcctthe
change in the water content of the blood. Nen,-., impulses
from the receptor• are transmitted to thc hypc,thalamu•
andpiruitary gland.
9 SccFigure4.17aodFigure4.18(pages88and89).
10 Stomarn, open and doee in re5pon,c to ch:rnge11 in rurgor
in the guard cells. Sec 1llC opening and c!O<.ing d stomata,
p;tg""30S-9andAbl!cisicacidandwaterwessintheleaf
"""""·
siruation. Imagine a car in ,1:hich the drlVC'f', 5e2t """" stt on
rollers(ratherthanbcingsccurcdtotheOoor)bcingdrivcn
a t speed. The •lightest applica tion of the fOOI brake cause,i
the driver to alide and to press harder on the brake a• the car
st:uu to slow with an cxtJcmc ootcomc.
Biologicalexamplcsofpo15itlvefccdbackarcrare,but
one can be identified at the synap,c. When a wave
ofdepolarisation(anervclmpulsc) takescffoctinthe
post.synaptic membmnc, the cn1ry d sodium ion• trigger• the
entrydfunhcrsodiumions a1agrcaterrate.n1isisacase
of po11itive feedOOck. The clcpolarlscd stale i• established and
theimpubemovcsalongthepos tsynapti<:nt(."mbrane.
lnneg:itivefccdbacktheeffectofadevia tionfrornthe
normal or S<."I condition i., to create a tendency to eliminate
thcdeviation.Negativcfeedbacki•a !X'rtda!m().S{a!l
con1rol sysrems in living things. The effect of negative
fcedb;icki.storcduccfunhcrCOJTcctiveactiondthccon1rol
systernoncctheset-pointvaluci.srcachcd.
4 :a) Sec,1h, reMingpotential. page 316.
b) S=1'heactionpotential.pageJ17.
S Sec,The refm,ory period. page 318.

502

fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
6 Sec Speed of conduaion of the action pocmtial. p;,ge 319.
7 a) Tr:uwnincr ""D'll:Ir><:el llff" pnn,ccd i-1 the Golgi :ipp:u:,rus
in thesyn:,plicknobandheklintinyvesldespriortouse.
2 Anuj,orcvmtofint"'Jlh;,seisthereplicationofthe
du-omosomcs. By the omission of this ~lllge ~'CCn mciosu
l andmeiolisll.thech--numberishalvcdinthe
b)Sccl'igure!S. IO, page 32 1 fourcellsproducedfollowingmeioticccl!di\'Uion.
M Scc Tiieulm,.sm,crureofskelernJ muscle. and Figurc, IS.II. ., a) Mctapha se landll
15.12, and Fig IS.IJ pages 322--324 b) Midproph:iscr
9 lhecffectsdhormone-sarerestrictedtoceUswithspecificrecep- c) Lateprophasel
ton on the ccll !iUrfuce membrane to which they attach or with d) Anaphasell
whichlheyre:i.ct.ootheyaffectonlythctaigetcell.!ortiw.>es. e) Anaph.asel
IO ln ncgatlvefecdhack1heeffectofadeviationfromthe 0 Telopha se ll
oormal Of set condition is to cn,ate a 1endency 10 elimirune
Mitosis - •
the deviation. Negatfrefeedoockisapanofalmo,n:i.11 r.pliutM d ivision
control 5Ystenu in Uving ~ - lbe effect of ~live Consequences Allcel.carrythe • Ensuresmaintel'IM".:e
fe«backistoreducefunherC01Te<:tivcactionof1hecontrol Hmegenetic ofthechtomasome
system or,ce the set-point v:i.lue is ~heel. inlormaticna.the number in body cells
lnposltivefo:dxtcktheeffeadade-viationfromthenormalor existingcelhlrom lromger,eratiooto
setrondltion is to create a tendencytorclnforoethcdeviation wh«:h they are gene,aticn
l'o5itive feedback intensifies the <:errcctivc action tiken by a !OfJlled,~r>dwhich • lsaswrceolvariitioo

AN
controlsystcm,lcadingtoa 'vidou,drcle'situation. Biological ttley,harewith (importantlorttle
cxamplesdpo,,itivefe«lbackarerare,butooecanbeidentified ,umiurnlfr,gcells 1,1.JWalofthespecies
at the syn::,p,<e. When a waved depolari.'Qtion (a rio:,rve impulse) inachangir,gwo,ld)
takes effect in the postsynaptic membrane, the entry of oodiwn Twoidentic.alcelh. fou,.non-itlen~ c.Hs.
ionstriggenthcentryof further «xllumlonsatagreate,-rate NCh ... rththe eachwnhthehaploid
II a) Al about the mkl-point in the mcnstnial cycle (<by 14) d,ploidnumb.,of nutmefofchromosomes
thehighandri,singln-doloestrosmsuddcnlylilimulates <h-e
thei«retionof lrl and,toaslightlylc:ssa'"extmt. Significance • Penni1'gr<M'th Contri:>utestogenetic
FSH. by the piruiwy gland. u-i stimulates ovulation ardrepairwithin variability by·
KH
(the shedding of the mature se«>ndal)' oocyte from the
Graafianfollide)andthe.sccondal)'oocyteisrelea.,ed
muJticdular
organism, ,,_
• rfllucingthe

from1heovary.SeealsoF1gurelS. 19, page331 • Also.forasexual number by half,

b) The absence o f fertilisation. together wlth the falling reproduction permitting subsequent
levels of FSH and LH in the blood (from about day 25 fe.rlilisatiooalldthe
onward!) allows the corpus luteum to degenerate. combioaticnofthe
12 A placebo i., a pill (or medicine) which i.,: given for genesoftwop il,ents
psychologicalrea..onsratherthanforanyphysiologicalcffect. • pe,mitwlgthe
hmaybeusedintheplaceofa ,pccificmcdicationor drug. r.>ndomassortmentof

......
JF

13 Growthconsist.tofa pcrm:rneru, im:vn'Sible increase in si.ze; mateffiillandpate,n;il

cb'Cloprn,en; is a change in sh.ipe. form and complexity of
an organism.
16 Inherited change
I a) Scc Chromosomes occur in pair$, page 96.
b) MitOl!is andmciosisaredivisionsclthcnucleusby vcry
precise pro.es.ses; they ensure the correct distribution of
chromosornesbetweenthedaughiercclls
Titccl:tught<.""rcdlsproduccdbymitosis haveasetof
chromo5omes identical to e ach O(hcr and to the parent
cell from which they were formed . ln growth and
development it is es.sential tha1 a!! cells carry 1he same
lnfonrunionutheexiatingcelli,.SimUarlywhenrepair
of <bmaged or worn out cells OCC\11"$, the new cdb &ff"
exact~ofwhattheyreplace
Mcio<!i5 occurs in the life cydc of all orgmi!:ms that
reproduccsexually. lnmriollisroord:tughtcrccllsare
produced. each with one member d each homologous
pairofthech=~escitheparcntcell,knownasthe
haploid (,i) ~tatc Halving of the chromosorne number is
csscntialsince atfertilisationthenumberisdoublcd.
<h~
..~tionof
~gmf!ltsofincfrvidial
matema,l;ind
pate.-nilhomologous
chiolTl050rneSdu,ing
S Thei<leathatlhecharacreristicsclpareni..wcrcblmdedin
theiroffsprlngwasdisprovedbyinvestigatingthcprogenyof
crosscsoforganismswithcontrastingcharacterisdcs(suchas
"tall'and'dwarf'peaplant:'l)througha~andsometime,,
=bscquent gener.,tions. l=ge samples were used and the
experirnmt,wererepeated,confirmingth:1.tthcobscrved
r:itio<werestatisticallysignificant:.
6 ~ nn expect a r:itio of 3, I among the progeny only if
thr~ conditiomarcmet;
• f'"'1ilisation is random - each fenilis:i.tion jg lndcpendcni of
all the others
• thcrearecqualopporrunltiesforsurvivalamongd1colfsprng
• large numbers of offspring are produced

503

fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
In breeding =perimem.s with pl3nts such as the pea plant,
exactrntio,maynotbe obrninedbecauseofparasited3mage,
due to the acrion of browsing predators on the anthers or
• This also means that. by elimination. Mr and Mrs Lee must
be the parents d the blood group B child.
• Mr and Mrs Santiago are blood groups AB and 0. which
ovaries in some flowers or because some pollen types fail to migluproduce:
betransportedbypollinatinginsectsa.,succes.sfuUyasothers. AB x 00---> blood groups A or B
7 ThelayoutofyourmonohybridcrosswiUbeasinFigure1 6.14 Since Mr and Mrs Lee are the parents d the blood group
(page355) ,buttheparentalgeneration(P)wUlhavegenotype,, B. Mr and Mrs Gerber must be the parents of the blood
(ifyouhave chosenCtorq:,=tthegeneforcoatcolour): group A child.
cRc'xc"' cw • Byelimination.MrandMrsJonesmustbetheparentsof
whereCRrepresentsthealleleforredcoatandC"'represents the blood group AB child.
the allele for white c001. The gametes the parenml generation 9 3) SeeRed-greencolourblindness, page359.
produce will be: b) See Sex linkage, page3S8. and Figure 16. 17,page359.
l O The recombinants among the F, progeny are those with
The offspring (F 1) will have the genotype c' cw roundseed.sandgreencotyledonsandthosewithwrinkled
andthephenotypewillbe"roan'. seedsandyelloweo1yledons.
lnasiblingcrossoftheF,generationthegametescibolh
siblingswUlbe:
~ c' { c""'

AN
KH
From the genetic di3gram, the offspring (F,) to be expected
andtheproportioruare:
JF

8 • Mr and Mrs Jones are blood groups A and B. which might

produce any one of:
AA >< BB ---+ blood group AB
AO>< BO ---+ blood groups A, B, All or 0
AA>< BO ---+ blood groups AB or A
AO>< BB ---+ blood groups AB or B
So Mr and Mrs Jones could be the parents of m,y of the
fourchndren.
• Mr and Mrs Lee are blood groups Band o. which might
produce either of:
BB x 00 ---+ blood group B
BO x 00 ---+ blood group BorO
So Mr and Mrs lee might be the parents of either the blood
group B or the blood group O chnd .
• Mr and Mrs Gerber are both blood group O , which can
produce only:
00 x 00 ---> blood group 0
So Mr and Mrs Gerber must be the parents of the blood
groupOchnd.

504

fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
12 a) BBSS,BB&!:,Bb.SSorBbSs
m
t,) Fromatestcross,usingaspar*lthat huarcdsponed
co.u.Amongthcpuppie,iprodu=:l,lhcpre,en«ofrcd
15 Firlilcalculaiethc1J.,utistic.
~-----y.,...,-,.,..,.~~~~~~=~~
::- ~o =i
coa1 orof•pottedpanernindicales !hat thcaherf"lre!U
spaniel l< heterozygous for that cluraeler. tall. a><YI
I :i A mrnant organi,m (or cell) is one carrying ahered genetic
material which makes it different from its parent (or from its tall, termiri.al 1
precursor cell).
14 a) dwarf,~ial 1

dwari,

Soi•0.384andthcrcare~~offrttdom.
From a table of the dlstnbution of 11 (se,, page 36-0. the
probability(P)ofobl:aininga deviation a.s large a.s(orlarger
than)theonewehavebychancealonefallsbet"-·ecn1he

AN
probabilitylevclsclP•0.90 andP •0.95.
This is not significant - there is no depanure of the observed
from thee,ipccted values.
16 Gern: mut:Uioru arc due to ch:mg"" in thc ~mce d ba5C$
in the ONAola gene. ruchas when one t:we i., replaced by
another in the coding Slr:lnd of DNA th.:11 makes up the line:u
sequence of bases.
17a)Llzand Diana
KH
b) O David and Anne
JO James, Wdlbm, Arthur and Fredrick
c) 8 (Richard and Judith, Anne, Otarles, Sophie, Oiris,
Sarah,andGail)
d) James and William, Arthur and Diana, etc.
18 A dominant allele is expressed in all individuab !ha\ inherit it
(evenifonlyhe1crozygousforthat allele),whereasarcccs-
siveconditionappcarsonlyinoffspringthatarehomoeygous
for 1ha1 allele (and therefore with parems who were both at
Jea51carr\er1oftheallek ~areb1ivelyrareevent).
JF

19 The genescoritrolllngrhe production of the blood pro1cin,

concernedinhacmophilbareloc:i.tedOlltheXchromoeorne
Haemophililt is caused by a recnsive allele. As a rc,uh,
haemophilia 15 brgelyaconditionofthc, male since in him
a•ingleXchrortl0$0II\C'carrying~defectiveallele(XhY)
will rcsul! in dlsease. For a female to have the haemophilia,
she must be homo~ygous for the recessive gene (X~ xl'), a
condition 1h:it ls frequently fatal in u/cro.

17 Se lection and evolution

1 a) Your answer could include two of these .K>luble nutrients
h) Sccdiag12mabo=.
C') 1be rc,oombin.:rnts are those with normal wlngs and
ebony bodies and those with velSligial wlngs and normal
bodi.,,,,
essemial IO phytopl:rnkton growth: ni1r.1ie, calcium or
magnesium ions;
b) 1'hc numbers of phytoplankton decr..a.se rapidly in ~fay
and June due to the level. of pmdnion by wopbnktoo
andpo55iblydueashon:::i.geofessen:ialnutrients.
c) 1'hcincre:uingquan1ity<:Anu1riemsinOaobercame
from thedeoiyofthedead phytoplankmnand
zooplankton.

505

fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
2 .,) Anon-native~m:i.yr:apidlybecomcthemost
common sp<rits in a new =vironmcnt due to an
al»enceofn.tablishedpredatorsandpu:uitc,i,and
11 1be facton you arc likdy IO suggest include:
po&ibly due IO limited compe1:ilioo f,x re,ou~c:,
b ) Compctition for food 3ffi0flg the non-na!lve populatiOfl
andthernpidspreadofparasites amongthem,particularly
iftheirlargenumberscausethemtollvelnd0$C«m13C1.
:1 a) Pcaksinpn,:larorpopulationsoccurafterpeaksinthe
prey population. A rise in the number cl predators OCCUl'll
becauscci thelargenumberclprcyav:,ilablc tobecaught:
and bca.u5C fewe,- than the maximum number of prfflllrors
thchabi1:1.1e2n..uppon:,n,rnmp:tingbtheP'cy.
h) An incrt'II~ in the number of pred:m:n inaeucs the
compc1iti,on for food :md prcdator numbers exceed the
supply of prey. Pr"d.uor.s d~ so their populition fallll
4 See nut geoe pool.sdoch3nge!, page 392.
S 1bc breeding of domesticated plania and anirmls has
c reatedva rietic:, withlinleextema lrc:5Cmblancfttotheir
wildancClltors. Darwin bred pigconsandno tcdthere,vere
lbe ex:.. mplesyouJll'OPO"'"'arc mosl likelyw beones
familiarinNbitat$nearwhercyouLive.
• Mut:nion - random. rare, opontaneou• change in ,he
genes in 1he gonads that lead to the panibnity of new
characteristics intheoffspring,thatcometo c onferan
advamagcinthestruggleforexistence
• Selective predation of members of the population with
cert:iincharactcristk•thataregeneticallycontrolled
• Emigrations ol members of 1he population or immigrJtions
of members of o ther populatioru
• Sudden hostile physical condition, for example. cold,
floodingordroughl,nuyquicklyrcmJa'ana1ur:1J
populat>on to a very few survrvor,J. On the., retum cl a
favOUf'llble environment, the., numberll oflhe affected
'fl'CCIC!I nuy rctum to nornul, for example, due IO reduced
competi1ion for food !Klllr=1l. H""·ever, the new population
hasbeen buihfroma,..,rysmallsampleoftheoriginal

AN
more 1han a dozen, distincrive varieties o fpigeoo. all of
which were de<eemlems frcm the roc k dove ( Figure 13.13).
Darwin argued that if so much change can be brought about
in so few gcner:i.tion.s, then ~pcciea must be able to evolve
into Olhcr spc,:.:in by the gradual accumulation ol minute
changes as en=·= t a l condi1ioru alter and naturnl
sclcctionopc1'll tes.
6 ln naturalsclcction,environmental factors act on phenotypes
KH
,0 1Ntorgani:!:mswilhthebeSlauiledphenotypcs 1urvr,e
and breed, passing on the alleles to !heir offspring. Thi•
lcltdstolrnprovr<l•urvivalorreproductiveabilityof~
phcnOlypClandresultsinchangesinthegcnepool
18 Biodiversity. classification and conservation
ArtiftdaJ5elcction(sclective brecding)i1 1heinK'l'ltional
breeding by humans for ceriain ph~'l'IOIYJ)Cll or combinations
ofphenOlypc•. This can lead to reduced ability to survive in
thewildandreducesthesizeofthegcnepool.
7 Yourideasarc likelyioinclude:
JF
populatio n, IIO there arc likely to be more crosses between
do:selyrclatedindividuals(resultinginfewcrhctero;,;ygOle•
and more ho m ozygoces) and some alldes may be lost
altogether. (This is called random genetic drift.)
• A barrier nuy develop within a population. instantly
isolating a &null sample of the origln:i.l population. which
nuycarryanunrepreoentath-eselectKJrlofthegene pool,
yet be 1he bi.sis of a new popular.ion. (Thi, is another form
ofgenetkdrift.lti•calledthefoundercffec1.)
1 Possible abiock factors include light , humidity, topogt"Jphy,
soil(pH,molsturecontent,organicmatt<."r, etc.)
2 a) ecosystem
b) population
c)abiOlicfactor
d) community

• 1hcklcn1iftcationolgenesandaUdesas Mcodcl'sfactor• e) Nbitat

• dvomo<Soniesas vehldesforcarryinggencs 0 abiocicfactor
• thcbehaviourofchromosome,iin celldivision$
• meiosis as the mechanism of .5Cf"""ting alleles - x, that only
oncfromeadtparcn: i:!:~ontothencx1gcneraoon.
""°""" plant
K Oy cvdutlon we IIIC3ll the gradual development of life in
geologic-JI time. For example, we know that life appeared aklwwatet loation Kornbamilcle
on Eanh about }500 million years ago and that mo:11: ol the
4 lbe estimated popu lation size would be halved, Le. 40/2 • 20
great divcr.sity of living forms has appeared sub,;cquently,
5 a) 1beslr.e o fthepopulationatdays2.16,31 and46and76
with time. BeforeearlygeologistrealisedtheEatthi•
c:ctremelyold,biblicalcalculationssuggestedthatlifehad
been'created' in4004BC, orabom6oooyears ago! If this
were still believed, then thett would be insufficient time for
cvolutlonby n:uurnlsdection.
9 See Neo-Darwinism, p:i.ge400.
10 Avarietyisagrouping,..ithinaspc,:.:;eswhoscmember.,
diffcrin;Klfl'IC.si.gnificant respectfrornothcrmernben
ofthespecies;aspecie, isagroupof otgllni1mS&haring b ) Ploo: the graph u •ing an Excel spreadsheet - conccming
morphologkal ,imnaritieo that arc reproductively irola1ed and 'time in days' a nd 'N', which will you plot on 1he :r and
canin1crbrcedtoproducefertileoffspring.Differcntvarieties they axis?
ofaspec~ca nimerbreed.

506

fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
speculate on: m
c) 1he annc,wion.5 to the curve arc an opportunity to

• onthe initi.o.lrapidriscinnumbett (continuingirn,-

migntion«, initial abscncc of rompclillon for abundant
reK1Urceoi, lack of presencc of predaton when popula -
tio n ncw/ low in number;,)
• on sublicquent stabilisation of population numbcrs
(balaocc betweenreproductioo/ pred:ttionprcs,ures,
theideacic:arryingcapadtyfotthathabitat).
6 1be Simpson Divcrsity Jndcx for 1hi, habit:lt:
Sped1t1(nooflnclividuals) nl,, - 1)
• Dd"orc,tation-Dcstructionof trec,idesuoys the habit:1.lll
of nu merous &pccics d aninuls, p!ant.1, fungi and t»ctcria
whkhthetcforcdeclinc innumber.i.
• Dcseniftca1lon-Thisisspttded upby:
• overgrazing cl land.
• deforc,tation.or
• climate c hange.
• Exccssive application of pesticides in modem industrial
agriculture. Pcso:icidcs have improved productivity Jn
agricul1ure.buttheir u.., hasttduccdbiodivcrsity.
• Air pol lution - The lcvcl.s of carbon dioxide in the
atmo,pherc have been rising since UX" lnduwial
Revolution in the developed co,mtrio of the world.
1ltls gl05 is a major contributor to global " " rming and

--~
ddUUC1ivcdimatcchangc.
lotal{N) • Water pollut lon

'·' - - -~
In (n -l}• 1980+ 156o + 90•36JO.

AN
D• 9 5 x ~ - ~ - 2.46 -•+--chromosome-,
ing.ometo· in~-podoong
7 The original data in Figure 18.11 were oblained by a team p,O<b:ir,g<oll ,..,
ofpre-Universitystudentsin:mactivitytheydesignedand
carried out (independently of teachcrs) as the culmination
of a field oounie. Rcspond to this quescion in ~ke-nun...,...
Selccttwosnu Utcarruofso:udem,;,cachtotadtlcthe
y
calct.tl.ation of onc of the di,.-=iity indices. Then. by
groupdiscu91ion,=:11.luatcthecffCC1ofage/stagcofdune
i,-rJ----
KH
development ondiver.;ity. PrC'le(ll your data and conclusions
as a ~er or display ncwspapcr iu,m
K Precisely ddi.ned and internationally agreed scientific names
facilitate cooperation between ob,;c,rvera by ide ntifying the
CJCact species that is being inveso:igated andrcponedon.
9 TI1e central rol umn needs to oi:an with 'Domain: one of the
three major forms of life". The left· and right-hand columns
need toparallelthisadditionwith 'Domain: Eukaryota" .
10 Sedimcnt:uy rock layers are usually laid down under
JF

water. often under a naerobic condi1ions. and formcd

from sediments washed in from the land. They arc addcd
10. }'Carafterye:ar. Objects that falltothebottom(for
example. dead organisms) a rc covered. compresocd a nd
eventually their molcculC!l react with or arc replaced by
miner~! ion,. Foss ils laid down in the deeper s tra ta of
sedlmc ntaryrock.,areolderthanthe fonilsof thehigher
(m o rcreccn1),1rata.
Dead organism that fall dsewhere are much more likely
to be dismembered by scavengers and/or decayed by
mkroorgani= beforeanyfossilisationispo,siblc
l! Thechiefecosya:tern.sare:
• Tundra. e.g. alpine tundra. which occurs on the highest
mountai,u. well a bove the 1rec-linc
• Grassland. e.g. so:eppc, pr.i.iric and pampas. or sa.w.nnah,
whichllltropic2.lg=,.sbnd

• forcs•orscrubland 14 lnforma1ion may be avaUIDle from local wardens or rangers

12 Human actions a nd activities thal repre5en1 a threa1 to the via their head office.
Eanh's wildlifc includc:

507

fardeen khan
 Answers
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
I Si,,ti1rorefer5iobiologicalproc=sesoccurrlngin ~ U
cxtrllds (Hu,nlly 'in glass'); ;,, dvo rcfcn IO biological
processesoccurrif18inlivingorganism,(li1er:1lly 'inlife').
N.nurereservesioepopular
siteslo,thePl,blicto¥isit
Zoos.andbotanaolgardensare
accessi>lesrtesforthepublicto
(inapproved~.then!by ....;i(;rstheyareoftms,tuatedin
16 Possibleanswe"': mmti/ningpubliciwar""""' urbansettin95wherem11nym¥j
• The pc,Mibility of artificial insemination using sp,,nn of theerMroomentalcri,isdue have.access),sotheycontrbute
obtained from cap1ive individuals from a different gene toextinctionsandirn:IMdual elfectivelytopublicer:lucation
pool. Similarly, i>1-dlro fenili53tion and the implantation d ,~bilitiesthatarisefromit ontheen.,.;roomentalcrisis
cmbry0!9 in •unogate mothers Reservesareidealvenuesto Seedb anl<5arei1Convfflient
• Maln1enana,ofaccuratebreooingn:,c,xds,oth:11thegenetic whichtoretumendangered andelficientwayofmain tainir.g
rd,ucmess d progeny is known !or fi.M:ure crosses and prior individuals.the products of genetkmateri11tof.nclangeftd
10 ocha,vp; of sam<""" oc ndr.idu.ols l:ctv.·cm cliff= zoo,, a,ptivebreedingprogr.ammes. pl.atrts,;rstheynwyexploitthe
• Monitoring cL the health and devdopmcn: of prog=y and pr,:wid;ngrealis\iccondition,lo, wqsseedsSUMvelongperiods
......daptation!Dthehabitatbut
oo-goingsupervi1ionofthe.rucCC$!ofmclhodsofrdease
fdtat,ng the monitoring of
back imo the wild to min~ immediate pred:nion of
thelNl!roduction
released Mock.

....... ,. .........
T,,,...,1,1,nd,quwti,c
! .!I Thc stocks in seed banks mus< be '1able. 0v"1 very long
c..,.,iv.b...ilng
prog,,m,,..sofz-...d pc,riocls,viabilityofs=d.sdecrea.scs,.sofreshformedsceds
•.db.nk11tbo\linic.l arcne«lcxlregularly.Abo,geneticviabilityismaintainedby
g,rd..,,

Mabitatsthatm,alreadyrare
areespeci.illyvulr1"rableto
r>aturildisaster-meli.,bitats
themseM!Saieusilyloo.t.if
OtigOllcllly.zooswe,ecollectioo,
of largely\lllfamiliaranimals
keptforcu~withSttle
conce,nforanystressc.o......d.
AN
thisproceS11becausenewseedsaretheproductsof sexual
reproduakm and 1"0 maintain the diversity of the gene poc,l.
19 Gene technology

arangeofe,camplesarenot
preserwdasnaturere,erves
Whenah~td~
the"''holeccmmunity;.lo<t,
threateningtoi.-.::rusethetotal
,,...mbe,olen(bnge,edspecies
Arefugefo,endangered
wildl ifeal!owstlwsespeciesto
leadnatural l,Ves in • fam iliar
environme,itfor"hid,tfleyare
1daptedand tobt!ap•rtof
theirnonn.ilfooddwin<
JF
--6
butnowaptivebreed,ng
programmesmakegoodll'il'of
KH
C~breediogmiin~i""
lhegenet,cstockolrare•nd
end..,geredspecies
Thege,,eticproblems ari,ing
fmmindMdualzoosh aving
v,,rylimiteodnumberstoKta,
parentsisO'o'ercomebyinl<'f·
iooco-<:>peution(-ifldartifi.d.al
inwminationinsomecasf'>l
I Viral DNAtakcsov"1thcribosomalm:1.chineryofthc
hoslccllcausing1heproductionofvir:a.lpro11cinsd1iuarc
enzymes. Viral enzymes aiusc the replic:Hion of viral DNA
and the production of other rnoleruln that make up new
viruses~Figurcl0.19.page206).
2 a) See Nucleic acids- 1he informa1ion molecules,
f>'l8"5IIO-l3,andFigure6.J,pagell3
h) See Table l9. l,pagc4SS
3 a) Astickyendconsistsofa short"""!uence ofexpo5Cd
ba,iesofunpairednudeo1:idesfonningasingle-strancled
~tension at the end of a length of DNA. h is created
by the action of a panicular restriction en;r;yme Iha!
r«0gnlscsa specificbaseoequcnccin alength ol DNA
and cuts the DNA in thi5 Wtinctive way. See abo

Thewildlifeofareoervenwy Aninwlsinzoostmdto Figurcl9.4.pagc4S8.

be monitored for Nriyw•rning
ofanylurtherdflerioration
innumbersof.th .... tm.d
spKiessothatremedial!ileps
a,nbetiken
Theolfsi:iringolordangered
spKiesarenurtu,.d inthei,
natu,alenvironmentand gain
all thee~rienct'Sthi, nom,a lly
brings,irduding the.tequi,ition
ofst:ilsfrompa,..ntsandpee!'S
11,oondthem
Thereisanesubli5hedtradition
olmJ1nuiningreserw,;and
protectedareasinv•riousparts
oftheworld,sott-.ismuch
e,cperiencetoshareonh1M1 to
mi,nagethemsuccesrlully
havesignrfantlylongerMe
.:irpecundesandireiYail•ble
!Dpartic~teinbreed,ng
p,ogrilfflmesfofmuchlonger
thanwildanim;,lsdo
( aptivebreedingproblems,fo,
mostspeciesitis apploedto,
have been highly successful,
althoughthe)IO<lngdonotgmw
l.()inthe'wild', so then!isles,
opportunitytoobse,wandlearn
lmm~entsiOdpeers
8re,edingprogrammesgt!ll'f.ate
he111thyindMdo.iilsingood
nurrber,lo,attempts.atre-
introduct,onofen<linge,red
<pKieston;,turalhibit•ts.•
particularlychalleogingproc""'
giventhatnatur1lpftdatcrs
abour>dintheselocation,
h) Sticky ends attach 10 ..,.rn omer by complemcn1ary
base pairing. lhey are held together by the formation
of hydrogen bends between complementary bue.s. The
enzyme lig:lsc then analyses 1he formation of C-0 bond,,
betwecnthesug:,r-pho,iphatebadcbonesolthetwo
ONAwancb.
4 a) See Table l6.2,pagc3S7.
h) See Table l9.l,pagc4SS.
c) The bact"1lal chromosome is a single circular molecule
ofDNAwithinthccytoplasm,butattachedtothcccll
surface mcmbnne at one poinL Plasmid< arc tiny circular
mole,culcs ol DNA, fr=-Hoating in the cytopla11m of aomc
bae1erla. Theyrepliaitcindepcndcntlyofthcbae1cril,l
<hromooomo.
S The genes of prokaryotcs :ue generally <:29"1 to modify dun
tho&cofcukaryoiesbecausc:
• prok:uyO(CShaveasin31c,cirrul:irchromc,.,omc,1t0only
one copy of a gcneha,,to beengi~ in!Othcir DNA,
whercascukaryotes havetv,oalldcsofcverygenc

508

fardeen khan

lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
• plasmids, the moSI useful vehicle for moving genes, occur
inprokaryotesbutmostlydono(ineukaryo«,s - the
excqxion.s are some fungi, including yeast, and a few plants
• tr:mscriprion of DNA into RNA in prokaryotes does not
require the removal of 'non-infomt3tive DNA' (introns), but
in eukaryotes it does
• bacterial walls can be crossed by plasmids (after suitable
treatments).
6 A mutant allele is one of a pair of alleles in which
(exceptionally)therehasbeenachangeinthescrucmreof
the DNA. Typically this involves a single base substitution, a
translocation, a transposition or an insertion or deletion of a
baseorshortsequencesofbases
7 Apersonwithasinglealleleforcysticfibrosisisa 'carrier'
and does not =press the disease; whereas someone with a
single allele for Huntington's disorder will become affected
bythediseaseevenrually.
8 The fruits of the cereals (which include wheat and rice)
are the staples of human diets all over the world. They
provide the bulk of essential energy- richfocxls. lne ability
of leguminous plants to fix atmospheric nitrogen for amino
acid and protein production enable these plants to grow well
without the addition of(expensj,,,e) nitrogen-basedfenilisers.
halsomakesfocxlproductsfromthem(peasandbeans,
forexample)relmj,,·elyrichinproteins. Cereals that are
geneticallymodifiedsothattheycouldalsofixnitrogen(if
KH
they were created) would grow well without nitrogen-based
fenilisers. They may also add even more to human nutrition
by helping to the overcome protein deficiency as well as
meetingrnlorien=ds
JF
Answers
9 Many newspaper repons are often rather superficial. You
mayhavetoamplifythecriticismsslightlyinorderrobeable
to introduce balancing arguments. Your own opinion needs
stating simply, with one or two dearly explained reasons.
10 The presence of one or more sons with haemophilia among
the progeny of the members of any generation in a family
treeisthewaythatca1Tierscanbeidentifiedamongthe
parents
II Thisisahighlypersonalissuewhichneedshandlingwith
great sensitivity. This is certainlythecaseforanycounselling
team whenever this situation arises. They will need to en.sure
thecouples'preferencesemergeandtakeprecedencein
ensu'gd'scuss'ons.
A!Jyoutacklethisquestioningroupdiscussionwithpeers,
it is best if each individual =plains their own view and is
listened to carefully. It may be that a consensus concerning
asuitablere.sponsecanbea1Tivedat - butyoumayfind
thatyoucannotallagr=. Jnthissiruation ,youshouldtryto
AN
understand the view of those you do not agr= with, rather
thangetinroconflictwiththem.
12 DNA fingerprinting relies on the fact that each individual has
unique DNA. The exception is identical twins; their DNA is
identical. The DNA of non-identical twins is not.
I} Flowering plants are a major component of human diets and
very many are insect-pollinated. Honey bees and bunerllies
are some of these insect pollinators. A reduction in their
numbers would lead to fewer seeds being fonned. The
supplyoffruitsandseedsforcultivationandasfocxlwould
be threatened.
509
fardeen khan
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
Index m
abioticenvirorunent 384
AB0bloodgroupsystem 3So6
absciskadd 309. 336
absorptioospectrum 165
accidents 194
ocetykholim." (ACh) 319
acetylcoenzymeA 243,244
acidophil"s 431
octiofilameots 249,324,325-7
action poteotial 317---9,320
actionspectrn 265
octivationenergy <;8---9
activation step 222.226
activeimmuoity 199,231
activesite 59--{il.94
activetr:mspon 78,90-2,128,30L316
adenine 110, 111,112.113,118
adenosinedeaminase(AD) 469
ad.,nosioetriphosphate (ATP) 21- 2,
111- 12,235,236-7,238
ATP- ADPcyclc 2.J,6. 237
ATP syntha"" (ATPa"")
synthcsisinrespirntion
organisms 24S-SO
ad ~sion 140-2
adiposetissue 42
ADP- All'cyde 2.J,6.237
odrenalglands 328
JF
ad n,nalin 394-S
aerench;matissue 255, 2<;6
oerobkrespirntion 172. 242---{i,
251,254---S
Africanelephants 413
agricu.lrure Z76,443
,.,)-.,
adapationsofcropplants
genetically modified organisms
485--9
Agroruclerium 487
A,grosristetmis(Bern grass)
air composition in the lungs
airspaces 130
albinism 369--70
akoholicfermemation 253.2S4.2S6
aldoses 32
alienspecies 446---9
alkalinophiles 431
allelefrequency 39(),405
339-40,342,3'i 3.34S.3~,357
510
dihybridCl'OiSS 36()-{,3
dominam 352,357,369,370.4@
monoh}1>ridcros, 35()-...8
multiple 355
receSllive 352. 357,369----70,4@
allopatrks~ciation 408
alphacells 293
a -glucose 31
a -helix 47
altirude 162- 3
alveoli 174.178-80
American grey squirrel 448
AN
aminoacid.s 44,45,~,51,llS-19,HS
allllllOflia 297
amniocentesis 471,472
Amoeba 2.10. 89,434
amylase 61,62,63-'l
amylopecrin 38
amylose 38
KH
anabolicreactioru S6,57,235
246, 247 anae robicre-spirntion 25}-7
239.247- Sl anaphase 105, 107,3,45,346,347, 348
animal cells 4--5, 15
animals 431.437, 438
domestication of vdld animals 394
intemaltr.111.sponsystems 151- 70
mammals see mammals
osmosisin 89
respiratorysystems 172-80
Slt!etJlsounderindiddu,a/,anim,a/s
antagonism 337
antibioticresistance 212- 15,387
antibioticresistanccgenes 460,461
antibiotics 210-12
255-7, antibodies 221-4 , 225
monoclonal 226---3()
anticodoru 122,125,126
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 3()}-5
antigen-antibodyreacrion 220-(225
4()4 antigenreceptors 221
180 antigens 204,219,232
aorta 154,155.1S6
apoplastpathways 137,138
aquaticuniceUularanimals ll9
archaea(archaebacteria) 433
arrhythmia 170
aneries 154----6
anerioles l55,1S6
anificialimmunity 231
anifkialselection(selectivebreeding)
ascendinglimb ( loopofHenle) 3()2
asexualreproduction 103,344
aSllistedreproduction 447
All's,,eadenosinetriphosphate
All'- ADPcycle 236, 237
All'synthase(All'ase) 246,247
atria 164,165
atrialdiastole 166, 167
atrialsystole 166.167,168
atrioventrirularnode(AVnode) 168
atrioventrirularvalves 164----6
Au.straliangrasslands 384-5
autism 209
autoimmune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS) 204--7
autotrophknutrition 234,262. 431
autotrophs 'Z72
auxin 336.338
axons 92,312,313,314,316,317- 18
Badflustburingiensls 485
bacteria 22---3,24,69,431
antibioticresistant 212- 15, 387
bioremediation 450-52
nitrifying 272
tran.sfonned 459---{i()
balanced polymorphism 389
balancingselecrion 388---9
barleyfruit 339
baseadditionmutation 367
basedeletionmutation 367
basesubstitutionmutation 367,368
BCGvacdne 201- 2
"""'%380
behaYiournlseparntion 406----8"
belttransect 423,424
Benedidstest 30,32-4
benigntumours 104
Bentgrnss 404
beta-carotene 486
betacells 293.295
~ glucose 31
~sheets 47
biruspidvalves 164,165
bilayer,lipid 75,76,n,90
bindingproteins 94
bindingsites 94
binomialsy.stem 429-30
39}-.8 biodiversity 416-28
fardeen khan
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.coIndex
importance, 442--4
threatsto 439----42
bioinformatics 467- 76,482--4
m carbondioxide 161.162
=ncentrationandphotosynthesis
2,274--S.Z76
chiasmata 345,347
chi-,;quarOO(.f)test 364-5
Cblamydcmonas 2,434
biologicaldassiftcation 419---39 carbonicanhydrasc 161 chlorophyll 20, 146,261,26}--{,
biologicalcontrolmea.sures 449 carbonmonoxide 161,181,188 chloroplasts 4,5,7,11.15,19-20,
biologicalmolerules 29-53 carboxyhaemoglobin 161,188 25.130
testingfor 19---30 carcinogens 104,105,181 isolated chloroplast suspension
seealsocarbohydrates;Lipids;proteins cardiaccycle 166----8 Z77- 78
bioremedfation 450-52 cardiacmuscle 16}-S photosynthesis 261,266.267,Z76,
bio,ensors 296 cardiacoutput 168 U,-00
bio,phen, 441 cardiovasrular disease (CVD) 1@-70 cholera 194----6,232
biOlechnology 467 carotenoids 26, cholesterol 43,75
bi01icf:i<1ors 3H carriers 358---9,469 cholinergicsynapses 319-21
birthweight 386 canilagerings 175,176 chorionicvillussampling 471,472
biuretteSI 30. 45 . 46 Casparianstrip 131,137,138 chromatids 96.99.106
catabolicreactions S6.S7 chromatin 16,96
"'"""
cirrulationsystem 1Sl---{i3,173
excretion and blood water
catalasc 6L62 chromatography 26}-4
Catalogueofllfe 420 chrom060flles 16,9S-102.342- 3
b:ilancc, 297- 305 catalysts 57---{il meio.,is 101,102,345-8.348-9

AN
bloodcc,Jls 152- 3 seeaiS>Jenzymes mitosis 101,102.105---7,108
n,d 49,152,153.1$4 cattle 394-S '"--Theoryoflnheritance 364
"'hites,;ewhitebloodcc,Us cell---a,llre=gnitionsite 94
bloodclottingrnechanism 371,468 cellcyde 102---3 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
bloodglucosc,regulation 292- S celldivi.sion 97- 105 (COPD) 182,184
bloodpressure 187,300 uncontrollOO 104--S cigarettesmoking 181--9
B-lymphocytes 221--4. 225 seeaiS>Jme· ·s· 'to.,'s cilia 21,174.182,183
bodytemperature 250 cellelongation 338 ciliatedepithelium 174,180,IS}
homeostasis 289-91 cell-mOOiatOOimmunity 222 cirrulatorysystem 151---{i3
Bohreffe<1 161 cells 1- 27 CITES (Convention on International Trade in
KH
botanicgardens 446 animal 4--S,IS Endangen,dSpecies) 450
brain 312,314 basicunitsoflivingorgani'lms classes 430
broad-spe<1rumantibiotics 210,213 nikaryotic 22.2}-4,Zl,431 classification 429-39
bronchi 173.174-6 plant 4--5,15,132--4 cLimatcchange 410,443
bronchioles 173,174--7 prokaryotic 22- 5,27,431 Clini'lti,i'"' 70,71,296
Brown,Roben 3 rolesofproteinsin SI clottingfactors 468
Blcrops 485-{i size 2.21,Zl,79--8() codingstrand 125, 126
bulbousheads 249,325,326 specialisation 1 codominamaUeles 355,356
bulktransport 78,93 cellsignaUing 77,295 codons 119,120.121,122
JF

bundlesheathcc,Us 281,282.283 cellsurfacc,membrane 4,S, 14, IS, 16, coenzymeA (CoA) 239
by-passvessels 158 ;+-9<
movementacross 7S-94 cohesion-tensiontheory 141
structure 74--7 collagen 48
c,pathway 200,281,282 celltheory 3.4 coll=:insducrs 291'1,302- 3,30}-S
C,plants 28}-1 cellularrespiration 2}1----59 collenchymacc,Jls 133,134
calorimeter 240 cellulose 37 colourbLindness 359
C.Mncycle 270-1 cellultrastructure 12---14.14--25 combinedoralcontracep1:ivepill 332
cancer 229 cellwaU 4,S, 15, 20,211 combustion 235

~unn!~=:d ~8u\~;;-.;. centralneJVoussystem 312

capillaries 154--6,158,159
networksaroundalveoli 178,179
cap1ivebn,edinsprogramrnes 445
carbaminohaemoglobin 161
carbohydrates 29,30--9,240
carbon 31
carboncompounds 30-53
caJboliydrates 29,30-9
Lipids 29,39---43
proteins 29,44--Sl
centrioles 15,19, 105,107,345.346
communicationsystems 311
endocrinesystem ZSS.291,311,328-33
centrornen,s 96.99.IOS.106,107 , 342, nervoussystem ZSS,291,311,312- 27
343,345,346 community 419
centro,orne 4,5,19 companioncc,lls 133.146,147,148
cen-algrains 395--{i,397,485 comparativeserology 401- 2
CFfRgene 471,475,476 compensationpoint Z74
CFfRprotein 469,470 competitionforresources 383---{i.410
channelproteins 81- 2,94 competitiveexclusion 410-11
chemiosmosis 248,269 competitiveinhibitors 68,69,280
chemoreceptors 315 complementarybasepairins 112,113,115
chemosynthesis 272 us
Cheqpff.~·in 114 complementary DNA (cDNA) 456, 465-{i

SIi

fardeen khan
lkhIndex
an email: jfkhan04@gmail.com
compo,rndlightmicrosrope 2, 6--11
concep1ion 332
condensationreacrion.s 35,SO,lll
conne<1ingcorridors 444
-=tion439--S2
new developments 447- Sl
-=tiven,plicatiooll6
<nntinuous varfation 3S3. 3n,378-9
=ntracep1:ion 332
=ntracep1:ivepill 332
contractilevaruole 2,10,S9
=ntrolandco--0rdination 311-40
mammals 311- 33
plants 311,334-40
Convention on lmemational Trade in
EndangeredSpecies(CITE.5) 4SO
convolutedrubules 296,299.301.303
coordiruitor 286
coraln,efs 410,442
cormorant 417- 18
coronaryaJteries 163
corpuslmcum 330,331
crntex(kidney) 298,29')
counter-eurrentmultiplier 302
<UValentbonding 36,Sl
cows 394-S
Crick,Fraocis 114
criticalvaluesforthet-test 382
KH
cropplantssoeagrirulture
Cf06Singover }iS,346,347,348. 349,400
cryophiles 431
crystaljellytish 463
cyclic AMP (cAMP) 294
cydicphO!ophosphmylation 271- 72
cysticfibrosi.s 469-70,471,HS . 476
cytokinc,sis 101,102,106,107.}iS
cytoplasm 2,4,5,7
cytosine 110,111,112,113.118
JF
cytosol 14
dairyca!de 394-S
dandelion 380
Darwin,Charles 393. 39')
deCOntpo6efS 417
degreesdfreedom 365,381- 2
DEI.L\pro1eins 375
demes 409
<knaruringofproteins S0.64.65
dendrites 312,313
dendroru 312,313
<koxyribonuclekacid(DNA) 98. 100,110,
112-13,114,llS-16
complementa,y (cDNA) 4S6. 465-6
damageduetosmoking 185
DNAprobes 464 .471.482
DNAprofiling 482--4
DNAsequendng 455,464
genemutations 124----6
Sil
andthegene1kcode 118-19 clectronmicrosc~ 4.12- 14
mitochondrial(mtDNA) 402---3 electrontransportchain 239, 243.246,247---9
inproteinsynthe-sis 120 electrophore-sis 464---5
replication 98, llS-17 embryo 332,471- 2
sateUiteDNA 483 embryobiopsy 481
descendinglimbOoopofHenle) 302---3 enibryoselection 481
diabetes 295 entphysema 182
diaphragm 173,177 emulsiontest 30,41
diastole 166---{;7 endangeredspedes 441
diastolkpressure 187 prolection 444----6
differentialrespirometer 258-9 endemicdisease 193
diffusion 78,79--90,128 endocrineglands 328,329
digitalmicroscopy 8 endocrinesystem 291,303. 328-33
dihybridcross 360-63 endocytosis 93
diploid cells/organisms 101,102, endodennis 131,137,136
}42-3. 357 endometrium 329--31
dipoles 36-7,51 endoplasmicn,tirulum 13,lS,16--17
dip.sticks 296 =•qzy
directionalselection 3ff7 controlledtransferinrespiration 234-6
Din,<10bservation,Treaunent.Shortcourse ene'8Yvaluesofn,spiratory
AN
(DOTS) approach 203 substrates 240
disaccilllrides 35---{; fromfatsandoils 42
disrontinuousvariation 353,377,378 photosynthesisasenergytransfer 261- 72
disease 192 andn,spiration 234-S9
enhancersite 374
r:r:~:~:-::~~a:~~s':ase
non-infectious 192 binttmediation 4S0-2
disrup1iveselection 388----9 effectonphenotype 366,360
distal=nvolutedruhule 299,303 environmentalfa<10l"Sandpopulation
disruJbingfactor.i 391- 2 size 386
disulfidebonds 47 Hmitingfacrorontherateof
DNAlig:,se 115, 116.455,4'>8 photosynthe-sis 273---{i
DNAmicroarrays 465-6 enzymes 48, 56--71,94
DNApolymerase 11S-16,45S,4s6--7 concentration 67
DNAprobes 464,471,482 facrorsaffecringacrionof 6}-7
DNAproflling 482--4 inhibitorsof 69---9
DNAsequencing 455,464 modedaction 56---{,3
DNAYiruses 25,439 operationof 62--{;
dodos 414 rateofreaction S7--{;1
Doll, Richard 186 specifidtyof 59
domains 431-3 epidemics 193
domesticationofvdldanimals 394 epi<kmiology 184
dominantalleles 352,357,3@.370.469 epidermis 7,130.1 33,139
doubledrrulation 152.155 epithelium 174
double-erosshybridisation 398 ciliated 174,183
doublehelix 112,113,114 Escbericbiacoli(E.col,) 2.22- 3
drought 143.283,30') gen,etkengineeringofforinsulin
dwarfrnrietie-s 397 production 4S5-{;2
estcrbonds 40
ethics
ecologicalseparation 4()6....g genetechnology 478-9,481,489
e=systems 417,420 gcnctkscreening 479
ecotouri.sm 443 eukaryotes (eukaryota) 433.438
edgeeffect 444 generegulation 374
effector 288.311.314 gcncticmodific~tionof 462
eggcells 329--31 eukaryoticcells 22,2}-4.27,431
elasticconnectivetissue 178,179 evaporation S2- 3
electricalinsulation 42 evolution 399-413
electrocardiography 1@---70 molecular evidence for evolutionary
electroncarrierproteins 94 n,lationships 400-3
fardeen khan
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.coIndex
exdtatorysynapses 319--21
excitedelectrons 168---9
excretion 297---306
m genetechnology 4S4----89
applied!omedidne 467---fl4
principlesof 454-{i6
graincroJlll 395---,8
grana 20. 267,260),279,280
grasses 388
exocytosis 93 social and ethical aspects gratirule 9
expiration 177,178 477---fll,4@ greenfluorescentprotein(GFP)gene 463
expressionvector 460 genctherapy 46S----9. 47s-.81 greysquirrel 448
extinction 409--H genetically-modifledoqpnisms growth movements 334-5
extrncellularenzymes 57 (GMOs) 485-9 growthregulators 335---40
extremophiles 432,432,438 geneticcode 110,118-26 guanine 111,112,113.118.119
eyepieceleru 6 gencticcounselling 473 guardcells 139,307---fl
genetic crosses
dihybrid 360-3
fadlimeddiffusion 81- 2, 316 monohrbrid 3SQ----9 habitats 417,418,420
factorVHI 468 probabilityin 364-5
families 430 geneticdictioruiry 118.122,124 restorationofdegrnded 450-2
familypedigrec, 36S-70,473,474 gencticdisorders 359,479 stability 440
fats 39--"13,239 cys!icfibrosis 4@-70,471,475.476 hacmgroup 49
see also lipids haemophilia 371,468,474 haemoglobin 49, 160--2. 173,401
fattyacids 39,40,239 screeningfor 4@---74,479 haemoglobinicadd 161

AN
ferns 436 sicklecellanaemiaseesicklecell haemophilia 371. 468,474
fertilisa!ion }4}-4,3SO anaemia/trait halophytes 431
in-dlro 447,479---61 geneticdiversity 442- 3 handlens 6
fibres 132,133 gencticdrif! 392 hap[oidceUs/organisrns 101,102,343,357
fibrin 48 geneticenginec,ring 454--5 Hardy- Weinbergformula 390---3
fibrouspro!eins 48 health
finches 407---fl :r:i=:bi~;~~;:.uman insulin smokingand 181---9
flaccidity 84,85,86. 88 production 455---{;2 se<ia/sodisease;infectiousdisease
flaseHa 21 markcrsfor 462---3 bean 15(16}-70
heanblock 169.170
KH
flavineadeninedinucleotide(FAD) geneticfingerpriming 455.464.482--1
238,239 genetics 378-2 he~n ra!e 168
floweringplams 436 inheritance },2-74 heavymetalion!olcrance 404
cornmunicationandcontrol 334---40 geneticscreening 4$---74,479
fluid lllOllaic model of membrane geneticvariation 348-9,377---fl3.400.40L hcmkclluloses 39
structure 76.77
fluorescemmarl<ers 463
folliclestimula!inghormone(FSH) 329---31
"'
genomes 372,405,467
genomics 467
hepaticportalvcin 154
herbidde-resistantcrop;s
herbicide,, 451
487---9

forensicinvestigations 48}-4 genotype 350,353,357

fossils 439--40 genus 416,429.430 herdimmunity 232
JF

foundereffect 392 geographicisolation 405---{,, #4 heredity 342- 75

Franklin.Rosalind 114 gennina!ion 339 heterotrophs 2}!
freezee!ching 13,14 giantiguanalizards 406---7 heterozygosity 350,354,357
functionalgrouJlll 32,44--5 gibberellicacid 339 HiUreaction l.77---fl
fungi 69,431,435,438 gibberellins 336.337,339-40,375 histology l}t
gliacells 313 histone 99,100
globularpro!eins 48,57,76 HIV/AI DS 204--7
Galapagoslslands 406---7 glomerulus 298,29') homeostasis 286---309
game!es 34}-4,3SO glucagon 293,294 mammals 286---306
gameiogenesis 344 glucose 31.305 plants 307---9
gaseousexchange 172---,80 bloodglucose 292---{J
geneexpression 372 gluco,eoxidase 296 homologouschrornosomepairs 98,343,
gene mutations.we mutations glycerol 39.40 },5-7,348-9,350
genepools 389-92,405.419,442 glycocalyx 76 homozygosity 3SO, 354, 357, 442---3
geneprobes 464 glycogen 4,39 honeybees 366,300
generaltranscrip:ionfactors 396-7 glycolipids 76 Hooke, Roben 3
generegulation 372--5 glycolysis 239,243.244
genes 118,119.342,372 glycoprotcins 76, 220 endocrinesys!em 288.291,312,328-33
isolatingforgenetechnology 46}-4 glycosidicbonds 35,50 in!hemensuualcyde 329--31
rolesinde!erminingthe glyphosate 488---9 se<ia/sounderindiddualnames
phenotype 3S0-71 goble!cells 174,175 human-drivenextinction 41}-14
see also genetics Golgiappararus 15, 17, 18 Human Genome P"*"'- (HGP) 464, 471

513

fardeen khan
lkhIndex
an email: jfkhan04@gmail.com
human population growth 333, ~40---1
humoralimmunity 222
Huntington'sdisease 370
hybridomacclls 228
hybridvigour 396
hydrogenbonds 36, 47,51,52,82
hydrolysisreaction 35 , SO
hydrophilicproperties 37,42,53,75
hydrophobkpropenies 37,42. 53,75
hyperglycaemi.i 292
hypenonicsolutions 86
hypillle 435
hypoglycaemia 292
hypothalamus 290-1,303,304, 328,
329, 330
hypotonicsolutions 86
i<kmiftcationusingDNAprdi.Ling
4S3,48'l
iguanaLizards 406--7
immobilised enzymes 70-1
immuneresponse 219--24,225
immuncsystem 218-25
immunity 218-32
amibodies andvaccination 226---32
immunocompromised patients 205
immunologicalstudies 401- 2
impulses 312. 31S...-16
inbreedingdepression 389
independemassonmem }iS---9,360,
361,400
indoleaceticadd([AA) 336- 337
inducedfithypo(hesis 60--l
inducibleenzymes 373
indusufalcatalysts 69--71
indusufalsolvents 452
infammortality 386
JF
infecriousdisease 192- 215
amibioticsandtreatmeruof 210-15
casesrudies 194-210
inflammation and immunity 218-32
infertility 479---fll
inflammation 21S.-19, 220
inhibi!ors 66---9
inhibitorysynapses 321
inorgankions 144----6
insecticides 4S1
insect-resistantcrops 48H
inspiration 177,178
insulin 293,294,295,468
productionbygeneticengineeringol
E<cbericbi<acoli45H2
integralproteins 76
interoilmeddiscs 16}-4
inten:oswlmuscles 173,177
intemaltransponsystems
heanasapump 16}-70
mammals 151- 70
plants l;is....l9
514
lmemational Union for the Conservation lignin 132
ofNature([UCN)RedLis!oflllreatened limitingfactors 27}-78
Species 4H llncolnlndex 425, 426
imerphase 102---3 linetranse<1 423
interspedficcompetition 419 linkreaction 243-S
imerventionstudies lSS lipidbilaye r 75,76,82. 90
intracellular enzymes S7 lipids 30,39----43
intraspeciflccompetition 419 respiratorysubstrates 239. 240
introns 463 lipo60mes 47S,476
invasivespecies 440,----9 liverceUs 294---S
in-drroknilisa!ion([VF) 447,480--81 'lockandkey'hypothesis S9
iodine!est 3(),38 torus 3"2.343,3'xi,3S7
ionchanncls 317- 18 loop of Henle 298, 29'), 302
ionconcentrationregulation 303 lungcancer 1S2,183-S
ionicbonds 47 lungs
ioniccompounds S3 gaseousexchangc 173-SO
transponolrespiratorygases 160----3
irre,,ersibleinhibitors 69 luteinising hormone (LH) 329-31
isletsollangerhans 293.294 lymphatic system 1S9, 160
lymphcapillaries 158--{iO
AN
isotonicsolutions 86
ivorypoaching 413 lymphducts(lymphatics) 1S9, 160
lymphnodes 160
J lymphocytes 153,219-25
Japaneseknotwred 449 antigen-antibodyreacrion 221-l . 225
B-lymphocytes 221-l . 22S
T -Jymphocytes 204----06, 221-l, 22S
lysosomes lS,19
ketones 305 lysozyme 48
KH
ketoses 32
kidneys 297- 306
kinases 295 macromolecules 36,SO, 110
kingdoms 430,431,434---37 soealsopolysaccharides;proteins
knotweed 449 macrophages 19,93, 178,179,219,220
Krebscycle 24}-5 222,223
magnesiumions 144,146
magnification 10-11
laboratory-based investigations magpies 429
Lack. Da,id 407-8 maize 261.282
/acoperon 37}-4,460 Btmaize 48H
Jactase 61 selectivebreeding 393----8
la<1kacidfennentation 253.254 major histocompatibiLi!y complex
lacrose 36 (MHC) 220-1
la!entheatofvaporisation S2---3 majormineralelements 145
UlwoflndependemAssonmem 360 malaria 197---9,232,389. 467
UlwofSegregation 352 malecirrumcision '207
lea,·es 130 malignam rumours 104
waterstress 309 Malpigltianbody 298.m
leeuwenhoek,Anthonyvan 3 maltose 36
leucoq1esse<1whi!ebloodceUs
leu=vlasts 20,38 controlandco-ordination 311- 33
Jifeexpectancy 333 homeostasis 206---306
ligase 115,116.4<;8 internal transpon 151- 70
light 262 markers 462---3
intensityasalimitingfactorin mark,releaseandrecapture(MRR)
photosynthesis 274---5.276 technique 425-26
light-dependent stage of massextincrionevents 409
photosynthesis 266-70 mass flow 129, 147
light-independent stage of Mauritius 41}-14
photosynthesis 266, 270-2 measles 208---9,232
lightmicroscopy 2,6--11,108 m<."Chanorereptors 315
fardeen khan
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.coIndex
medicine 467- S&l
medulla 296,m.302
meiosis 101- 2,3,42---49
m M),cobacrerium1ubercu/asis 200
myelinsheath 313,319
mrOObrils 322,323
see,a/solipids
oilspills 4S0-1
oogenesis }t4
melanin 379 myosinfllaments 249-S0,324 operatorgene 373,374
membranepro1eiru 76,94 mrxornatosis 385,449 oralrehydrationpack 195,196
membranetransponmechanism.s 78-93 orders 430
memorycclls 223,224 organelles 4,25
Mendel.Gregor 339. 3S0,3S1,364 NAD(nicotinamideadenine suucrureandfunction 14--22
menstrualcycle 329-31 dinudeotide) 237,236. 267 organicacids 308
Merlin 427 NADP(nirotinamideadeninedinudeotide organic compounds 29-53.S7.S8. 262
mesophyllccUs 130,281,281 phosphate) 266,267 orgarusms
mesophytes 142 ccllsasthebasicunitsci 14--TJ
messenger RNA ( mRNA) 113, 120, 124 naruralimmuniry 224,231 classiflcatlonof 429-38
4S6---7,463 naruralselecrion 38}-93 osmoregulation 296,303-5
metabolic,..is!e 297- 305 evolutionby 399---400 O'lffiO'liS 78,82---9()
metabolic,..i!er 42 narurereserves 444--S ovariancyde 329-31
metabolism 14,S6--7 negativecorrelatlon 426 ovaries 328,329-31
metabolites 56 negatlvefeedback 288,306,330 overpopulation 333
metaphase 105.107.3,4S.346,347,348 Neo-Darwinism 400 oxidativephosphorylatlon 243,246
nephrons 296.299 oxygentranspon 160---1.162- 3

AN
metastasis 104,183
nervoussystem 288,290,291,312- 22 oxygendissociationrurve 160,161
Michaeli'l-Mentenconstant 67 neuromuscu.larjunctions 324---S oxyhaemoglobin 160,161,162
microhabi!at 417,418 neurones 312- 22
microme!er(micron) 2,4 neutrophils 219,220
microscopy 1- 14,108 newborn scn,ening 472 Padniancoipusde 315
ele<1ronmic!06COpy i, 12- 14 niches 417- 18 paddyf\elds 255-7
lightmicrosropy 2,6-11.108 p;,ncreas 293.294,328"
microrubules 19 (NAD) 237, 238. 267 pandemicdisease 193
migration 393 Paramecium 411,434
KH
nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide
Mimosa pudic,a 33S phllllphate(NADP) 266,267 p;,rasites 467
mineraldeflcieocyinplams 145---{i nicotine 181,1S6 parenchymacells 133,134
mineral elements, major 14S seea/5vsrnoking partialpermeability 82,83
mitod!ondria 1S,18,2S, 247,248.2Sl.322 nitrmeions 144,14S partial pressure ~9, 161. 162, 100
mitod!ondrial DNA (mtDNA) 402- 3 ni!rifyingbacreria 272 passiveimmunity 208,231
mitosis 99,101----8,343,3,44 norlesciRanv:ier 313.314,319 passivesmoking 182
chromosome behaviour 105---,8 non-eompe1itiveinhibitors 68,{:f) Pas!eur.louis 3
~™Rvaccine 208,2(1) non-qclicphotophosphorylatlon U:l).T/2 paternity 484
molecules 26,27 non-governmo,ntaloq;;anisations 4SO pathogens 193
JF

biological 29-S3 non-infecriousdiseases 192 peaplants 339-40. 3so-.J,36o-2

monodonalantibodies 226---30 non-regula!ors 287 Pearson'slinearcorrelatlon 426,427
monohrbridcr05ll 3SO-S9 non-relfpro1:eins 204,219,221,224 pectin, 39
monolayer,lipid 75 non-venebrmeanimals 437 pentoses 34
monomers 36. SO noradn,nalin 319 peptidebonds 4S,46,S0
monosaccharides 31- (36,SO nucleardivision 97- 105 pericardium 163
Morgan, Thomas 364 meiosis 101- 2,34}-9 pericycle 131
morningafterpill 333 mitosis 99.101----8.3'l3,3,4S periphernlnervowsystem 312
mosquitoes 197--99 nuclearenvelope lS,16 periphernlproteiru 76
mosses 436 nucleic adds SO, 110-17 pennaneruvacuole lS,20
motorneurones 312,313 nucleolus 15,16 pesticides 451
MR.'iA (med!idllin resistant SiapbJ•lococcus nucleotides 22,110-12,238-9 petrification 440
m,reus) 212.213,387 nucleotldesequencc 368
multicellular organisms 2, 97
multldrug-resi'liam TB (MOR-TB) 201, 202
DNAsequencing 455.464
nucleus 4.5,7----8,15,16. 97----8
'" cffectonenzymes 65
blood 303
multiplealleles 356 nullhypothesis 381 pha8'X}1e~ 153. 219
mwdecontraction 249-S0,322- 27 pha8'X}10Sis 93,219
mutagens 367 phenotype 350-71
mutations 124--S,367- 71,393 objecrivelens 6 cffectofenvironmo,m 366,360
andcancer 104--S oedema 160 cffectofmutatlons 367--41
genetlcdisorders 469,471 oestrogen 329----31 phenrlketonuri.i(PKU) 472
myastheniagrav:is 224 oils 39-H phloem 129.132,133,146----9

SIS

fardeen khan
lkhlnde,
an email: jfkhan04@gmail.com
phloemtt:lnspo!t

,_,,,
p!Kl6pholipids
1"47-9
39,H-3, 74--S

poooopOOSphorylotion Uil,Uf),271-2
pholoreccptors 315
phomresplra1lon ?8),281
photo.1yn1hcsls 130.261---fl3
adaplatiorufor 279413
-
prey--ptt<latorpopulationOfidllation

positivccorn,latlon 426
posHygotlc rcprodoclivcisolation
pconiumchannels 317-18
pcossiumions 317
»dium-poo,ssium ion pump 92
po(omctcr 141,142
1(19
Q
quadr:1.1:1 421,422
quatcnuryinsulinprodoction 460-1
quatcmary:1trucrurcofapro1cin 49,226

rabbic,; 384----S,449
rainforcstdestruction 412,441-2
asencrgytr:m~er 261- 72 prcgnancytcsting 229,230 random assonmem }16-9, 360. 361. 400
environmcntondr:m,of 27}-6 prcnatal...::rttning 471- 2 r:andomfu,ion 348,400
timitinsfactor5 Zl}-78 pl'C'SSIJl'Cflowhypoihesis 148.119 r:andom sampling 421, 422
process 266-72 prcssurcpotential 8'1----S rc:alw>rption 301.303--06
phou)systcms 261-69 preventive health l"C'«J)IOIS n,9'i,298.306,j l4
phylum 130 CVD ,.,_. s,m,sory 31S

-
pigeoov:uictics 393 lnf«1iousdiscase 193.196.198-9. rcccssivc,allcic,; JS2.J57.3$-70.469
pillOC')'006is 93 201-2.206--7,208 rccomhinantDNA 4',1
piruii:uyglalld 303-5,320,J28,330 pl'C')'--f)t"Cdtorpopulationoo:cillalion ~nantplasmidli159-6)
pl~r11.3 332 rccomhinanC!l 348,360
plandiagrams(tissue maps) 134 p rc-zygoticrcproducth'eisolation 1(19 rC'dbloodcells 49,SO,IS2.

AN
plank1on 384 primarypumps 147, 146 153,154
plamcells 4-5.IS.130, 133,134.136-40 prima,ystnicturcofpro1cins 45. red,r=ncolourblindncss 359
plamgrowlhrcgulators 33S,-4() 48.226 RcdListof11Ircatcw,dSpcdcs 44 1
plants 43L.·H6.438 prol»bility 364--S rcdm:rcactions 237,U:,J.

-~""
rontroland<:<>-<>rdination 3}4----40 produccn 417 rcducingrug,tr5 30,32-4
cropplanl5seeagriculrure protllctranllttl 423.424 rcfle:xarcs 314
flowcri1133~0,-'\36 proscstcronc j29---31 rcfr:actory~l(,6,318
homeoMllsis 307-9 prok:uyofa 37}-4,431,4JJ. 438
imemaltranspon 123-49 prol<:uyoliccc:lls 22- S,Zl,'131 rcgul:Uorygcncs 373
KH
06ltl0a5in~ prophasc 105, 107,345--6.}'18 rcby n,,urooes 312,313,314
phol06)'fllhesisSNphorosyn~sl!i pro,ct>ctlcgroup 49 rcnalcapsulc 298,299-300
plasnu IS2.1S3. 1s-4 pro1cinflwrt=c,; 324,325-7 rcplkalionofDNA 198, 115-17,211
plasnucell5 219.223 proicinpump, 90--2.94. 144 rcplkatlonforks 115
plasmids prolcins 3(),44--51 . 305 rcprcssibleemymC11 373
R-plasmids 460.461 lnblood IS2 reprcsaormolcrule 37}-4
Tiplasmid 467 channclproicins 81---3,94 reproductivcisolatlon 406.409
vectorforinw~ngcnc 4S&-(,O tknaruringof S0,6S rcsolutlon(rcsolvingpowcr) ll
plasmodesm:ua 20,U7 functionsolmembran,,protciru respiration 2}'1-59
Plasmodium 197-8, 19),467 76.94 :acrobicl72,24M2.~.262
JF

pbsmoly&is 85.86.ffl-8 humanpro(rinsandtrc:aunc,111of :uucrobic 2S}-S7

plastids 20.38 disease '468-9 rnffrollcdtnn,;fcrofcncrgy 2}'1-7
platdeu IS).154 rC9piratorysubstrat"5 23'),240 =pirarorygn=pon 160-1
rolcsof SI =piraroryquoticnt(RQ) 241
'""""'"
poi5005 $ JOO respiratorysurbcc,i 173
polarmolec\Llc:I 36,Sl,S2,90 pro!cinleqUNtOedata400--I rucpirometcr 2S7-9
polygcnicinheritance 378-9 prolcinsynthc.'lis llS-26.211 m;tlngpotentlal 316
polymerascchainrcaction(PCR) stages 120-2 m;trictioncnzyme(rc•triction
·457,483 prolcome 4'>1 cndonoclca..,) 4S5,458.459.464
polymers 50. 110 prolcornk• 467
polynudCO(idcs 112 proloctisU 431,4.}t,438 revc....., transcripUse
455.456
see1llsonuclcicacids prolonpumps 337,338 R-gnJUp., 32,44----S
polypeptides 4S.l1S prolO·O<U;Qf!Cr>CS IQ,I ribonu~icadd(RNA) 110.113
seetllsoprotcins proxinu!convolmedrubuk m.301 me"1lCfl8C"RNA(mRNA) 113.120. 123,
polysaccharides 36-9,50,76 pulmonaryancry 178.179 124,4S6---7,-463
polysomc 122 pulmon;uyrirrubtion IS4 ribo&omal 432
polyuns:uuratcdf3ts 41 pulmona,yvcin 178,179 tran.sfcrRNA(tRNA) 113, 121 .. 123
populaliongcnefics 389----393 pulse 1(,6 riboMlmaJRNA 432
populalioru 389,419 pump proteins 90--2.94, I« ~ l S . 16,17, 18, 120,121,122
HUC11.1ationofpb11ktonpopul:Kion• 384 Punn,,ngid 3S3 ribul,...,biphosJ»la(c(RuBP) 270,271
humanpopulationg"""'lh pyraOORring 31 ""'YJ6
m.,wo..1

"'
fardeen khan
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.coIndex
swampplants 255- 7
vitaminAenhanced 486---7
RNA polymerase 120
m smoothendoplasmicn,tirulum(SER)
15.16.17
smoothmuscle 175,176
synap1icdefi 319,320
synergism 337
systemiccinculation 154
RNAviruses 25,429 sodiumchannels 317- 18 systole 166-7
roothairs 131,13S-7 sodium-potassiumionpump 92 systolicpres.sure 187
roots 131 soils.bioremedi.itionof 451- 2
roughendoplasmkn,tirulum(RER) solutcpotential &l.85
15,16,17 solvents tachycardia 169,170
R-plasrnids 460,461 industrial 452 targetcells 329
rubisco 270,280.261 water as a solvem 53 targetorgans 328
somaticgcnetherapy 475,476 taxonomy 429---39
sorghum 143.281,283 telomeres 101
sourceareas 147, 148 telophase 111 , 105,107,345,346,348
saltatO<yconduction 319 Southemblooing 482 tempera run,
sarcolemma 163,164.322 Spearman'srankcorrelation 426,427 bodytemperarun, 2S0,289-91
sarcomen.-s 324 specialisationofcells 6 andrnteofphotosynthesis 275---{,
sarcoplasmkretirulum 322.323 speciation 386-9,403-9 andrnceofn,actionofenzymes 6}--5
sateUiteDNA 483 species 403-4,416--17,429-30 andrnteofn,spiration 252,257--9
saruratedtriglycerides 41 - 2 alienandin,11sive 448-9 temperarun,coefficient 65

AN
scalebars 9,10 biodiversity see biodiversity tertiarystructureofaprotein 47,48,226
scanningeleCTronmicroscopy 13 genetkdiversityandevolutionofnew testcross 357
Schleiden.Manhias 3 species 442- 3 dihybrid 362
Schwann,Theodor 3 Spedes2000programme 420 monohybrid 354
Schwanncells 313 specifichemcapacity 52 testes 326
secondary pumps 147,148 specificity o f enzymes 59-4> testisdeterminingfactor(Il)F) 357-6
secondarystructun,ofaprOlein sperm }t3-4 testosterone 329
47, 48,226 spermatogene-sis 344 testsforbiologicalmolccule-s 29---30
secondmessenger 294 sphygmomanometer 187 lipids 41
spin.alcord 312 non-reducingsugars 35
KH
seedbanks 44{,
selection 383----96 spindle 19,105,106, 107, 346,347,3,48 proleins 45. 46
aniftcial(selectivebn,eding) 393-S spon,s 435 reducingsugars 32-4
natural 383-93.39')-400 stabilisingselection 386 starch 38
selectivepn,dation 392 stagemicrometer 9 therapeutic ~bonions 481
semi-conservativen,plication 116--17 staining 464.4155 thermopltile-s 431
semilunarvalves 164,165 starch 6. 30. 38 thermon,ceptors 315
sensecells 315 statisticaltests 380-2. 426 thermon,gulation 189-91
sensoryneurones 312,313 Stele 131 thickfilaments 324
serum 401 stem 129 thinfilaments 324
JF

seven,combinedimmunodeflciency stemelongation 339-40 thinse<1ions 12.13

(SCJD) 4@ steroids 43 thorax 173,177
sex chromosomes 357--9 stimuli 312,318 thresholdofstimulation 318
sexdetermin.ation 357~ stomata 130, 139-40, 307--9 thylakoidmembranes 20,267,268. 269,
sex-Linkedcharn<1eristk:s 3':>8 openingandclosingof 308---9 V,,,00
sexualn,producrion 343-4,3SO striatedmusde 322- 7 thymine 110,lll,112,113,118,119
shag 417- 18 strokevolume 168 thyroidgland 326
skklecellanaemi.i/trait SO, 125,126.232 stroma 269,270. 'Z79. 280 thyroxin 291
355,368,388-9 strucruralgene-s 373 Tiplasmid 487
n,sistancetomalaria 196.389 subcutaneousfat 42 tissuefluid 157--4:l
sieveplate 146,147 sub-species(varietie-s) 404 . .06 tissuemaps(plandi.igrams) 134
sieverubes 133,146,147,141!149 substrate 59 tissues,exchangein 156-60
Simpson's Diversitylndex 427 concentration 66 T-lymphocytes (CDt helper cells) 204----6,
sinkan,as 147,148,149 sucro,;e 35---{i 221-4 . 225
sinoatrialnode(SAnode)(pacemaker) 168 sugars 30, 31--9 tonoplast 20
sizen,lationships 26---7 surfacean,a : volume ratio 79---,61 trachea 17~
skeletal muscle 322- 7 surfactant cells 178,179 transcription 120,211
skin 289-90 'survivalofthetlnest' 400 transcriptionfa<1ors 374--5
sliding-filamenthypothesis 32S-7 sympatricsp,,ciation 408 transects 42}-4
smallpox 210,232 symplast pathways 137, 138 transfercells 147,148
smoking 181--9 syn.apses 319-22 transferRNA(tRNA) 113,121

517

fardeen khan
lkhIndex
an email: jfkhan04@gmail.com
transfonnedbacreria 459--4)
transgenicoq;anisms 4S4
transl3tion 121- 2,123
transJocation 146----9
transmission electron
micrograph.s(fH,I) 13
transrnittersubstances 319--21
transpiration 139--42,307
transpirationstream 14()-41
internalseeimemaltr:msponsystems
membrane transpon mf'Chanisms
tricuspidvalve-s 164,165
triglycerides 39--42.240
triosephosphate 270-1
trioses 34
tripletrodes 118,119.122---4
tropicalpl3nts 280-3
tropomyosin 325, 326
troponin 325,326
r-test 360-2
ruberrulosis(fB) 100-3.232
tumour-<1ssociatedantigeru(fAA)
tumours 104. 183
tumom.suppressinggenes 104
tuq;idity 84.85,86.88
ruq;orpressure 307,308
ultral\Jtrntion 29.}---300
unkellularoqpnisms 1.2,97
aquatic 89
unsaturatedtriglrcerides 41- 2
uracil 110,111,113
urea '1!)7,296
urine 29S-305
analysi.'lindiagnosis
JF
uterioecyde 329-31
vaccination 201 - 2,206,208,209
210,231- 2
vacuolc,s 4,5
518
=ntractile 89 propeniesof 52---3
permanent 15.20 waterpcuential 83-4,85, 86--7, 136
waterpotentialgradient 83
bean 164----6 water-prOOO.ng 42
veins 156 Wa!SOll,James 114
vanderWaalsforces 57 waxes 43
vari3blcnumbertandemsrepeats wheat 396-7
(VNfRs) 483 whitebloodcellsOeucocytes) 153,154,
vari3tion 348-9, 377-83,400, 401. 420 219,224
varieties(sub-species) 404. 417 lymphocytessrelymphocytes
vasarecta 302- 3 phagocytes 153.219
vascularbundles 129,130 Wilkins,Maurice 114
vasculartissue 129,130 wilting 88, 307
World Health Oqpnisation (WHO) 203
forgenetherapy 475 World Wide Fund for Natun, (WWF) 450
transterringdisease 197
veins 154-{i
venacava 154.155 Xchromosome 357- 59
ventilation mechanism 173,177 xeromorphicfeatures 143
AN
ventricles 164.165 xerophytes 142--3
ventriculardiastole 166,166 xylem 129,132
ventricularfibrillation 169.170 xylemvessels 132
ventricularsystole 166,167, 168
229 venules 155,156
Venusflytrap 337
v,, _ _ 357---8
venebrmeanimals 437 yeast 252,435,462
vesides 93 yield 397,485-7
V.briocbo/eme 194
KH
Victoria,Queen 474
Virchow,Rudolf 3 Zlines 324
viruses 25---{\l.7, 212.438-9.475 zoological gardcns(zoos) 445
vitaminA e nhanredrice 486--7 zygoie 350
Wakcfield,Andrew 209
Wallace,Alfn,dRussel 399
water 36,51- 3, 90
305 -=tioninlheloopofHenle
30'-ol
excretion and blood water
balance 297---306
lossduringgasexchange 175,176
metabolic 42
movementthroughaplam 13s--43
fardeen khan
lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
Acknowledgements m
The publishers would like co thank the foUowing for permission to
reproduce copyright material
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p.5 1 ClJ.C. REVY. ISM/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY. r Cl Gene Cox:
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KH
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ning!Science Photo Library; p.220 e Gene Cox; p .227 Cl Science
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Library, r Cl LIU JIN/AFP/Geny lmage-s; p.249 Cl Medical-on- Line/
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p.428 CJ Clegg; p.429 1 Cl idp wildlife collection/Alamy, me Lip
519
fardeen khan

lkhan email: jfkhan04@gmail.co
m
Kee I h!tp,//wv,,w.flkkr.rom/photo,/lipkee/5657636385/sizes/o/in/
pool-42637302@NOO/ http://creativecommons.oqyLicerues/by-sa/2.0,
r Cl FI.PA I ALamy; p.430 I Cl Mauricio Antoo/Sdeoce Phom llbr:11y,
me DDniki - Foiolia, r Cl Gerry EUis/Minden Pktun,s/R.PA; p.434 r
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Assoda!es/Science Pho!o Library
KH
r - !op, b - bottom. I - left, r - right. m - middle
Past examioation questions reproduced by pennis.sion of University
of Cambridge lmernational Examinations
An work and dam cr<.'tll!,o:
pp.1'! 5.5 Table 7.3 adap!ed frcmj.Booner and A.W. Galston
Principles ol Plam Physiology (W.H.Frceman, 1958); p.1 57 Figure
JF
8.6 from Colin Clegg (revised by S.lngham) from Exercise Physiology
and Functional Anatomy (Feltham Press, 1995), reproduced by
permission of the author: p.1 66 Figure 8.15 H.G.Q. Rowen, adapied
from BasicAna!omy & Physiology. 3/e (John Murray, 1987); p.184
Table 9.2 from Raymond Pearl. 'fobacco Smoking and longevity'
from Science .. 2253 (4 Manch 1938); p.184 Table 9.3: Data on
smoking, American Cancer Society, from http://txrwri!er.com/
onscience/Ospictures/smoltlngcancer2.2.jpg; p.185 Figure9.1S
fromCancerReseanchUK.httpJ/wv,,'W.cancerresearchuk.orsJ
canccr-infWcancerstats/type,;,llungs/indde nce; p.J88 Figure9.19
World Health Organisation, from http://www.who.int/whr/1999/
eo/whr99_ch.S_en.pdf, Figure 9.20a National Institutes of Health,
from httpJ/en.wikipedia.orsfwiltl/File:Cancer_smoking_lung_
cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg (IS August, 2007), Figure 9.20b.
World Health Organisa!ion, from wv,,w.who.int/whr/1999/eo/
whr99_ch5_en.pfd(ISAugust,2007): p.1 94Figure 10.2re-usedfrom
Alas!ll.ir Gray, \lbrld Health and Disease (Open University Press
198S). reproducedbypennissionofthe author; p . 197 Figure 10.7
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71.(1996); p.202 Figure 10.14adap1edfromS.J .G. Kavanagh and
520
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Control (23 April 2010), hnpJ/en.wikipe<lfa.oqvwiki/File:measles_
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Permission for re-use of all Cl Crown Copyright information is
gramed under the terms of the Open Government Licence (OGl).
Thanksareduetothefollo"ingsourcesofinspirationanddatafor
illustrative figures
p .59 Fig 3.3 Random collision possibilities adapied from Dianne Gull
and Bernard Brown. 'Enzymes: fast and flexible'. Biological Sciences
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Scientific Americ.:in Inc. 293:3
Every effort has been made to trace all cop}Tight holders, but if any
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make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
fardeen khan