BS 06349-1-1-2013 PDF

BS 6349-1-1:2013
BSI Standards Publication
Maritime works –
Part 1-1: General – Code of practice
for planning and design for
operations
BS 6349-1-1:2013 BRITISH STANDARD
Publishing and copyright information

The BSI copyright notice displayed in this document indicates when the document
was last issued.
© The British Standards Institution 2013
Published by BSI Standards Limited 2013
ISBN 978 0 580 76228 4
ICS 47.020.99
The following BSI references relate to the work on this document:
Committee reference CB/502
Draft for comment 13/30250705 DC
Publication history
First published as BS 6349-1, April 1984
Second edition as BS 6349-1, July 2000
Third (present) edition, September 2013
Amendments issued since publication

Date Text affected
BRITISH STANDARD BS 6349-1-1:2013
Contents
Foreword iv
Section 1: General 1
1 Scope 1
2 Normative references 1
3 Terms, definitions, symbols and abbreviations 2
Section 2: The maritime environment 12
4 Environmental considerations 12
5 Bathymetric and topographic surveys 13
5.1 Survey control 14
5.2 Bathymetric surveys 15
5.3 Other surveys for seabed or subsurface hazards 19
6 Meteorological and oceanographic considerations and data
acquisition 19
6.1 General 20
6.2 Particular considerations for surveys and data analysis 21
7 Meteorological effects 25
7.1 General 25
7.2 Wind 25
7.3 Precipitation 26
7.4 Air temperature and humidity 27
7.5 Visibility 27
7.6 Atmospheric pressure 27
7.7 Solar radiation 28
8 Water levels 28
8.1 Water level effects 29
8.2 Seiches 29
8.3 Surface water run-off 29
8.4 Long-term sea level trends 30
9 Currents and water movement 30
10 Waves 31
11 Water quality 33
11.1 General 33
11.2 Water temperature 33
11.3 Chemical composition 34
11.4 Turbidity 34
11.5 Marine life 35
11.6 Pollution 35
12 Sediment transport 35
12.1 General 35
12.2 Assessing the present sediment transport regime 36
12.3 Assessing impacts of works on sediment transport 45
Section 3: Safety and operational considerations 47
13 Operational considerations for planning and design 47
13.1 General 47
13.2 Facility operating manual 47
14 Health and safety 48
15 Control of pollution and discharges to the sea 49
15.1 Vessel’s waste 49
© The British Standards Institution 2013 • i

15.2 Port wastewater and surface run-off 50

16 Port and maritime security 50
17 Design working life 50
18 Vessel data 51
19 Navigation channels and ship manoeuvring 53
19.1 General 53
19.2 Planning and design studies 53
19.3 Vertical channel and manoeuvring area dimensions 55
19.4 Horizontal channel and manoeuvring area dimensions 60
20 Berths and mooring 66
20.1 General 66
20.2 Mooring and mooring conditions 69
21 Operability and weather downtime 75
22 Design operating conditions 76
23 Maintenance 77
Annexes
Annex A (informative) Organizations with a role in coastal activities in the
United Kingdom 78
Annex B (informative) Metocean data acquisition 80
Annex C (informative) Sediment transport data acquisition 88
Annex D (informative) Key dimensions of ships for preliminary design
purposes 89
Annex E (informative) Guidance on assessment of acceptable wave conditions
for moored vessels 101
Bibliography 107
List of figures
Figure 1 – PIANC channel depth factors 56
Figure 2 – PIANC definition of channel and fairway 61
Figure 3 – PIANC definition of elements of channel width 61
Figure 4 – Considerations for layout and separation distances of oil and gas
tanker berths 68
Figure 5 – The six degrees of freedom of vessel motion 72
Figure D.1 – Dimensions for LNG vessels related to gas capacity 90
Figure D.2 – Dimensions for LPG vessels related to gas capacity 91
Figure D.3 – Dimensions for liquid bulk carriers and tankers related to DWT 92
Figure D.4 – Dimensions for liquid bulk carriers and tankers related to DWT
(carriers up to 50 000 DWT) 93
Figure D.5 – Dimensions for dry bulk carriers related to DWT 94
Figure D.6 – Dimensions for dry bulk carriers related to DWT (carriers up
to 50 000 DWT) 95
Figure D.7 – Dimensions of container ships related to TEU capacity 96
Figure D.8 – Dimensions of general cargo ships related to DWT 97
Figure D.9 – Dimensions of Ro-Ro ferries related to lane length 98
Figure D.10 – Dimensions of cruise ships related to passenger capacity 99
List of tables
Table 1 – Indicative design working life categories for maritime works 51
Table 2 – Typical planning and design activities for channels and manoeuvring
areas according to design stage 54
ii • © The British Standards Institution 2013

Table D.1 – Approximate values of displacement from nominal ship

capacity 100
Table D.2 – Typical ranges of Cb 100
Table E.1 – Wave criteria from small craft 101
Table E.2 – Wave climate criteria for small craft considering extreme events 102
Table E.3 – Recommended maximum velocity limits 1 000 DWT
to 8 000 DWT 103
Table E.4 – Guidance on maximum motion criteria for safe working
conditions 104
Table E.5 – Recommended maximum motion criteria for safe working conditions
of Ro-Ro vessels 104
Table E.6 – Guidance on maximum allowable significant motion amplitude
conditions for container ships for (un)loading efficiency of 95% 105
Table E.7 – Surge criteria for container ships for (un)loading efficiency
of 95% 105
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to vi,
pages 1 to 110, an inside back cover and a back cover.
© The British Standards Institution 2013 • iii

Foreword
Publishing information
This part of BS 6349 is published by BSI Standards Limited, under licence from
The British Standards Institution, and came into effect on 30 September 2013.
It was prepared by Technical Committee CB/502, Maritime works. A list of
organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on request to its
secretary.
Supersession
Together with BS 6349-1-2, BS 6349-1-3 and BS 6349-1-4, this part of
BS 6349 supersedes BS 6349-1:2000, which will be withdrawn when all four of
the new subparts have been published.
Relationship with other publications

BS 6349 is published in the following parts 1):
• Part 1-1: General – Code of practice for planning and design for operations;
• Part 1-2: General – Code of practice for assessment of actions; 2)
• Part 1-3: General – Code of practice for geotechnical design;
• Part 1-4: General – Code of practice for materials;
• Part 2: Code of practice for the design of quay walls, jetties and dolphins;
• Part 3: Design of dry docks, locks, slipways and shipbuilding berths, shiplifts
and dock and lock gates;
• Part 4: Code of practice for design of fendering and mooring systems;
• Part 5: Code of practice for dredging and land reclamation;
• Part 6: Design of inshore moorings and floating structures;
• Part 7: Guide to the design and construction of breakwaters;
• Part 8: Code of practice for the design of Ro-Ro ramps, linkspans and
walkways.
Information about this document

A full revision of BS 6349-1:2000 has been undertaken and the principal change
is to split the document into four smaller parts:
• BS 6349-1-1: Code of practice for planning and design for operations;
• BS 6349-1-2: Code of practice for assessment of actions;
• BS 6349-1-3: Code of practice for geotechnical design;
• BS 6349-1-4: Code of practice for materials.
The principal changes in respect of the planning and design content are:
• reduction of informative content, with informative guidance separated from
recommendations;
• general updating of reference documents to reflect latest practice;
1)
A new part 9, covering port surfacing, is in preparation.
2)
In preparation.
iv • © The British Standards Institution 2013

• normative referencing of specific PIANC documents;

• general updating in respect of survey and data acquisition methods in line
with latest technical developments of best practice, including the adoption
of IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys for navigation;
• increased emphasis on environmental, safety and operational matters in
planning and design;
• updating of recommendations and guidance on use of physical and
numerical modelling and in ship simulation for design purposes in line with
latest practice;
• inclusion of additional information on key ship dimensions for preliminary
design and planning.
Copyright is claimed on Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Table E.1 and Table E.3.
The copyright holder is PIANC General Secretariat, Boulevard du Roi Albert II 20,
Box 3, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium.
Use of this document

As a code of practice, this part of BS 6349 takes the form of guidance and
recommendations. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification and
particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of compliance are not
misleading.
Any user claiming compliance with this British Standard is expected to be able to
justify any course of action that deviates from its recommendations.
Presentational conventions
The provisions in this standard are presented in roman (i.e. upright) type.
Its recommendations are expressed in sentences in which the principal auxiliary
verb is “should”.
Commentary, explanation and general informative material is presented in
smaller italic type, and does not constitute a normative element.
Contractual and legal considerations

This publication does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users are responsible for its correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from legal
obligations.
© The British Standards Institution 2013 • v

vi • © The British Standards Institution 2013 This page deliberately left blank
Section 1: General
1 Scope
This part of BS 6349 gives recommendations and guidance on general criteria
relevant to the planning, design, construction and maintenance of structures
and facilities set in the maritime environment. It also gives recommendations
and guidance in respect of environmental and operational matters that need to
be considered in planning and design of maritime works.
It includes a description of the various physical environmental conditions that
need to be considered for investigation at a coastal site, and gives information
and guidance on methods of survey and data collection.
It is applicable to coastal, nearshore, estuarine and inland marine facilities for
safe navigation, berthing, mooring, loading, unloading and servicing of ships,
barges and other forms of waterborne transport and the associated
infrastructure, equipment and works at the ship-shore interface. It is also
applicable to other civil infrastructure works at the waterfront or coastal margin
such as dredging, reclamation, shoreline and coastal management works and to
recreational infrastructure such as marinas.
This part of BS 6349 does not cover offshore structures for the petroleum
and natural gas industries, which are specified in BS EN ISO 19900
and BS EN ISO 19901.
It does not cover recommendations for ground investigation, which are given
in BS 6349-1-3.
2 Normative references
The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this
document and are indispensable for its application. For dated references, only
the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
Standards publications
BS 6349-1:2000, Maritime structures – Part 1: Code of practice for general criteria
BS 6349-1-3, Maritime works – Part 1-3: General – Code of practice for
geotechnical design
BS 6349-4, Maritime structures – Part 4: Code of practice for design of fendering
and mooring systems
BS 6349-8, Maritime structures – Part 8: Code of practice for the design of Ro-Ro
ramps, linkspans and walkways
BS EN 1990, Eurocode – Basis of structural design 3)
BS EN ISO 14001, Environmental management systems – Requirements with
guidance for use
Other publications
[N1]INTERNATIONAL HYDROGRAPHIC ORGANISATION. IHO standards for
hydrographic surveys. Special Publication No. 44. Fifth edition.
Monaco: International Hydrographic Bureau, 2008.
3)
This part of BS 6349 also gives an informative reference to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005.
© The British Standards Institution 2013 • 1

[N2]LOWE, J. A., HOWARD, T. P., PARDAENS, A., TINKER, J., HOLT, J.,
WAKELIN, S., MILNE, G., LEAKE, J., WOLF, J., HORSBURGH, K., REEDER, T.,
JENKINS, G., RIDLEY, J., DYE, S., and BRADLEY, S. UK Climate Projections
science report: Marine and coastal projections. UKCP09. Exeter: Met Office
Hadley Centre, 2009.
[N3]ICS, OCIMF and IAPH. International oil tanker and terminal safety guide
(ISGOTT). Fifth edition. Livingston: Witherby Seamanship
International Ltd., 2006.
[N4]PIANC. Safety aspects affecting the berthing operations of tankers to oil
and gas terminals. MarCom Report WG116. Brussels: PIANC, 2012.
[N5]INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANISATION. International ship and port
facility security code (ISPS code). London: IMO, 2003.
[N6]PIANC-IAPH. Approach channels – A guide for design. Final report of the
joint Working Group PIANC and IAPH in cooperation with IMPA and IALA.
PTC II Report WG30. Brussels: PIANC, 1997. 4)
[N7]INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MARINE AIDS TO NAVIGATION AND
LIGHTHOUSE AUTHORITIES (IALA-AISM). Vessel traffic services manual.
Fourth edition. St Germain-en-laye: IALA, 2008. 5)
[N8]OIL COMPANIES INTERNATIONAL MARINE FORUM. Mooring equipment
guidelines. Third edition (MEG3). London: OCIMF, 2007.
3 Terms, definitions, symbols and abbreviations

3.1 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this part of BS 6349, the terms and definitions given in
BS EN 1990 and the following apply.
NOTE Where possible, definitions of meteorological and oceanographic terms are
harmonized with BS EN ISO 19901, although some modifications are made to reflect
the particular characteristics of the coastal environment within the scope of this part
of BS 6349.
3.1.1 accidental operating condition

condition for a design situation when a facility is considered to be in
operational use by ships berthing, de-berthing or in a moored condition
consistent with the operating limits for the facility, but exceptional conditions
occur due to deviation from facility operational procedures, or equipment
malfunction
3.1.2 asset lifecycle

whole life of the maritime works, structure or facilities from inception to
decommissioning
3.1.3 chart datum

local reference datum used to define water depths on a navigation chart or tidal
heights over an area
NOTE Chart datum is usually an approximation to the level of the lowest
astronomical tide.
4)
This document will be superseded by PIANC-IAPH. Harbour approach channels –
design guidelines. PIANC Report No. 121. Brussels: PIANC, 2013, due to be published in
late 2013.
5)
Available at www.iala-aism.org [last accessed 23 September 2013].
2 • © The British Standards Institution 2013

3.1.4 concept design

design and engineering of the maritime works and preliminary planning for
execution, in which site-specific data acquisition requirements are established
and acquisition commences, and the level of definition is sufficient to select
preferred technical options as the basis for detailed design
3.1.5 currents
3.1.5.1 residual current

part of the total current that is not constituted from harmonic tidal components
NOTE Residual currents are caused by a variety of physical mechanisms including
river flows and wind effects. They comprise a large range of natural frequencies and
magnitudes in different parts of the world.
3.1.5.2 tidal current

part of the total current that is driven by tidal forcing (i.e. the tidal stream)
3.1.5.3 total current

total observed current including all components from tides, waves, wind or
other effects giving rise to currents at a location
3.1.6 deadweight tonnage (DWT)

total mass of cargo, stores, fuels, crew and reserves with which a vessel is laden
when submerged to the summer loading line
NOTE Although this represents the load-carrying capacity of the vessel, it is not an
exact measure of the cargo load.
3.1.7 design stage operating limits (DSOL)

preliminary assessment of environmental operating limits established and
developed in the planning and design stages for the purposes of design of
berths, channels, turning areas and other such works, and for making
design-stage estimates of weather downtime
3.1.8 design working life

assumed period for which a structure or part of it is to be used for its intended
purpose with anticipated maintenance but without major repair being necessary
[SOURCE: BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005, 1.5.2.8]
3.1.9 detailed design

design and engineering of maritime works including site-specific data acquisition
and detailed planning for execution, in which the level of definition is sufficient
for construction
NOTE In some industries, including the oil, gas and petrochemical industries, this
phase can commence with front end engineering design (FEED) with detailed
engineering completed within an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC)
contract.
3.1.10 diffraction
<of waves> bending, spreading and interference of waves when they pass by an
obstruction (e.g. a breakwater) or through a gap (e.g. a harbour entrance)
3.1.11 displacement
total mass of the vessel and its contents
NOTE This is equal to the volume of water displaced by the vessel multiplied by the
density of the water.

3.1.12 environmental operating limits

limiting values of metocean or other environmental parameters, including wind,
wave, swell, current velocity, tidal elevation, visibility and temperature, beyond
which certain operations are not permitted to be carried out as set out in the
facility operating manual
3.1.13 execution
activities required to construct and install maritime works, including off-site
fabrication and commissioning when necessary so that the completed works are
ready for handover to the owner and operator
3.1.14 extreme high water

highest level that is predicted to occur at a location as a combination of
astronomical tides, positive or negative storm surges, seiches and river flow for
an extreme event of a defined return period
3.1.15 extreme low water

lowest level that is predicted to occur at a location as a combination of
astronomical tides, positive or negative storm surges, seiches and river flow for
an extreme event of a defined return period
3.1.16 extreme operating condition

condition for a design situation when a facility is subject to extreme
environmental conditions exceeding the DSOL (3.1.7) whether or not in use by
ships for berthing, de-berthing, or mooring
NOTE Extreme operating conditions might include extreme environmental
conditions of different return periods. Typically for permanent structures this could
be events of 50-year to 100-year return periods considered as persistent design
situations when designing to BS EN 1990, and events of 500 years to 1 000 years
considered as accidental design situations when designing structures of a certain
consequence class to BS EN 1990.
3.1.17 facility operating manual

procedures and instructions established by an operator to define procedures,
environmental operating limits and other such matters to ensure safe and
efficient operation of the maritime works and facilities in the operation and
maintenance phase
3.1.18 gross tonnage (GT)

non-dimensional index representing the overall size of a ship
NOTE Gross tonnage is different to gross register tonnage (GRT), which is an
obsolete measure of the gross internal volumetric capacity of the vessel as defined
by the rules of the registering authority and measured in units of 2.83 m3 (100 ft3).
3.1.19 gust
brief rise and fall in wind speed lasting less than 1 min
3.1.20 infragravity wave

long period wave as bound wave associated with wave grouping of swell
travelling over long distances, or as free wave propagating independently after
interaction of bound wave with shallow coastlines
NOTE Wave energy in the periods range 25 s to 500 s can generally be classified as
infragravity wave energy. Waves of periods longer than 500 s are likely to be
associated with tsunamis and tides.
3.1.21 marine facility

facility required to receive ships at a coastal marine terminal, within or outside a
protected port or offshore, including but not limited to fixed berths, jetties,
piers, island berths, buoy mooring facilities and liquid cargo transfer structures

3.1.22 marine growth

living organisms attached to a structure
3.1.23 maritime authority

government or non-government organization that can be consulted in the
planning and design of maritime works in connection with establishing available
data on such matters as: existing physical conditions; existing operational and
activities in the coastal zone; safety of navigation; and safety of the public in
the coastal zone
NOTE Examples of some typical organizations with statutory or other roles in
coastal activities in the United Kingdom are given in Annex A. For port and shipping
operations and navigation this could include the port, harbour and pilotage
authorities.
3.1.24 mean low water springs (MLWS)

average, over a long period of time, of the heights of two successive low waters
at springs
3.1.25 mean sea level

average of all sea levels measured at hourly intervals over a complete
astronomical tidal cycle of 18.6 years
NOTE Seasonal and inter-annual changes in mean sea level can be expected in
some regions, and over many years the mean sea level can change.
3.1.26 mean wind speed

time-averaged wind speed, averaged over a specified time interval and at a
specific elevation
NOTE The mean wind speed varies with elevation above mean sea level and the
averaging time interval; a standard reference elevation is 10 m and a standard time
interval is 1 h.
3.1.27 metocean parameters

meteorological and oceanographic design and operating parameters including
wind, precipitation, atmospheric conditions, solar radiation, water levels, waves,
water movements, sea ice and icebergs, water quality and physical and chemical
properties and marine growth
3.1.28 nautical bottom

level where physical characteristics of the bottom of a navigation channel or
ship manoeuvring area reach a critical limit beyond which contact with a ship’s
keel causes either damage or unacceptable effects on controllability and
manoeuvrability
3.1.29 nautical depth

instantaneous and local vertical distance between the nautical bottom and the
undisturbed free water surface
3.1.30 normal operating condition

condition for a design situation when a facility is considered to be in
operational use by ships berthing, de-berthing or in a moored condition
consistent with the DSOL (3.1.7) for the facility

3.1.31 operation and maintenance

service usage of the completed maritime works by user, operator or owner,
including planned and unplanned inspection, maintenance and repairs
NOTE Some works, such as ports and berthing structures, are usually actively
operated by a harbour authority or terminal operator, whereas other works such as
coastal protection structures might not be actively operated but are likely to be
actively monitored and maintained.
3.1.32 operator
harbour authority, port operator, terminal operator or other such competent
entity responsible for operating and maintaining a marine facility for use by
vessels
3.1.33 planning phase

period of time when functional and operational requirements are defined
sufficient to commence design, existing data and knowledge sources are
researched and feasibility studies may be initiated
3.1.34 polar low

intense depression that forms in polar air, often near a boundary between ice
and sea
3.1.35 reflection
<of waves> situation that occurs when waves reach an obstacle, e.g. a sea wall
or a breakwater
NOTE Waves also reflect off beaches and at locations with sharp depth changes.
3.1.36 refraction
<of waves> bending of the wave propagation direction due to variations in the
water depth under the waves
NOTE The part of a wave in shallow water moves slower than the part of a wave in
deeper water, so when the depth under a wave crest varies along the crest, the
wave bends.
3.1.37 return period

average period between occurrences of an event or of a particular value being
exceeded
NOTE The return period in years is equal to the reciprocal of the annual probability
of exceedance of the event.
3.1.38 scatter diagram

graphic representation of the joint probability of two or more (metocean)
parameters
NOTE Typically used with wave parameters to show the probability of the joint
occurrence of the significant wave height (Hs) and a representative period (Tz or Tp).
3.1.39 sea state

condition of the sea during a period in which its statistics remain approximately
constant
NOTE In a statistical sense the sea state does not change markedly within the
period. The period during which this condition exists is usually assumed to be 3 h,
although it depends on the particular weather situation at any given time.

3.1.40 seiche
oscillation of a body of water at its natural period
NOTE Seiches usually take the form of standing waves or sloshing/oscillations of the
free surface. These oscillations can have periods from minutes in harbours and bays
to over 10 h in large lakes.
3.1.41 ship
class of sea-going and coastal vessels including general cargo ships, container
ships, tankers and gas and liquid product carriers, cruise ships, Ro-Ro ships, bulk
carriers
3.1.42 shoaling
<of waves> transformation of waves caused by change in depth alone as they
enter shallower water
NOTE Shoaling occurs because the wave speed and wave length decrease in
shallow water, therefore the energy per unit area of the wave has to increase,
resulting in an increase in the wave height. The wave period remains the same in
shoaling. Other shallow water transformation effects such as refraction arise
separately from shoaling.
3.1.43 significant wave height

average height of the highest one third of the zero upcrossing waves in a sea
state
NOTE In most measurement systems the significant wave height is calculated
as 4Œm0, where m0 is the zeroth spectral moment, or 4σ, where σ is the standard
deviation of the time series of water surface elevation over the duration of the
measurement, typically approximately 30 min.
3.1.44 soliton
gravity wave which oscillates within the body of a fluid propagating on the
interface between two fluids of different density
NOTE 1 Typically offshore in deep ocean conditions they propagate along the
thermocline and are driven by tidal forcing interacting with a bathymetric feature.
NOTE 2 Solitons are also known as “internal waves”.
3.1.45 spectral peak wave period

period of the maximum (peak) energy density in the spectrum
NOTE In practice, where there is more than one peak in a spectrum, the highest
peak is taken.
3.1.46 squall
strong wind event characterized by a sudden onset
NOTE Squall durations are typically in the order of minutes rather than hours and
are often accompanied by a change in wind direction, a drop in air temperature and
by heavy precipitation. To be classed as a squall, the wind speed would typically be
greater than about 8 m/s and last longer than 2 min (to differentiate it from a gust).
3.1.47 squat
steady downward displacement of a moving vessel consisting of a translation
and rotation due to the flow of water past the moving hull
3.1.48 still water level

theoretical instantaneous water surface level in the absence of any wave and
wind effects
NOTE 1 Still water level is typically used for the calculation of wave kinematics for
global actions and wave crest elevation for minimum deck elevations.

NOTE 2 Still water level is an abstract concept for engineering purposes calculated
by adding the effects of tides, storm surge and allowances for future sea level
change but excluding variations due to waves to the mean sea level. It can be above
or below mean sea level.
3.1.49 storm surge

change in sea level (either positive or negative) that is due to meteorological
(rather than tidal) forcing
NOTE 1 Storm surges can occur on the open coast, on bays and on estuaries due to
the action of wind stresses on the water surface, the atmospheric pressure reduction,
storm-induced seiches, wave set-up and other causes.
NOTE 2 The term “surge” is also used in a different context to describe the
longitudinal motion of a moored vessel.
3.1.50 swell
sea state in which waves generated by winds remote from the site have
travelled to the site, rather than being locally generated
NOTE When categorizing wave types from a spectrum or from measurements,
energy in the period range from 8 s to 25 s can be described as swell. Energy at
periods longer than 25 s can be described as infragravity wave energy.
3.1.51 tides
3.1.51.1 astronomical tide

phenomenon of the alternate rising and falling of sea surface solely governed
by the astronomical conditions of the sun and the moon, which is predicted with
the tidal components determined from harmonic analysis of tide level readings
over a long period
3.1.51.2 lowest astronomical tide (LAT)

level of low tide when all harmonic components causing the tides are in phase
NOTE The harmonic components are in phase approximately once every 18.6 years
but a level equivalent to LAT is approached several times each year at most
locations. LAT does not represent the lowest sea level which can be reached, because
negative surges and tsunamis can cause considerably lower levels to occur. LAT is
often the level selected as the chart datum for soundings on navigational charts.
3.1.51.3 neap tides

two occasions in a lunar month when the average range of two successive tides
is least
3.1.51.4 spring tides

two occasions in a lunar month when the average range of two successive tides
is greatest
3.1.52 tropical cyclone

closed atmospheric or oceanic circulation around a zone of low pressure that
originates over the tropical oceans
NOTE 1 The circulation is counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere. At maturity, the tropical cyclone can be one
of the most intense storms in the world, with wind speeds exceeding 90 m/s and
accompanied by torrential rain.
NOTE 2 Tropical cyclones are typically referred to as hurricanes in the Gulf of
Mexico and North Atlantic, typhoons in the South China Sea and NW Pacific, and
cyclones in the South Pacific and South Indian Ocean.

3.1.53 tsunami
long period sea waves caused by rapid vertical movements of the sea floor due
to earthquakes, or by submarine or coastal landslip
3.1.54 wave height

height of a wave crest above the preceding wave trough
3.1.55 wave length

distance between consecutive wave crests
3.1.56 wave period

time for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point
3.1.57 wave spectrum

measure of the amount of energy associated with the fluctuation of the sea
surface elevation per unit frequency band and per unit directional sector
NOTE 1 The wave frequency spectrum (integrated over all directions) is often
described by use of some parametric form such as the Pierson-Moskowitz or
JONSWAP wave spectrum.
NOTE 2 The area under the wave spectrum is the zeroth spectral moment m0,
which is a measure of the total energy in the sea state and used to calculate
significant wave height.
3.1.58 weather downtime

period during which a berth is not available for berthing, mooring and cargo
transfer operations as a result of adverse weather conditions, sea state, tide,
currents or visibility exceeding the defined operating limits
3.1.59 vessel
craft that travels on water, including coastal and sea-going ships, inland and
sea-going barges, workboats, tugs, ferries, trawlers and fishing vessels, small
recreational or pleasure craft
NOTE Small vessels are considered as those of less than 24 m load line length.
3.2 Symbols
B beam of vessel (m)
Cb block coefficient of a vessel
D characteristic length scale of a system
Dz0 median size of graded sediment (mm)
d draught of a vessel (m)
Fr Froude number
g acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Hs significant wave height (m)
LBP length of hull between perpendiculars (m)
MD displacement of a vessel (t)
m0 zeroth spectral moment
n dimensionless parameter in the relationship between a vessel’s DWT
and its approximate displacement
qs suspended volumetric sediment transport rate (m3/s/m)
Tp period at which peak occurs in wave spectrum (s)

Tsurge period of vessel surge motion

Tz zero-crossing period of primary waves (s)
t interval over which mean wind speed is averaged (s)
U(t) mean wind speed averaged over an interval of t s (m/s)
U3600 mean wind speed averaged over an interval of 1 h (m/s)
u characteristic velocity of a system (m/s)
WBM width of basic manoeuvring lane (m)
WBr/Bg additional channel width for bank clearance (where “r” and “g”
indicate red and green channel sides) (m)
Wi additional widths to the basic manoeuvring lane required to form the
total manoeuvring lane width (m)
WM width of manoeuvring lane (m)
Wp passing distance for two-way channels (m)
γ ratio of the density of sea water to water density in the model
λ geometric scale of a physical model
ρw density of sea water (t/m3)
σ standard deviation of the time series of water surface elevation
3.3 Abbreviations
For the purposes of this part of BS 6349, the following abbreviations apply.
ADCP acoustic Doppler current profiler

DSOL design stage operating limits
DWT deadweight tonnage
EMS environmental management system
GPS global positioning system
GRT gross register tonnage
GT gross tonnage
HAZID hazard identification study
IFD intensity, frequency and duration
LAT lowest astronomical tide
LiDAR light detection and ranging
LNG liquefied natural gas
Lo-Lo lift-on, lift-off
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
MBES multi-beam echo sounder
MLWS mean low water springs
MM manoeuvrability margin
RCM recording current meter
Ro-Ro roll-on, roll-off
RTK real-time kinematic
SBES single-beam echo sounder

SMP shoreline management plan

SMS safety management system
TEU twenty-foot equivalent unit
UKC under-keel clearance
VLCC very large crude carrier

Section 2: The maritime environment

COMMENTARY ON SECTION 2
A fundamental prerequisite to designing maritime works is the understanding and
assessment of the physical environment in which the works are situated and the
naturally occurring conditions and events to which the works are exposed. Clause 5
to Clause 12 provide recommendations for survey and data collection to characterize
site physical and environmental conditions. Recommendations in respect of site
investigations for geotechnical design are given in BS 6349-1-3.
Information concerning these phenomena might already be available from existing
sources, although such data can often be limited in scope and application, and
further detailed investigations are frequently required to permit the selection of
design parameters.
The scope of surveys and data collection for design and planning is also likely to be
relevant to the definition of baseline conditions for environmental assessment.
However, the full scope of environmental baseline data collection, including surveys
of marine ecology, is outside the scope of this part of BS 6349.
The recommendations in this section are primarily focused on the obtaining of data
for the planning and design stages, although they are also relevant to execution,
operation and maintenance.
Environmental conditions need to be taken into account at all stages of
construction, as well as for the completed structure for operations. During
construction, maritime works are particularly sensitive to adverse weather conditions,
which can hinder access to the works, prevent the use of floating plant and cause
damage to work both above and below high water level. Weather conditions can
limit construction activity to certain seasons or “windows” and can affect various
transient load conditions such as towing, sinking and grounding of floating
elements.
4 Environmental considerations
The environmental impact of the construction, operation, maintenance and
commissioning of maritime structures should be assessed. The extent of the
assessment depends on the magnitude of the works, and a scoping assessment
should be carried out to identify environmental impacts that are significant for
the works and those that are not. An environmental management system (EMS)
in accordance with BS EN ISO 14001 or an equivalent system should be used to
manage the environmental aspects of the works, and the system should be
designed to:
• take into account the output from a formal environmental impact
assessment;
• highlight environmental aspects to be considered where a formal
environmental impact assessment is not required;
• provide guidance as to when specialist advice is required.
NOTE 1 Maritime works have the potential for significant adverse impacts on both
the marine and terrestrial environment.
NOTE 2 The Civil Engineering Environmental Quality Assessment and Awards
Scheme (CEEQUAL) (from CEEQUAL Ltd, Classic House, 174–80 Old Street, London
EC1V 9BP or www.ceequal.com 6) ) is an example of a suitable framework for use in
an EMS based on BS EN ISO 14001.
6)
Last accessed 23 September 2013.

NOTE 3 For international development projects and in the absence of more

stringent local regulations, the IFC’s Environmental, health and safety guidelines for
ports, harbours and terminals [1] (known as the 0EHS Guidelines0) are technical
reference documents with general and industry-specific examples of good
international industry practice, as defined in the Pollution prevention and
abatement handbook [2]. In addition to the general EHS Guidelines, relevant
sector-specific guidelines include:
• ports, harbours and terminals;
• crude oil and petroleum product terminals.
NOTE 4 The following PIANC Environmental Committee (EnviCom) technical reports
provide guidance on environmental aspects relevant to design, construction and
operation:
• Handling and treatment of contaminated dredged material from ports and
inland waterways [3];
• Management of aquatic disposal of dredged material [4];
• Environmental guidelines for aquatic, nearshore and upland confined disposal
facilities for contaminated dredged material [5];
• Bird habitat management in ports and waterways [6];
• Generic biological assessment guidance for dredged material [7];
• Environmental risk assessment of dredging and disposal operations [8];
• Dredged material as a resource: options and constraints [9];
• Dredging management practices for the environment – A structured selection
approach [10];
• Dredging and port construction around coral reefs [11].
5 Bathymetric and topographic surveys

COMMENTARY ON CLAUSE 5
Hydrography, as defined by the IHO Manual on hydrography [12], is concerned with
systematic surveys at sea, along the coast and inland, and geo-referenced data from
the perspective of the mariner in respect of requirements for navigation.
Hydrography includes the consideration of the following matters:
• shoreline configuration, including infrastructure for maritime navigation, i.e. all
those features on shore that are of interest to mariners;
• depths in the area of interest (including all potential hazards to navigation and
other marine activities);
• sea bottom composition;
• tides and currents;
• physical properties of the water column.
Requirements for surveys for planning, execution and operational monitoring and
maintenance of maritime civil engineering works are frequently different or
additional to the requirements defined by IHO. However, surveys for handover for
operational use for navigation for completed facilities and navigation channels and
structures are often required by maritime authorities or operators to meet IHO
standards.

5.1 Survey control

5.1.1 General
COMMENTARY ON 5.1.1
For maritime civil engineering works it is essential to have a well-defined system of
horizontal and vertical survey control appropriate to the geographic extent of the
project, which might be very large when considering navigation channels, etc. It is
important to determine an accurate relationship between levels onshore and
offshore for tidal, seabed and topographic surveys.
Survey standards and horizontal and vertical control grids and map projections
should be defined at an early stage in any maritime development project or
survey and investigation programme. Survey parameters to be defined should
include:
• geodetic model to be used;
• correction parameters;
• definition of survey projection;
• horizontal coordinate systems;
• vertical coordinate systems for onshore and offshore areas.
Physical survey control stations should be established at an onshore location at
or near to the site so that onshore topographical and hydrographical surveys can
be referenced to these stations. At least three control stations should be
established, with additional stations being provided on larger sites. All stations
should be robust, durable, stable and clearly identified. The locations should be
carefully selected so that wherever possible the control stations will not need to
be relocated due to construction of the works.
Where data from earlier surveys is being used, any controls used for these
surveys should be checked against the site survey control stations. Where
discrepancies between new and old datums are found, these should be recorded
and any differences used to correct the historic data if necessary.
All site surveys should be tied into at least two of the primary survey control
stations.
5.1.2 Vertical control

COMMENTARY ON 5.1.2
Satellite survey techniques are often used for level control, for both land- and
water-based surveys. It is essential that these are referenced to mean sea level and
other astronomical tide levels derived from measurements obtained using a suitably
positioned tidal level gauge.
A tidal level gauge should be established as close as practicable to the location
of the proposed development or area of interest. The gauge should be located
and mounted to:
a) be in sufficiently deep water to avoid drying out;
b) be sheltered as far as possible from the effect of sea and swell;
c) not be in a position where water is impounded as the tide drops;
d) be reasonably close to a national or local land levelling datum reference
point;
e) be sheltered from accidental damage by vessels;
f) not be mounted or fixed on members that are subject to settlement.

5.1.3 Horizontal control

COMMENTARY ON 5.1.3
Positioning over water at near-shore locations is normally undertaken using satellite
positioning systems and land-based total stations. Whilst other methods can
sometimes be adopted, their use is becoming less common. Satellite positioning is
now available throughout the world with several constellations available including
GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia) and the emerging GALLILEO (European Union) and
COMPASS (China) systems.
Satellite positioning is often augmented by the use of total stations for working
locally around a site where shadowing of the satellites can be a problem.
To achieve the level of accuracy required for most construction projects, the survey
satellite receiver needs to receive a positional correction signal from a nearby
station. These differential stations are set up at a known location and are used to
analyse the satellite signals at the same time as the survey is being carried out.
Where the correction signals are transmitted to the survey station in real time, the
system is often referred to as RTK (real-time kinematic) corrections. It is also possible
to add the corrections after the survey during post-processing. These correction
signals are more accurate the closer the differential station is to the area being
surveyed, and on larger construction projects these correction stations are set up on
site. This configuration enables survey accuracies in position of better than 5 mm in
location to be achieved, and 10 mm in level. Where highly accurate measurements
are essential, these can be obtained by taking several hours of satellite readings at
one location.
Other systems are available which can provide corrections. In the UK there is a
national network of RTK corrections provided by Trinity House which is often used
for hydrographic surveys. Other commercial organizations offer correction services
via the mobile phone network.
Where satellite positioning is to be used as the primary means of control for the
site, the primary and secondary satellite positioning systems should be specified
for use. These should be selected to ensure adequate satellite coverage of the
site together with any operational restrictions. Where differential correction
stations are set up on the site, these should be regularly inspected to check they
have not been damaged or moved, and corrective action should be taken where
necessary.
5.2 Bathymetric surveys

COMMENTARY ON 5.2
Bathymetric surveys are produced by taking measurements of water depth at known
locations over the area of interest. Information on the various techniques available
and guidance on their application to maritime engineering is given in this subclause.
More detailed guidance on bathymetric surveys in relation to dredging and land
reclamation work is given in BS 6349-5.
Published bathymetric charts may be used for preliminary assessments of
hydrographical conditions at locations. However, such charts are produced for safe
navigation, and features that can be of particular significance to the planning and
design of maritime works might not necessarily be shown.
5.2.1 General
Published bathymetric charts can include old surveys neither conducted to
modern standards nor at scales suited to engineering requirements. Possible
changes due to siltation, dredging, dumping, shipwrecks or other causes should
be taken into account, and accurate bathymetric data should be obtained for
the site at an early stage in the development of a project.

The extent of hydrographic survey work required should be determined from

the nature and extent of the proposed works and the availability and validity of
existing survey data. For surveys for navigational purposes, the requirements of
IHO Special Publication No. 44 [N1] should be adopted.
NOTE IHO requires full ensonification of the seabed, which means that if single
beam echo sounding is carried out, it is to be accompanied by side-scan sonar
surveys to pick up any anomalies between survey lines. Where swath bathymetry is
acquired using multi-beam echo sounders, this provides full mapping of the seabed
directly.
5.2.2 Acoustic systems – Echo sounder

COMMENTARY ON 5.2.2
Most depth sounding is carried out using acoustic systems, which are typically
multibeam (swath) systems. For large area surveys these are the preferred methods;
single beam sounding is however still appropriate for simple surveys.
A conventional hydrographic echo sounder produces a large-scale paper trace,
providing a permanent graphic analogue record of the seabed profile which is
interpreted to provide reduced soundings. More recently, digital data recording,
processing and imaging have become available.
Echo sounders can give misleading results in areas of very soft mud or where there
are significant density changes in the water column.
5.2.2.1 Calibration and quality control

Acoustic systems are subject to errors due to variations in the physical properties
of the water column and of the seabed. They should be used only by competent
personnel and should undergo regular on-site calibration checks.
Echo sounders should be calibrated before and after any survey campaign, and
if necessary at intervals during the campaign, to check the functioning of
equipment and the particular instrument set up, and to take into account local
hydrographical conditions.
Accurate surveying requires reasonably calm conditions at the time of the survey
and appropriate quality control checks. When surveys have to be carried out in
exposed locations where calm conditions are infrequent, the survey systems
should include the use of a heave and roll compensation which can be achieved
by accelerometers or additional satellite receivers on the survey vessel. The
output from these units should be input into the survey software to provide
depth corrections to the survey vessel motion.
NOTE Calibration in shallow water is normally effected by means of a bar check or
a special calibration transducer. The bar check is carried out by lowering a target to
a set depth below the transducer of the echo sounder and comparing the recorded
depth against the actual measured depth of the target. The echo sounder can then
be adjusted to record true depth. This method is effective for calibration down to
depths of about 20 m. Detailed information on calibration and quality control of
single beam echo sounding is given in the IHO Manual on hydrography [12].
5.2.2.2 Transmission frequency and beam width

COMMENTARY ON 5.2.2.2
Typical lightweight low energy echo sounders in shallow water operate as a
minimum at a frequency of 210 kHz. Echo sounders operating at dual frequencies
of 33 kHz and 210 kHz are also common.
Acoustic energy at 210 kHz is reflected from the first density horizon on the seabed,
which at some locations can represent top of fluid mud or unconsolidated sediment
overlying firmer material.

Beam width depends on the transducer dimensions and acoustic frequency. A lower
beam width is suited to achieving higher depth accuracy.
Acoustic energy at 33 kHz can penetrate into fluid mud or silt deposits, although the
density of sediment at which the 33 kHz beam reflects varies by location according
to sediment characteristics.
Dual frequency echo sounders should be used at locations where siltation is
anticipated, although additional location-specific investigation of vertical density
profiles of sediments should also be undertaken if it is necessary to calibrate the
density values at which each frequency reflects.
NOTE The identification of the thickness and density profiles of the mud layer is
particularly important when a nautical depth approach is undertaken in declared
depth for navigation purposes.
5.2.3 Acoustic systems – Swath acquisition

Except for preliminary surveys of limited extent for planning or feasibility study
purposes, depth data acquisition for maritime works should be carried out using
multi-beam echo sounder (MBES). Single beam echo sounder (SBES) sounding
may be used for surveys of limited extent, and should be supplemented by
side-scan sonar to achieve the required full ensonification if the survey is of an
area to be used for navigation.
NOTE 1 Swath systems measure the depth in a strip (or swath) of sea floor
extending outwards at right angles to the direction of survey vessel motion. The
most common form of swath acquisition in connection with maritime works in
shallow water depths is the MBES. Such systems gather more data than a
conventional SBES and can give coverage under adjacent vessels and structures. SBES
surveys might be appropriate for preliminary early surveys to support early planning,
and feasibility studies.
NOTE 2 Additional information including a description of MBES and interferometric
sonar systems is given in the IHO Manual on hydrography [12].
5.2.4 Acoustic systems – Side-scan sonar

COMMENTARY ON 5.2.4
Working on similar principles to an echo sounder, side-scan sonar systems transmit a
fan-shaped beam of acoustic energy perpendicular to the track of the survey craft.
The reflected signals from rock outcrops, sand waves, pipelines and any other
projections on the seabed are recorded as changes in density on video display.
Although some indication of bathymetric changes can be gained from analysis
of the side-scan records, it should primarily be used as a search device to
supplement SBES surveys when it is necessary to examine the entire seabed
between sounding profiles. It might then be necessary to run additional profiles
where side-scan records show significant changes in the bathymetry taking
place.
5.2.5 Direct measurement

Direct depth sounding measurements should be carried out when required to
verify or supplement echo sounder records, where local conditions or access
restrictions limit the coverage or resolution of acoustic methods.
NOTE 1 Such measurements are usually made by hand lead line, graduated pole or
sweeping with a horizontal wire (see 5.2.6). Where highly detailed seabed
information or identification of located objects is required, the use of divers or
remotely operated vehicles might be necessary.
NOTE 2 An example of a need for direct measurement is when sounding over a
particularly soft seabed or when large quantities of weed or kelp are present. A
further example is the need to confirm the least depth over a local rock or other
such obstruction.

5.2.6 Sounding coverage

The appropriate spacing of sounding profiles should be assessed based upon the
purpose of the survey, the scale and nature of the proposed maritime works and
the depth and nature of the seabed.
Surveys of navigation channels and other areas to be used for navigation or
marine operations should conform to the requirements of the IHO Special
Publication No. 44 [N1], and the survey method should achieve full
ensonification of the bed.
NOTE 1 Full ensonification for navigation channels would normally be achieved by
MBES or a combination of SBES and side-scan sonar coverage. MBES is also
recommended for surveys for construction quality control and monitoring for
maintenance requirements of major underwater maritime construction works
involving dredging, reclamation, armouring, scour protection, pipelines, outfalls, etc.
Where SBES bathymetric data is to be used for planning purposes for the study
of wave and current effects, or for the study of navigation channels where the
average depth is greater than 1.5 times the draught of the largest vessel
expected, a chart scale of the order of 1:10 000 is normally sufficient. Lines of
soundings should be spaced at about 100 m intervals, with a locational check by
cross-lines at intervals of not greater than 300 m.
NOTE 2 In rock and coral areas, more detailed surveys are advisable for planning of
navigation channels if the average depth is less than twice the maximum draught of
the vessel.
Where the bathymetric information is required for planning and design of
structures, measurement of dredging and checking navigation channels in
shallow water, a detailed survey should be carried out to produce a chart to a
scale of between 1:500 and 1:2 000.
NOTE 3 Typically, a survey for a maritime structure would be made at a profile
spacing of 10 m to 25 m in and around the proposed position of the structure,
and 50 m in the approach areas, with locational fixes taken at approximately three
times the profile spacing. Side-scan sonar to supplement SBES or MBES giving full
coverage of the seabed is recommended for design of major structures.
NOTE 4 A wire sweep survey might be necessary for determining the least depth
over an obstruction or to prove the absence of obstructions in a particular area.
The former can be achieved by suspending fore and aft from the vessel a horizontal
bar, which drifts over the known obstruction. After each pass, the bar is lowered or
raised by its calibrated support wires and, by noting the bar’s depth setting and
applying the tide correction, the least depth over the obstruction can be
determined. As an alternative to side-scan sonar, for ensuring that an area is free of
underwater obstruction, a fine-wire sweep survey can be conducted. The fine wire is
suspended between two boats and weighted to maintain a predetermined depth.
The boats proceed at approximately 1 m/s to 1.5 m/s (2 knots to 3 knots) along the
necessary course lines to ensure full sweep coverage of the area.
5.2.7 Reduction of soundings

NOTE Due to the variation in water level during survey, soundings obtained have
to be reduced to a standard reference plane (see also Clause 10).
The datum to which the soundings are reduced should be noted on the drawing
or chart, together with its relationship with the local datum and survey
projection and grid system.
The relationship to onshore site horizontal and vertical control reference datums
and grids should be established and indicated on drawings and in survey
reports.

5.2.8 Coastal topography

Depending on the survey area and the scale of presentation, the final
bathymetric plan should as a minimum portray the coastline and prominent
features.
Where the bathymetric information is required for planning and design of
near-shore structures and shoreline management works, more detailed survey
charts should be produced to achieve the required resolution of shoreline
bathymetry.
NOTE If the bathymetry is conducted over the high water period, it is usually
possible to determine the low water contour from the sounding results. To obtain
the high water contour, it would be necessary to carry out levelling, by land survey
practice, over the area not already covered during the sounding operation.
5.2.9 Non-acoustic bathymetric survey systems

Where airborne laser scanning (light detection and ranging, or LiDAR) is used as
an alternative to conventional acoustic bathymetric surveys, verification checks
should be undertaken to ensure that the accuracy achieved is appropriate for
the intended survey usage.
NOTE LiDAR can be an effective means for rapid survey coverage of large, shallow
water areas with relatively clear water and where it is required to survey extensive
intertidal areas and to obtain complementary topographic data for coastal zones
areas. Additional information on airborne LiDAR systems and other methods of
remote hydrographic sensing and coastal topographic surveying is given in the
IHO Manual on hydrography [12].
5.3 Other surveys for seabed or subsurface hazards

Additional surveys should be undertaken where desk studies, nautical charts or
other information provided by maritime authorities or available from published
sources indicate the presence of hazards to construction on or immediately
below the bed, such as submarine pipelines and cables, wrecks or unexploded
shells, mines, bombs, etc. Specialist advice should be obtained to determine the
scope and methods of surveys required to identify and locate such hazards.
NOTE BS 6349-5 provides some advice in respect of geophysical surveys to locate
munitions for dredging works although such hazards also present a threat to other
kinds of maritime works and operations. As noted in BS 6349-5, magnetometer
surveys might be useful for locating hazards with a ferrous metallic component, but
do not identify munitions with plastic or non-ferrous metal casings.
6 Meteorological and oceanographic considerations

and data acquisition
Metocean conditions as referred to in this part of BS 6349 are the subset of physical
environmental conditions relating to meteorological and oceanographic conditions,
principally including:
• meteorology:
• wind;
• precipitation (including rainfall, snow and ice accretion);
• atmospheric conditions (including air temperature and pressure, humidity,
air quality, dust, particulates and visibility);
• solar radiation;

• oceanography:
• water level (including tides, set-up and storm surges);
• waves (including seiches and tsunamis);
• water movements (currents);
• sea ice and icebergs;
• water quality and chemistry (including salinity, dissolved oxygen content,
temperature, turbidity and suspended sediment);
• marine growth.
Considerations in respect of water quality and chemistry (including salinity, dissolved
oxygen content, temperature, turbidity, suspended sediment) and marine life are
described in Clause 11.
Shoreline and seabed morphology and sediment transport can be considered as
physical responses of the environment to the influence of metocean conditions.
Particular data acquisition requirements relating to the sediment transport regime
are described in Clause 12.
Metocean data suitable for preliminary planning purposes are obtainable from the
UK Meteorological Office, Exeter, England and other commercial service providers.
Port Authorities, national and local government agencies may also be consulted
since they often hold relevant record information. Background information is also
provided in the Admiralty Pilot series of publications [13]. This information is,
however, not usually sufficient for design purposes.
6.1 General
Requirements for site- and location-specific data acquisition or predictive
modelling studies, additional to the information listed in the Commentary on
Clause 6, should be defined from the commencement of the planning stage and
be updated through the design and execution stages.
Data acquisition should include some or all of the following, depending on the
project requirements and location:
• review of publicly available data;
• data purchase or exchange;
• field data collection;
• satellite data acquisition or purchase;
• hindcast and other modelling studies.
Definition of the scope of data acquisition should take into account:
• the timescale to identify, collect and analyse data;
• the data already available;
• the variability of conditions at that location and hence the length of data
required;
• the type of marine works, design criteria, construction methods and
operations, and the metocean parameters needed to plan and tender
construction works;
• the type of operations of the completed works and the metocean
parameters needed for the facility operating manuals and for planning for
start of operations.

6.2 Particular considerations for surveys and data analysis

COMMENTARY ON 6.2
Annex B provides complementary guidance on issues which are relevant to planning
metocean data acquisition activities for planning, design, execution and operation of
maritime works, including further consideration for projects outside the United
Kingdom.
6.2.1 Survey scope and metocean variability

Where a site-specific survey or data collection campaign is planned, general
conditions should be assessed as used in planning and scoping the proposed
data collection.
The scope, timing and duration of surveys and associated analysis should take
into account variability of metocean conditions during the period available for
the surveys and in the life of the proposed maritime works, including:
• spatial variability in the locality of the project area, including such effects as
shallow water effects on waves and shielding or funnelling of wind by
natural topography or artificial structures;
• rapidly varying conditions such as squalls and storms which might or might
not occur in the survey period;
• infrequent conditions such as extreme storms that are unlikely to occur in a
typical survey period;
• seasonal variations;
• long-term oscillations and inter-annual variability that are not characterized
in a typical survey period;
• effects of climate change.
NOTE Seasonal variability can be very significant for marine operability. In some
parts of the world it is important to recognize different seasonal effects,
e.g. monsoons, which are winds that blow for several months from approximately
one direction.
6.2.2 Meteorological data acquisition

6.2.2.1 Wind
When measuring wind parameters, the following should be taken into account.
• The wind sensor should be sited in clear air and mounted in a way that is
not shielded or impacted by turbulence from near-by structures.
• The wind sensor should be mounted at a height high enough to avoid
turbulence from the ground or sea surface.
• The height of the wind sensor above sea or land height should be recorded.
• Where marine icing is possible, heated sensors should be used.
• Mean wind speed and direction data should be continuously sampled
at 1 Hz and averaged over 10 min periods, and each 10 min average value
recorded, together with the speed and direction of the highest 3 s wind
gust within each 10 min period. Where conditions change rapidly, a
sampling and averaging period of 1 min should be adopted or data should
be stored using a 1 Hz sampling frequency.

Wind records should be processed and presented:

• to adjust speed values to a standard elevation of 10 m above mean sea level
with a specified averaging time of 1 h;
• to calculate averages, maxima and percentage frequency tables;
• to prepare wind roses showing the frequency distribution of wind speed
and direction;
• to calculate extreme wind speed values for different time averaging periods;
• to calculate wind persistence to show the expected duration and number of
occurrences that will exceed or be below a particular wind speed threshold.
NOTE Wind data at open marine locations may be adjusted to a specified
elevation if different from the base measured value using the wind profile given
in BS EN ISO 19901-1.
6.2.2.2 Precipitation
When measuring precipitation, the following should be taken into account.
• The sensor should be sited to avoid shielding by building or other obstacles.
• The sensor should be sited to avoid contamination such as leaves or other
items being blown into the funnel and blocking the sensor.
• Rainfall should be continuously measured over 10 min periods and
each 10 min average value recorded.
Data should be processed and presented as a rainfall intensity frequency and
duration (IFD) chart.
6.2.2.3 Temperature and humidity

When measuring temperature and humidity, the following should be taken into
account.
• The sensor should be sited in clear air away from sources of airborne
contamination, exhaust or vents.
• The sensors should be enclosed in a Stevenson screen to shield
meteorological instruments against precipitation and direct heat radiation,
while still allowing air to circulate freely.
• The proximity to the sea can have a big impact on humidity and daytime
and night-time temperatures in some environments even over short
distances (1 km), so measurements locations should be representative of the
final development location.
• Mean temperature and humidity should be continuously measured
over 10 min periods and each 10 min average value recorded.
Temperature and humidity data should be processed and presented:
• to calculate averages, maxima, minima and percentage frequency tables;
• to calculate temperature persistence to show the expected duration and
number of occurrences that will exceed or be below a particular
temperature and humidity threshold.

6.2.2.4 Visibility
When measuring visibility, optical visibility measurements should be recorded
every 10 min continuously and simultaneously with other meteorological
parameters. If detailed information is required on the rate of change of
variability such as the movement of a fog bank, more frequent measurements
should be recorded over 1 min averaging periods.
Visibility data should be processed and presented:
• to calculate averages, minima and percentage frequency tables;
• to calculate visibility persistence to show the expected duration and number
of occurrences that will exceed or be below a particular visibility threshold.
6.2.2.5 Atmospheric pressure

When measuring atmospheric pressure, the following should be taken into
account.
• The sensor should be sited in clear air, away from large structures or
anywhere that could act to funnel winds and increase velocities, as this can
change the measured pressure in accordance with Bernoulli’s principle.
• The sensors should be mounted with a static pressure head, to minimize
errors due to variations of wind speed and direction.
• Where sensors are housed within a building, a clear path by an air tight
tube should be made to measure the pressure outside the building in
open air.
• Atmospheric pressure changes with height above sea level and should
normally be converted to a mean sea level pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure should be continuously measured over 10 min periods
and each 10 min average value recorded.
NOTE 1 Where pressure measurements are made at a height above sea level,
they may be corrected to a mean sea level pressure using the method for low
level stations described in CIMO Guide, Part I, Chapter 3 [14].
Atmospheric pressure records should be processed and presented:
• to calculate averages, maxima, minima and percentage frequency tables;
• to calculate the maximum rate of change of atmospheric pressure in a
certain period (e.g. 24 h);
• to calculate pressure persistence to show the expected duration and number
of occurrences that will be below a particular atmospheric pressure
threshold.
NOTE 2 Certain low pressure thresholds can be associated with particular types
of weather systems or events.
6.2.2.6 Solar radiation

When measuring solar radiation, the following should be taken into account.
• The sensor should be sited in clear air, away from any structure which could
cast a shadow across the sensor and with good ventilation of domes and
body.
• Solar radiation should be continuously measured over 10 min periods and
each 10 min average value recorded.

Solar radiation records should be processed and presented:

• to calculate averages, maxima, minima, total and percentage frequency
tables;
• to calculate solar radiation persistence to show the expected duration and
number of occurrences that will be below a particular solar radiation
threshold, for the use of solar power systems.
6.2.3 Oceanographic data acquisition

6.2.3.1 Water levels
When measuring water levels using a tide gauge, the following should be taken
into account.
• The gauge should be able to filter out short period level fluctuations due to
wind or wash waves.
• The level of the gauge should be established relative to the local and
project reference vertical survey control datums and datums of local nautical
charts or bathymetric survey data.
• Location and mountings should ensure that the gauge remains stable and
fixed in position and elevation for the duration of observations.
• Where derivation of astronomical harmonic constituents is required, the
duration of measurements should be not less than 30 days.
• Where derivation of astronomical harmonic constituents is required to
produce tidal predictions and tide tables of sufficient accuracy for operating
manuals and planning, the duration of measurements should be not less
than 1 year.
NOTE To permit estimation of extreme values of non-astronomical residuals from
atmospheric effects (such as atmospheric pressure, wind and wave effects, local
run-off and evaporation), the period of tidal observations would need to be of
considerable length, typically not less than 1 year. For projects where information on
water levels is important for operational procedures and planning, e.g. for port and
navigation channel works, it is often most desirable to maintain the tidal gauge in
service through into the operational phase, so that the most complete and accurate
tidal predictions can be included with current atlases, etc. in operating manuals.
6.2.3.2 Currents
When measuring currents, the following should be taken into account.
• Current speed and direction should be measured using direct measurements
of water velocity at fixed points using current meters or acoustic doppler
systems.
• Current speed and direction may be measured indirectly by tracking of
currents by a float or dye to supplement direct measurement and to map
circulation patterns over a wide area.
• At coastal and port locations, currents frequently exhibit spatial variability
both in plan and vertically through the water column. The location and
depth of current measurements should be assessed, taking account of the
expected main flow patterns through the tidal cycle, with particular
reference to flows likely to affect navigation, sediment transport and water
quality, and to any need to provide data to calibrate or verify numerical
current models to be used for planning and design.
• Where derivation of astronomical harmonic constituents of tidal currents is
required, the duration of measurements per location should be not less
than 30 days.

• Where derivation of astronomical harmonic constituents of tidal currents is

required to produce current predictions of sufficient accuracy for operating
manuals and planning, the duration of measurements should be not less
than 1 year.
6.2.3.3 Waves
Wave measurements should be in accordance with BS 6349-1:2000 7), with the
scope, extent and timing of measurements taking account of the full range of
considerations relating to functional, construction, environmental and
operational aspects of planning and design set out in Clause 10.
7 Meteorological effects
7.1 General
The following meteorological parameters should be taken into account in
planning and design:
• wind speed and direction;
• precipitation;
• air temperature and humidity;
• visibility;
• atmospheric pressure;
• solar radiation.
Subclauses 7.2 to 7.7 give further recommendations and guidance regarding
effects that should be taken into account in determining data acquisition
activities for planning purposes, and in determining metocean parameters for
design, execution and operational planning.
7.2 Wind
Wind loading acting directly on structures and indirectly from mooring systems
of moored vessels and other floating facilities should be assessed in accordance
with BS 6349-1:2000 7). In addition to structural loading, wind should be taken
into account in planning and design for execution and safe operations,
including:
• environmental operating limits for vessel arrival, departure, berthing and
cargo transfer;
• environmental operating limits for floating and other construction
equipment.
Wind roses and wind scatter diagrams presented on an annual and seasonal
basis should be used for assessment of marine facilities’ location, layout and
orientation relative to the wind. Daily variations in wind direction and speed can
also affect vessel and cargo transfer operations, and should be assessed and
taken into account.
Wind speed data and statistics should always be qualified in terms of an
elevation and the averaging period used.
NOTE 1 The standard reference elevation for maritime works is 10 m above mean
sea level with a specified averaging time of 1 h.
7)
The clauses in BS 6349-1:2000 that deal with loads and actions are expected to form
part of the new BS 6349-1-2, which is currently in preparation.

Wind speeds used for the assessment of the behaviour of moored or moving
vessels should take into account the size of the vessel and the associated
response period of the vessel to the wind. In the absence of other guidance,
an averaging period of 60 s should be used for assessment of the handling and
mooring of ships such as large oil and gas carriers.
In the absence of detailed or local information on the relationship between
mean hourly wind speeds (U3 600) and gust values, the following relationship
should be used, where t is measured in seconds:
U(t) = U3 600 {1.277 + 0.296 tanh [0.9 log10 (45/t)]}
NOTE 2 Wind acts on the portion of a structure above the water and the wind
speed varies in elevation as well as in time and space. Over the horizontal length
scale of large maritime structures, the mean wind speed averaged over the standard
time period of 1 h does not vary significantly, but for shorter periods the mean
varies and is higher than the hourly mean. Additionally, the shorter duration wind
parameters have more variability spatially. Wind speeds are therefore only
meaningful if they are qualified in terms of an elevation and an averaging period.
For wind parameters, 10 m is the standard elevation, with the averaging period
selected related to the length scale of the structure. For example, a 3 s gust is
spatially coherent over a smaller length scale than the 1 min mean, which is
coherent over a shorter length scale than the 1 h mean.
7.3 Precipitation
Precipitation should be defined in terms of both the amount (depth) and the
length of time (duration) over which the precipitation occurs. These can be
combined to provide a rainfall rate (in mm/h), known as a rainfall intensity.
The frequency or return period for which a particular intensity is exceeded
should be determined. This relationship can vary markedly for different regions
and is important for drainage and loading, as a shorter duration with higher
intensity can cause a maximum peak flow to be exceeded, while a longer storm
can result in a higher depth of rain but a lower intensity. Therefore a rainfall
intensity, frequency and duration (IFD) chart should be generated, which should
show the precipitation rate for a range of durations, typically from 5 min
to 72 h, and a range of return periods, typically 1 year, 2 years, 5 years, 10 years,
20 years, 50 years and 100 years.
The effect, type and intensity of precipitation should be assessed when
considering the following aspects of design:
• drainage design: estimates are needed of the maximum expected rainfall for
different durations for the 1-year, 10-year, 50-year or 100-year return period;
• imposed snow and ice loading: the accretion of snow or ice exerts load on a
structure. Ice can form due to freezing of old wet snow, freezing sea spray
or freezing rain. Structural icing can affect the stability of floating vessels as
well as the operation of equipment including emergency equipment;
• cargo handling: the intensity of rainfall is important with reference to the
type of cargo handled, handling rates and the storage facilities in a port;
• penetration: a high frequency of driving rain can necessitate special
protection for buildings;
• construction delays: frequent rain increases construction time substantially,
especially earth-moving operations.
NOTE Estimates of the effect of precipitation on cargo handling operations and
storage areas are normally made for one in 10 year and one in 1 year events.
• For the one in 10 year precipitation return period, some ponding of water can
usually be accepted in certain locations for a limited period of time, depending

on the type of cargo envisaged, subject to agreement with the end user of
the terminal. Such temporary ponding is usually limited to a maximum depth
of 50 mm.
• For the one in 1 year return period event, the drainage system is usually
designed to clear all water from cargo handling operations and storage areas
without significant ponding.
7.4 Air temperature and humidity

The impact of air temperature and humidity should be assessed to determine
the minimum and maximum air temperatures and the variations in relative
humidity that are likely to be encountered during the life of the structure.
NOTE High or low extremes of temperature and humidity can affect both the
effective operation of equipment and durability of materials. Sustained high
temperatures and humidity increase corrosion rates.
7.5 Visibility
Poor visibility can present a significant hazard to navigation in inshore waters,
and estimates should be made of the expected duration and persistency of
periods of poor visibility.
NOTE 1 The reduction of atmospheric transparency and therefore visibility is caused
by two predominant factors:
• a suspension of extremely small dry particles, called haze;
• suspended microscopic water droplets or wet hygroscopic particles, known as
mist.
NOTE 2 Fog is a term conventionally applied when the horizontal visibility at the
earth’s surface is reduced to less than 1 km.
NOTE 3 Heavy rain and snow also significantly affect visibility.
Caution should be used when studying visibility reports from a station not
directly on the coast, as the phenomenon known as sea fog is usually not
experienced more than 3 km to 4 km inland, and erroneous data can therefore
be extracted for navigation and piloting purposes.
Minimum visibility requirements for vessel approach, departure and
manoeuvring should be agreed with the operator during the design phase,
based upon operational considerations.
NOTE 4 For preliminary purposes for the planning of data collection, it may be
assumed that a limiting visibility of 1 000 m due to fog, dust, rain, snow or other
meteorological effects would prevent approach and departure of large ships such as
oil tankers and gas carriers.
NOTE 5 Visibility often changes sharply near the coast between the widely different
regions of sea and land. At coastal stations of the UK Meteorological Office,
however, the visibility over the land is recorded as standard even if this is different
from the visibility over the sea. The latter is recorded as a remark if it can be
estimated.
7.6 Atmospheric pressure

Values of atmospheric pressure should be corrected to mean sea level, to remove
the influence of altitude on the measurements. Information on pressure
distribution should be used as an input parameter in estimating storm surge.

NOTE The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is the weight of the air that lies
vertically above a unit area. The atmospheric pressure is recorded in millibars 8).
The pressure distribution is used as a basic input parameter in the preparation of
weather and sea state forecasts and, in particular, the influence of pressure on water
level is of importance. A high or low pressure decreases or increases, respectively, the
depth of water to cause a storm surge, either negative or positive.
7.7 Solar radiation

The incoming, reflected and emitted radiation should be used for:
• estimation of the cooling capacity of an area of water and the potential
evaporation in thermal balance equations;
• calculation of size and capability design of solar power systems
(photovoltaic or solar thermal systems);
• calculation of mortality of bacteria released to the sea in sea outfall design
for effluents such as domestic sewage;
• assessment of marine growth or fouling variation with depth in the water
column.
NOTE The life expectancy of bacteria released to the sea is thought to be highly
dependent on the intensity of solar radiation, particularly in the ultraviolet wave
lengths. The effect of light intensity on marine fouling is well illustrated by the
vertical sequence of species found with changing depth on immersed structures.
8 Water levels
Variations in water level at a location of maritime works are caused by a number of
phenomena. The total water level change is made up of astronomical effects and
residual effects, usually due to atmospheric forcing. The underlying long-period
fluctuations in general water level result from astronomical tides. Tides are
generated primarily by the cyclic variations in gravitational attraction of the moon
and the sun on the water masses of the earth. Tidal ranges vary widely around the
world and are affected by geographical factors. The shallow waters surrounding the
British Isles have the effect of increasing the height of the tidal wave considerably;
in the Severn estuary ranges can exceed 15 m. Tidal ranges in the open ocean,
however, are often less than 2 m.
Superimposed shorter period fluctuations and non-periodic variations can be caused
by such factors as atmospheric pressure, wind and wave effects, local run-off and
evaporation.
Unusually high or low barometric pressure, or prolonged periods of strong winds,
can result in differences between actual sea level and the predicted height.
Differences between predicted and actual times of high and low water are caused
mainly by the wind.
A strong wind blowing on shore tends to pile up water against the coast, resulting
in a water level higher than the predicted tidal height. Winds blowing along a coast
tend to set up long waves, which travel along the coast raising the sea level at the
crest and lowering the sea level in the trough. Grouping of waves from distant
storms can produce variations of mean sea level within the group. This results in a
long-period, low-amplitude wave travelling at the same velocity as the group, which,
when it approaches the shore, can cause a higher sea level and thus allow the waves
to run further inshore before they break. A combination of pressure and wind
effects can cause the phenomenon known as a storm surge.
8)
1 mbar = 100 N/m2 = 100 Pa
1 000 mbar ≈ 29.5 in Hg

8.1 Water level effects

The selection of water levels for the determination of actions on structures
should be assessed in accordance with BS 6349-1:2000 9).
The selection of water levels for geotechnical design should be assessed in
accordance with BS 6349-1-3.
Maritime structures should be designed to withstand safely the effects of the
extreme range of still water level from extreme low water to extreme high
water expected during the design life of the structure, taking into account the
astronomical tidal range and the effects of storm surge and long-term sea level
rise. These extremes should be established in relation to the purpose of the
structure and the accepted probability of occurrence.
In addition to structural considerations, the effects of water levels and water
level variations should be taken into account in respect of other functional,
construction and operational aspects of design, including:
• design of navigation channels and assessing under-keel clearance (UKC)
requirements for marine operations;
• assessment of operability and access of construction equipment and vessels;
• estimating of overtopping of coastal and maritime structures, including
flood protection;
• determination of hydrostatic pressures and the level of action of waves and
currents (see BS 6349-1:2000 9));
• for mooring and berthing studies (see BS 6349-4);
• in relation to soil pore water pressures (see BS 6349-1-3);
• drainage discharge capacities;
• prediction of tidal flows in catchments draining into tidal areas.
8.2 Seiches
For fully or partly enclosed bodies of water such as harbours, enclosed bays and
lakes, the potential effects on water levels of seiching should be assessed.
NOTE The passage of an intense depression can cause oscillations in sea level
referred to as a seiche. The period of seiching can be anything from a few minutes
to 2 h, and the height from a few centimetres to 2 m to 3 m. The shape, size and
depth of some harbours make them very susceptible to such effects, increasing their
height often to destructive proportions.
8.3 Surface water run-off

The potential for water levels in estuaries to be raised by river flow originating
from surface water run-off or artesian sources should be assessed. Measures such
as the opening of sluice gates upstream and seasonal flow patterns should be
taken into account.
NOTE High river flows into estuaries can result in local flooding, especially when
coincident with spring high tide.
9)

8.4 Long-term sea level trends

COMMENTARY ON 8.4
Report UKCP09 [N2] provides:
• “absolute” estimates of mean sea level rise based on a number of international
climate models;
• estimates of “relative” sea level rise, which include effects from local estimates
of land uplift or subsidence. An extreme, low probability, “high++” sea level rise
scenario is included, based on previous high sea levels inferred from the
geological record;
• estimates of changes in storm surges and estimates of changes in extreme high
water level. Both of these are produced under a standard IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) emission scenario (A1B) and for a
model based on a “high++” scenario;
• multi-level ocean data. This includes information on water temperatures,
salinity, the stability of the water column (stratification) and ocean currents
around the UK.
The projections are subject to considerable uncertainty. The extent to which these
projections are taken into account in planning and design of maritime works
depends on assessment of the consequences of sea level change for the works in
question and a comparison with the risks to human life and relative economic case
for deferring expenditure and modifying the works in future, if this is feasible.
Where allowances for long-term changes in sea level over the life of the
maritime works are to be included in the design, the allowances for works in
the United Kingdom should be assessed based upon UKCP09 [N2].
9 Currents and water movement

The selection of current velocities and directions for the determination of
actions on structures should be assessed in accordance with BS 6349-1:2000 10).
Maritime structures should be designed to withstand safely the effects of the
extreme range of current velocities and directions expected during the design
life of the structure, taking into account the range of tidal currents from
astronomical tides and other non-tidal residual components of current, including
the effects of permanent ocean currents, river flows and wind-driven currents.
In addition to structural considerations, the effects of currents should be taken
into account in respect of other functional, construction, environmental and
operational aspects of design, including:
• orientation and layout of navigation channels and planning of marine
operations;
• orientation and layout of ports, jetties, quays and berths for navigation and
marine operability;
• assessment of operability and access of construction equipment and vessels;
• mooring and berthing studies (see BS 6349-4);
• effects on water quality (see Clause 11);
• effects on sediment transport, including scour (see Clause 12).
10)

Currents vary with depth and with time at any location and the proposed
maritime works can have a significant effect on the existing current regime, so
numerical modelling should be used to assess any change in currents caused by
the proposed works. Such assessments should be used in design and in
navigation, operability and mooring studies. Numerical models of current
conditions used for detailed design and operational planning should be
validated against current measurements for the existing current regime at the
site of the works.
When assessing current effects on moored or manoeuvring vessels, the current
velocity used should be depth-averaged over the draught of the vessel based on
the current–depth profile established for the location. The current
velocity–depth profile should be established by representative measurements at
the site location or from published empirical relationships applying to the local
flow regime.
NOTE 1 The largest scale global water movements are the permanent ocean
currents. These currents are the result of the response of the ocean and atmosphere
to the global distribution of solar energy and the resultant flow of energy from the
tropics to the poles. The surface ocean current systems correspond quite closely to
the generalized global atmospheric circulation and shift seasonally with the passage
of the overhead sun. Good local descriptions of these basic water movements can be
found in the Admiralty Pilot series of publications [13].
NOTE 2 The local currents (both speed and direction) are a combination of both
tidal forcing, which is predictable, and residual effects, which are not predictable.
They are usually the result of permanent ocean currents, direct or indirect
atmospheric forcing and local effects such as run-off or density-driven. In the coastal
zone, where tidal currents are strong, they normally dominate residual current, but
in many areas of the ocean, where the tidal range is approximately 2 m, tidal
currents are low and residual currents dominate the current regime.
NOTE 3 ISO 21650:2007, Annex C provides typical empirical relationships for current
velocity with depth.
10 Waves
Wave conditions are frequently the most dominant effect, both in the structural
design of maritime works in the coastal zone and, in conjunction with wind and
currents, in putting limits on marine operability. When designing maritime works it is
necessary to obtain comprehensive information defining the expected sea state for
the site of interest as essential information in determining normal operating
conditions, extreme operating conditions and environmental conditions to be
considered as accidental design situations.
The selection of wave conditions for the determination of actions on structures
should be assessed in accordance with BS 6349-1:2000 11).
Maritime works should be designed to withstand safely the effects of the
extreme range of wave conditions expected during the design life of the
structure.
In addition to structural considerations, the effects of waves should be taken
into account in respect of other functional, construction, environmental and
operational aspects of design, including:
• response of and effects on sediment transport, including scour
(see Clause 12);
11)

• orientation and layout of navigation channels and planning of marine

operations (see Clause 19);
• orientation and layout of ports, jetties, quays and berths for navigation and
marine operability, including the definition of design stage operating limits
(see Clause 19 and Clause 20);
• assessment of operability of construction equipment and vessels;
• mooring and berthing (see Clause 20 and BS 6349-4);
• wave run-up, overtopping, reflection, diffraction, transmission and other
such interactions at structures, shorelines and coastal features.
Preliminary information on wave conditions for the planning phase should be
obtained from relevant sources (see Commentary on Clause 6).
Whichever source of data is used, it should be assessed to verify whether or not
it is representative of the precise locality under consideration, the nature of the
proposed maritime works and operations proposed, and also to what extent the
proposed works are likely to change the wave conditions in the locality of or
remote from the works.
Wave conditions derived from measurements or hindcast predictions at offshore
or deeper water (relative to the works location) should be transformed to the
point of interest, taking account of shallow water effects which act at the
location such as bed friction, refraction, shoaling, breaking, reflection and
diffraction.
NOTE 1 Multiple models might need to be used when transforming conditions
from observations or hindcast predictions from locations remote from the area of
interest. A far-field or regional model is often used to transform from an offshore
location to the area of interest. A near-field or local model is then used to simulate
conditions locally to the works, including diffraction and other effects, to assess the
more complex sea states around and behind local structures, including both existing
and proposed breakwaters, dredged channels, training walls, etc.
Wave conditions are likely to vary spatially at inshore locations near and around
proposed maritime works. Numerical and/or physical modelling should be used
to assess the change in wave conditions caused by the proposed works.
Such assessments should be used in design and in environmental, navigation,
operability and mooring studies.
Inshore wave observations should be made to validate numerical models to
enable reasonably accurate wave predictions, especially where the bathymetry is
complex.
NOTE 2 An example is when offshore sand banks and bars are present, in which
case the behaviour of waves is likely to be highly non-linear due to effects such as
wave breaking and reformation.
When deriving characteristic wave and other coexisting metocean conditions for
design, account should be taken of the use to which they are to be put in the
design and planning process, noting the following.
• Conditions used for design should be appropriate to the design method,
structural type and failure consequence. Failure consequence should be
assessed by the designer in conjunction with the operator, based upon the
type of facility, nature of operations and cargo, nature of the local
environment and any hazardous materials stored or handled.
• Conditions used for the derivation of wave actions for structural design
should be combinations of waves and other relevant metocean parameters
for extreme conditions at appropriate joint probability of occurrence.

• Conditions for assessment of run-up and overtopping should include

combinations of waves and other relevant metocean parameters at joint
probability of occurrence appropriate to the use and function of the works,
taking into account any operational restrictions on access that are proposed
to be included in the facility operating manual.
• For assessment of operability of vessels, wave conditions should be defined
under conditions that are relevant to normal and extreme operating
conditions, including when vessels are navigating to and from the maritime
works or when they are moored and transferring cargo. In this respect, the
annual and seasonal variability of wave conditions, in combination with
other limiting metocean parameters, should be statistically and visually
characterized using scatter diagrams, wave roses and vector plots or similar
means suitable for use in design, including definition of design stage
operating limits.
• In situations where large vessels or structures are to be moored inshore or
inside harbours that are in a relatively exposed location, the risk of
significant infragravity wave energy being present should be assessed.
Where appropriate, local wave measurement should include instrumentation
to characterize infragravity wave energy.
• Where the wave data are to be used for the design of a beach, or beach
management operations or structures, the design should take into account
the annual and inter-annual wave climate – height, period and direction, in
addition to extremes. The design should take into account the frequency
distribution of the wave energy spectrum, as longer period (swell) waves
can often be more damaging to a beach than shorter period waves of
greater height within the wave spectrum.
NOTE 3 Further guidance on investigation, prediction and extrapolation for both
the offshore and inshore wave climates are expected to be included in BS 6349-1-2,
which is currently in preparation.
11 Water quality
11.1 General
The effect of water quality on the safe and efficient functioning of the structure
should be assessed. Such an evaluation should take into account local conditions
on temperature, corrosive elements, suspended solids, marine growth and other
such parameters. Where local data on these conditions are not available, surveys
and data acquisition should be carried out to obtain data sufficient for design.
NOTE The influence of the structure on the water quality and other features of the
surrounding environment, i.e. the environmental impact, is covered in Clause 4.
The environmental effects, which are reviewed in 11.2 to 11.6, refer to the effect of
water quality on the maritime works.
11.2 Water temperature

11.2.1 General
The water temperature should be assessed taking account of seasonal
temperature variations and stratification of the water.
NOTE 1 Significant stratification can exist in areas where there is a thermal effluent
or in estuaries with high freshwater discharge, but often the water column is close
to isothermal due to strong turbulent mixing.

The effects of temperature variation should be taken into account as follows.

a) Ice formation. The potential of sea icing forming should be taken into
account when the water temperatures fall below −2 °C. The situation where
ice masses can form elsewhere and float into the area of the structure
should be taken into account, even in circumstances where the water is
considerably warmer. When assessing icing on a structure, the effects of
wind strength and air temperature should be taken into account.
NOTE 2 Icing is unlikely to occur until sea surface temperatures fall below 6 °C.
b) Corrosion. The potential for higher temperatures to increase the rate of iron
oxide formation and cause significant effects on bacterial corrosion should
be taken into account.
c) Marine growth. The potential for higher temperatures to promote higher
rates of encrustation on a structure and to vary the species of organisms
present should be taken into account.
d) Effluent dispersion. The effects of temperature on the density of seawater
and its salinity should be taken into account when modelling the behaviour
of an effluent immediately after release.
11.2.2 Measurement
A suitable choice of method of measuring temperature should be made, taking
into account the particular requirements of the structure.
NOTE Different applications require different methods of measurement. Surface
temperature variations over a large area can be determined using infrared
techniques from either an aircraft or satellite. Variation at a point can be monitored
by comparison of multiple passes of the remote sensing apparatus. On a smaller
scale or where depth profiles are required, continuous or repetitive measurements
are taken using thermal sensors, such as thermistors, resistance bulbs, thermocouples
and mercury-in-glass thermometers.
11.3 Chemical composition

The chemical composition of the water should be determined at an early stage
of the site investigations, with particular attention being paid to potentially
corrosive elements such as chloride and sulfate ions.
Coastal water is normally fully saturated with oxygen at the surface but, if there
is little vertical mixing, the oxygen content decreases with depth. Under normal
circumstances this decrease is unlikely to have a significant effect unless
anaerobic conditions are reached, but the local distribution and seasonal
variation should be taken into account when siting outfalls to discharge
effluents that could act as reducing agents.
NOTE The important chemical parameters are usually analysed directly or measured
with selective ion electrodes, either in the field or in the laboratory.
11.4 Turbidity
The effects of turbidity and suspended sediment should be taken into account in
harbour design, with special reference to sedimentation and maintenance
dredging requirements. The effects of turbidity and suspended sediment should
also be taken into account when it is planned to abstract water for industrial or
utility purposes, particularly with regard to design of intakes, filters and screens.
The risk of blockages of water channels and pipes and wear on pumps should be
assessed.
NOTE 1 Turbidity is usually caused by suspended clay or silt particles, dispersed
organics and micro-organisms. A lower water temperature increases the amount of
sediment that can be transported in suspension due to the viscosity change.

NOTE 2 Fine suspended sediment and living organisms in turbid water can also be
drawn into the ballast systems of vessels using marine facilities. This can have
operational consequences for harbour authorities or vessel operators in highly turbid
environments, or where certain species are present and which therefore might
require investigation at the design stage.
During the planning of the dredging and reclamation works, the effects on
turbidity that can occur during dredging operations should be allowed for. An
assessment should also be made to reduce the risk that disposed dredged
material is not wholly or partly re-deposited back into the dredged area.
It is sometimes possible for dredging operations to release potentially harmful
substances into suspension that were present in fine sediment. The possible
existence of such harmful substances, and the possibility of degradation of
structural materials caused by release or redeposition of harmful substances,
should be taken into account in design.
NOTE 3 Guidance on turbidity from dredging and reclamation is given in BS 6349-5.
11.5 Marine life

The effects of marine organisms, including algae, molluscs, bacteria, crustacea,
etc., attaching themselves to a maritime structure should be taken into account
and, where appropriate, measures should be taken to control or limit marine
growth. Particular attention should be paid to the potential for marine growth
to occur in intake and discharge pipes, where such growth can cause blockages,
impose or increase mechanical stresses, accelerate degradation, retard flow or
impede inspections for maintenance or certification purposes.
For structures with timber elements, it should be taken into account in the
design that they can be affected by boring organisms as well as
surface-attaching species.
For steel structures, the presence of molluscs on the surface can inhibit
corrosion, and it should be determined whether or not their removal is
beneficial before taking action to remove them.
NOTE Methods of controlling marine growth include the use of anti-fouling paints,
scraping by hand or mechanical removal by water- or air-jetting.
11.6 Pollution
The effects of water-borne pollution on the structure should be taken into
account.
NOTE 1 Some trade effluents, if insufficiently diluted, can accelerate the
deterioration of concrete and steel.
NOTE 2 The effect of oil spillages is usually benign with respect to structural
condition, but the surface coating makes inspection difficult.
NOTE 3 Pollution can act as nutrients or deterrents to bacteria, significantly
affecting microbial induced corrosion.
12 Sediment transport
12.1 General
In any operation, dredging or construction works involving the alteration of the
nearshore hydrodynamic regime, or when carrying out capital dredging of new
or modified navigation or other channels in a seabed or estuary, the subsequent
effects on sediment movement and shoreline and bed morphology should be
taken into account.

The uncertainty associated with any such assessment should be taken into
account and, where possible, the effects of the uncertainty on predicted
sedimentation should be evaluated (see Dynamics of marine sands [15], which
contains a short section on uncertainties). Where appropriate, a probabilistic
approach to estimation of sediment transport and shore or bed morphology
should be adopted to quantify the effect of uncertainty in predictions.
NOTE An example of an uncertainty analysis using a probabilistic method is
described in Uncertainty analysis of the mud infill prediction of the Olokola LNG
approach channel – Towards a probabilistic infill prediction [16].
Existing baseline sediment movements prior to any works should be assessed to
provide a basis for comparison of impacts for different proposed future
scenarios.
In some cases, for instance, if works are being carried out in order to mitigate
the effects of coastal erosion, the circumstance giving rise to the problem might
be known already to some degree, in which case attention can be focused on
designing works or on developing management strategies to alleviate the
problem. However, design should ensure that works aimed at solving a local
sedimentation or erosion problem do not lead to unintended and potentially
adverse impacts remote from the works.
Assessment of the effects on sediment transport should take into account the
scale and extent of the effects appropriate to the particular circumstances,
ranging from effects local to a structure to effects at regional scale covering a
length of coastline forming a sediment cell in a coastal zone management
regime.
Assessments of impact of works on sedimentation and erosion should seek to
ensure that reasonable confidence can be achieved that unintended and
unforeseen effects on the sediment environment can be avoided or managed.
12.2 Assessing the present sediment transport regime

COMMENTARY ON 12.2
In this subclause, the term “currents” generally refers to tidal currents and river
discharge. Wave-generated currents are considered with waves in 12.2.7.3.
There is often ambiguity arising from use of the terms “wave” and “current” in
sediment transport. Wind waves (i.e. waves generated by the wind) and swells have
currents associated with them due to motions in the water column that reverse as
the trough and then the crest pass over a section of sea bed. Thus sediment is
moved back and forth by successive waves, with only a small net movement. This net
movement due to waves (i.e. to the wave-induced periodically reversing currents
associated with the waves) is small, and only generally important when considering
waves normally incident (and therefore sediment movement directly on- or offshore)
to a section of coast. This net sediment transport rate is typically very small and
notoriously difficult to estimate. The other important wave-generated currents for
sediment transport are associated with the hydrodynamics of waves breaking at
shorelines and coastal structures, which give rise to longshore sediment transport.
Wind-generated currents also exist, but except in very shallow water they are
generally mainly a surface phenomenon and are less significant for sediment
transport.
12.2.1 General
At the planning and early conceptual design phases, before commissioning
detailed studies into assessing sediment transport rates, existing information and
knowledge should be sought.

Possible sources should be consulted for knowledge of existing sediment

movement, including net erosion and deposition, although this frequently only
exists in qualitative form.
In the event that no such information exists, or to supplement and confirm
limited existing data, sediment movements should be estimated. This should be
done either by direct or indirect measurement of sediment transport rates, or by
inferring rates from local wave and current conditions.
12.2.2 Existing knowledge of sediment movement

At a coastal location, knowledge of sediment movements often exists, in the
form of observations of bathymetric changes (e.g. by observation of bathymetry
at low tide, or of breaking wave patterns, or by knowledge of shipping lanes
and how they might shift). Searches of scientific and engineering literature
should be undertaken to establish whether any relevant previous studies exist.
Maritime authorities, district councils, port, harbour and pilotage authorities,
local trawler and fishing boat operators, local newspapers and any local
university might have relevant information and experience, and should be
consulted.
Much of the UK coast is subject to shoreline management plans (SMPs, see
Annex A), the exception being Northern Ireland. Where proposed maritime
works are within an existing SMP, the SMP should be consulted at an early stage
of planning and conceptual design to obtain information on the coastal
environment, coastal morphology and coastal management.
12.2.3 Bathymetry
Charts or other available surveys covering the area of interest should be used
(see also Clause 5) to obtain an accurate local bathymetry of an extent
appropriate to the scale of the works.
A sequence of surveys covering both decadal and seasonal changes should be
consulted if available.
Satellite and airborne images of coastal regions can provide high density,
synoptic data of a coastal region and should be consulted and evaluated where
they are available.
NOTE Comparison of surveys taken in different years and/or decades can either
reveal a trend for sediment and bed-form movement, or at least characterize a
degree of natural variation even if trends are not obvious.
12.2.4 Local currents and wave conditions

Currents – tidal or, at an estuary, fluvial, or wave-generated (e.g. longshore) –
are mainly responsible for transporting sediment. Therefore, a reasonable,
qualitative picture of sediment transport (sometimes termed sediment pathways)
should be constructed by developing a realistic understanding of the current
and wave regime at a site of interest.
NOTE 1 At some locations and for fine muddy sediments, near-bed sediment
density currents can also be an important mechanism of sediment transport in
muddy environments such as navigation channels in ports.
NOTE 2 Waves are mostly responsible for mobilizing sediment that is subsequently
moved by wave-generated, tidal or density currents.
The sources noted in 12.2.2 should also be consulted to obtain an idea of local
currents and wave conditions and their variation. Currents and waves are more
readily observable than changes in morphology. Records of direct measurements
of wave conditions might be available locally, or can be estimated by

transformation from offshore measurements. Direct measurements of currents

(typically to confirm positions and estimates of flood and ebb tides) should be
undertaken, if none exist and reliable estimates from numerical models are not
available.
The flood and ebb tides are the result of the interaction of the tidal wave and
the local bathymetry. The high tide can be visualized as the crest and low tide as
the trough of the tidal wave. The associated local tidal currents are complex and
asymmetric in nature, and therefore flood and ebb currents are unlikely directly
to oppose each other in direction, magnitude and duration. This leads to
significant net (residual) currents. Residual currents are very important in
assessing sediment movements due to tides and should therefore be assessed
and quantified at both spring and neap tides.
Information on tides and tidal elevations is important for sediment transport
assessment, and tide tables, charts and other related information sources should
be obtained and reviewed. Tide levels at locations in between stations can be
interpolated for planning and concept design purposes, and the following
should be taken into account.
• The tidal range, though not directly influencing sediment movement,
reveals the extent of the intertidal region (if not already known) and
therefore the potential for sediment to be mobilized.
• Water depths influence local wave heights and the potential for waves to
mobilize sediments.
Currents caused by tides can be complicated, not least due to local bathymetry.
Efforts should therefore be made to obtain any knowledge of direction of
movement and phasing of tides, to help predict the current pattern if this is not
known, or to help validate and calibrate numerical models to be used for
assessment and design.
NOTE 3 The interaction of river discharge and tide at an estuarine location leads,
typically, to intense and complex patterns of currents, and sometimes causes very
dynamic changes in bed morphology. Moderate to large discharges and a large tidal
range exacerbate these interactions. Furthermore, because of fluvial sediment
discharge, estuarine regions can be very complex in terms of sediment types.
Knowledge of these environments is particularly important in these regions.
Wave conditions should be assessed to provide information on prevailing
directions, periods and heights (see Clause 6 and Clause 10) and therefore of the
potential for wave-induced sediment movement. Information on wave
conditions should be obtained:
• from measurements at or near to the area of interest; or
• by numerical modelling to estimate conditions at or near to the area of
interest from an offshore wave climate (obtained in turn from offshore
wave measurement or a hindcast model or some combination of these).
Sediment movement due to waves before they break at a shoreline is typically
back and forth, as, respectively, the trough and crest pass over the sea bed.
Although the net movement is usually very small, it can be important where the
prevailing wave motion is onshore/offshore, especially on a seasonal scale,
where it can sometimes result in the movement of a sand bar onshore (summer)
and offshore (winter). In a study at an open coast this possible seasonal
variation should be accounted for in any works proposed.
Waves also generate significant currents when they interact with the shoreline.
Two such currents are common: longshore and rip currents.
• Longshore currents, which flow along the direction of the shore, usually
have a profound effect on the sediment movement and should be taken
into account in any assessment of sediment transport at shorelines.

• Rip currents, which are offshore flowing, might be of less importance to

sediment transport, although they provide a potential sediment pathway
through the breaker zone. Rip currents can pose a risk to bathers and
should be taken into account in circumstances where such currents might be
induced or intensified by proposed works (including where reef structures or
offshore nourishment are proposed).
NOTE 4 Longshore currents (and rips) can only exist where waves are breaking,
usually quite energetically. Estimation of alongshore sediment transport is described
in 12.2.7.3.2.
NOTE 5 Many sites worldwide are current- or wave-dominated; in British waters it
is unusual for tidal effects to be negligible.
12.2.5 Local sediment types

The sediment size (typically characterized by Dz0, the median grain size) at the
site of interest should be assessed at the planning and early conceptual design
stage. This should be done using available local information, or by sampling
sediment at particular sites of interest, or by a combination of both of these,
recognizing the potential for wide variability of sediment types in a region or
area of interest.
NOTE 1 Typically, coarser sediments such as sand are moved only along the bed
(bed load), whereas finer sediment can be entrained in the water column and
transported significant distances at the current speed. Sediments can originate
locally (from cliffs or further offshore), or be transported into the area by a current
(river or tidal or longshore).
In addition to particle size distribution, sediment should also be characterized by
physical properties, particularly whether cohesive or not.
NOTE 2 Fine sediment can be cohesive (clays: Dz0 <0.008 mm) or non-cohesive
(silts: 0.008 mm < Dz0 < 0.062 mm). Generally speaking, fine sand
0.062 mm < Dz0 < 0.2 mm is most readily moved. Fine cohesive material is more
resistant to entrainment and coarser material moves less readily because of the
larger mass of the particles. The behaviour of muddy sediments in near bed density
currents is also influenced by the rheological parameter, which can in turn be
influenced by the mineralogy of the sediment.
NOTE 3 For sediment classifications and information on detailed characterization
and data collection requirements, guidance is given in Manual sediment transport
measurements in rivers, estuaries and coastal seas [17], Dynamics of marine
sands [15] and, for muddy coasts, Introduction to the physics of cohesive sediment
dynamics in the marine environment [18].
12.2.6 Local sediment mobilization

NOTE 1 Sediment usually moves in response to water movements and is governed
by them. Therefore, if no significant water motions occur at the location at which
works are to be carried out, it is possible that there is no significant sediment
movement.
For waves, as a preliminary guide for planning and early conceptual design, it
may be assumed that if the local minimum water depth (e.g. at MLWS) is
typically greater than half the wavelength associated with the spectral peak
wave period at that location, then the influence of waves will not be felt by the
sediment. Where a sea is significantly bimodal, the lowest frequency spectral
peak should be taken into account. This criterion can be expressed as:
g tanh 2 ⇒ possible sediment mobilization by waves
h Tp
4

Additionally, however, account should be taken of large wave heights,

regardless of period, particularly because extreme events are likely to be
incorporated into the design criteria.
NOTE 2 Dynamics of marine sands [15] provides a further formula that can be used
to make a preliminary estimate of the relationship between the water depth and
the significant wave height associated with sediment mobilization as follows:
h < 10Hs ⇒ wave height long enough to mobilize sediment
Other methods of estimation are possible based on so-called depth of closure, but
they are less conservative and more difficult to apply. If one or both of these criteria
are satisfied it can be assumed that sediment is being mobilized by waves.
For tidal currents, in a region in which MLWS is greater than 4 m depth on a
sandy bed, a near surface (i.e. less than a third of the local depth from the
surface) peak tidal current (i.e. ebb or flood, but excluding any wave
component) of less than 0.3 m/s indicates that sediment at the bed is probably
not being mobilized by the current; otherwise it should be assumed that
sediment mobilization due to the current is occurring.
NOTE 3 These estimates are crude and do not account for the effect of local bed
forms (e.g. ripples, sand waves) or of significant local slopes (i.e. gravity), but they
are based on typical sand grain diameters. These estimates also apply for
quasi-steady currents driven by local sea-surface gradients, river outflows and other
sources.
For currents in shallower water (including tidal currents, river outflows and
longshore currents), it should be assumed that sediment can be mobilized.
Any area of sea bed subject to wetting and drying (e.g. intertidal, or swash
region) should be assumed to be subject to erosion and deposition, and this
should be taken into account in any such project undertaken thereon. Assessing
this can be difficult, and expert opinion should be sought.
Even if it is determined that there is no local mobilization of sediment, it should
be determined whether that fine material might already be in suspension,
entrained elsewhere, and that deposition of this material (perhaps because of
the reduced velocities here) might be a feature of the region. The amount of
entrained material should be determined by local sampling in combination with
local knowledge supplemented with the analysis of satellite images (if available);
see 12.2.3.
If neither currents nor waves are considered to be important, the possible
effects of scour should still be taken into account, because if induced (e.g. by a
pile), near-bed accelerations can lead to significant removal of material and
therefore to destabilization of a structure.
NOTE 4 If waves (in the form of a maximum near-bed orbital velocity) and steady
currents (in the form of a depth-averaged current) have the same associated velocity,
the waves are more likely to mobilize (though not necessarily transport) sediment.
This is because the boundary layer associated with the waves periodically reverses
and therefore never develops much. It is consequently much thinner than that
associated with the steady current and therefore exerts a significantly greater bed
shear stress.

12.2.7 Estimating sediment transport rates in the area of interest

12.2.7.1 General
When an assessment of the currents and wave conditions in the area of interest
has been made, sediment transport rates should be estimated using one or more
of the following methods:
• desk study;
• numerical model study;
• in-situ measurements.
In some cases numerical model studies may be supplemented by physical model
studies.
NOTE It is also possible to use physical model studies to assess sediment transport
rates, but it is unusual for a physical model to be undertaken to assess existing
sediment transport rates alone. Physical modelling is described further only in
respect of assessment of the impact of proposed works in 12.3.
Quantitative estimates for sediment transport rates are subject to significant
uncertainty and are unlikely to be available from purely local knowledge.
Scientific and engineering literature might therefore be an important source of
information on transport rates and should be sought when available.
Evidence of larger scale effects and morphology resulting from the sediment
transport regime is more likely to be available from local knowledge. Such
information should also be sought and interpreted to assess sediment transport
rates.
Whether currents or waves or (more usually) both pertain at the study site is
important in gauging an accurate picture of the sediment transport pattern.
Usually in the UK, both are significant sediment transport drivers, and
assessment of wave and current conditions should be part of the sediment
transport assessment.
12.2.7.2 Estimating transport due to currents
12.2.7.2.1 General
In a purely tidal environment, most sand moves as bed load, whereas silt and
muds are more likely to be entrained. Where entrainment occurs, it is likely to
account for the majority of sediment transported. Concentrations of entrained
sediment increase toward the bed, so sampling, if undertaken, should take
account of this. In a highly energetic environment (e.g. flows where the current
is a substantial proportion of the wave celerity, such as some fluvially dominated
estuaries or other estuaries at certain tidal phases, or some regions with large
tidal currents), particular account should be taken of suspended load, and the
whole water column might contain significant concentrations.
12.2.7.2.2 Desk study

Desk studies should be undertaken to estimate existing sediment transport rates
from local currents (and taking into account waves when appropriate as
described in 12.2.7.3). If measurements exist or have been made, these should be
used to test the accuracy of estimates obtained from sediment transport
formulae.
Estimation of transport rates should be carried out at a large enough number of
locations so as to reveal a picture of sediment movement associated with
prevailing currents (in the case of tides, on both ebb and flood phases of spring
and neap tides).

Transport rates should be estimated using appropriate published sediment

transport formulae for currents and information on sediment grain sizes and
depths at the location being studied. Suspended and bed load rates should be
assessed separately.
NOTE 1 Examples of guidance on current-induced sediment transport rates in
published literature include Dynamics of marine sands [15] and Mechanics of coastal
sediment transport [19].
A first assessment of the uncertainty in estimates should be made, taking into
account uncertainty in key parameters and in different calculation methods. In
particular, at least two sediment transport formulae (for each phase, suspended
and bed) should be utilized to obtain an idea of variation arising solely from the
estimation method.
NOTE 2 Total load (bed load plus suspended load) formulae also exist and can be
used instead of separate equivalents.
12.2.7.2.3 Numerical model study

In most coastal and estuarine locations, numerical model studies of sediment
transport should be carried out using a model that includes both current- and
wave-induced transport.
NOTE This allows different scenarios of waves and current combinations to be
assessed and compared in the same context using the same model. Numerical
modelling of current- and wave-driven transport is described in 12.2.7.3.
12.2.7.2.4 In-situ measurements

It is possible to obtain in-situ measurements of sediment transport rates both as
suspended load and bed load at locations where currents predominate.
Specialist advice should be obtained for planning and specifying in-situ
measurement campaigns, and the following factors should be taken into
account.
• When sampling of suspended load is proposed in water depths in excess
of 4 m, the minimum sampling that should be undertaken for an initial
assessment of the existing regime is point (grab) sampling. For each
sampling location, at least six samples should be taken, with at least three
in the lowest one third of the water column, the lowest being 0.5 m above
the sea bed. In some circumstances, if the sea bed is composed of very fine
sediments and the water is turbid, the sea bed itself should be defined by a
certain value of sediment concentration.
• Sediment traps may be used to measure bed load sediment transport rates
where bed load is significant.
NOTE 1 Measurement of bed load under currents is usually more difficult than
measuring suspended load. Examples of guidance on methods of in-situ
measurements of sediment transport rates in published literature include Manual
sediment transport measurements in rivers, estuaries and coastal seas [17].
NOTE 2 Annex C gives guidance on methods of sediment transport data
acquisition.
NOTE 3 For non-cohesive sediments, only coarser materials are likely to move as
bed load.

12.2.7.3 Estimating transport due to waves
12.2.7.3.1 General
In a wave-dominated environment, sediment can move as both suspended load
and bed load. For assessment of sediment transport effects, a wave-dominated
environment should be deemed to be one in which waves have the potential to
cause transport of sediments on the bed.
NOTE Typically the bed might be considered to be “felt” by the waves if the
wavelength is greater than twice the local depth. Because the current associated
with the waves reverses direction once every wave period, net transport by waves is
usually small outside the surf zone when waves are breaking. In such conditions, the
importance of waves is usually to mobilize and entrain sediment that is subsequently
transported by any prevailing currents. In the breaking zone at beaches, waves can
give rise to significant currents such as the important case of alongshore
wave-generated currents. Breaking waves can entrain relatively coarse sand and
gravel, albeit for short distances, which drives the beach profile and which, in storm
events, can cause rapid change of profile and/or breaching.

In cases where it is clear that specifically net, wave-only sediment transport is to
be estimated (e.g. estimating onshore/offshore sediment transport due to waves
only), a desk study estimating sediment transport rates from local waves only
should be carried out.
Only a few empirical formulae exist that can be used for estimating wave-only
sediment transport, and their associated uncertainty is typically larger than those
for currents only or for waves and currents. In view of this, particular attention
should be paid to assessing variations in predictions due to uncertainties in
formula parameters, in addition to uncertainties in input parameters.
Different empirical formulae are used to estimate separately onshore and
offshore phases of transport due to waves, so the net transport is the difference
of these estimates. Interpretation of such empirically based estimates should
take into account the inherent uncertainties. Wherever possible, empirical
assessments should be supplemented by information from local and/or expert
knowledge, including from observations of seasonal or longer term bathymetric
changes, to infer knowledge of onshore/offshore transport, provided that
alongshore transport is known not to be significant.
At shorelines, waves acting alone create the alongshore sediment transport
mechanism known as littoral drift that is the dominant morphological regime of
many coastal shores. Littoral drift is a combination of sediment movement by
alongshore currents and swash (i.e. waves running up the beach at an angle and
then running back down perpendicular to the beach). Where waves impinge at
a non-normal angle to the prevailing shoreline, littoral drift may be estimated.
An appropriate empirical formula should be selected to estimate alongshore
sediment transport based upon specialist literature or advice taking into account
wave angle and height at breaking.
NOTE Examples of guidance on sources of formulae for assessing wave-induced
transport are given in Dynamics of marine sands [15] and Mechanics of coastal
sediment transport [19]. Such formulae estimate the sediment transport over the
whole of the surf zone, although where there is a substantial tidal range, this region
moves up and down the shore.

Numerical modelling of wave-induced sediment transport should conform
to 12.2.7.4.2.


Measuring net movement due to waves is very uncertain since it represents the
difference between two large quantities. Similarly, making measurements in the
surf zone is demanding and unlikely to be effective. Direct or indirect in-situ
measurements of wave-induced sediment transport is unlikely to be feasible in
most cases, although specialist advice should be taken in circumstances when it
is considered necessary to support other means of assessment.
12.2.7.4 Estimating transport due to waves and currents

NOTE In most situations sediment transport is due to the effects of currents and
waves. In this subclause, “waves and currents” typically means waves plus a current
that is not directly generated by waves, rather than the alongshore currents
associated with breaking waves and generating littoral drift as referred to
in 12.2.7.2.

As recommended for transport due to currents in 12.2.7.2, in order to assess
uncertainty, at least two estimates should be obtained using different empirical
formulae. Specific formulae should be used that account for both waves and
currents. Uncertainties in both empirical formulae and input parameters should
be assessed quantitatively.
NOTE Examples of sources of formulae for assessing wave and current induced
transport are given in Dynamics of marine sands [15] and Mechanics of coastal
sediment transport [19].

Desk studies should normally be followed by a numerical model study of the
sediment transport rates. Models should be compared with measured data,
surveys or other local knowledge to demonstrate model validity for the specific
local environment.
NOTE A numerical model study can provide a comprehensive overview of transport
rates and sedimentation/erosion in the vicinity. Equally important, given
uncertainties in estimates, it can provide a baseline for comparison with predictions
with works in place, as well as comparisons with selected estimates from a desk
study. Once set up, the numerical model can also be used to assess individual effects
of waves and currents if required.

Measurements of sediment transport due to waves and currents should where
possible be made separately for each component of:
• wave-induced transport;
• current-induced transport;
• bed load; and
• suspended load.
Specialist advice should be sought in planning and executing campaigns of
in-situ measurements of sediment transport.
NOTE 1 In most cases, in addition to sediment transport measurements,
simultaneous wind, water, current, temperature and salinity data is required, and it
is often appropriate to integrate sediment measurements into a wider program of
data acquisition.

NOTE 2 In some circumstances, it might be appropriate to consider measuring

sedimentation by use of a trial trench. This method can be used to obtain an
estimate of accretion rates when waves, currents or waves and currents are
experienced. A trench (typically oriented at 90° to the prevailing current direction)
can be dredged and its infill rate monitored to infer an approximate transport rate,
by assuming that all bed load and a fraction of suspended load is deposited in the
trench. This method is normally used only when works similar to the trial trench are
to be carried out (e.g. a navigation channel), and survey methods and interpretation
of results need to be carefully considered.
12.3 Assessing impacts of works on sediment transport

12.3.1 General
Once some idea of the sediment transport regime that pertains at present has
been obtained, the effects of any proposed works or of different design options
for the works should be assessed.
This should be done by means of a numerical model study using a model that
has been validated against existing baseline conditions as described in 12.2.
Physical models should be used to supplement numerical model studies when
numerical modelling is insufficient to represent applicable processes.
NOTE 1 The assessment of scour effects and for the design of local scour protection
works is an example of a situation where the use of physical modelling can be
beneficial.
Specialist advice should be sought in respect of physical model studies; scale
effects (typically, non-cohesive sediment scaling down to a size that is cohesive)
can cause serious problems with such tests when a large spatial extent is to be
modelled. At a smaller scale, scour can usefully be assessed in a physical model
test.
In all cases, uncertainty in assessment of impacts should be quantified. In most
cases when using complex numerical models, a deterministic approach to design
should be taken and assessment of uncertainty should be undertaken, by
investigating consequences of credible ranges of values for input and model
parameters. However, it might in some circumstances be appropriate to address
uncertainties more comprehensively using probabilistic assessment techniques.
NOTE 2 An example of a probabilistic approach to a channel infill assessment is
given in Uncertainty analysis of the mud infill prediction of the Olokola LNG
approach channel – Towards a probabilistic infill prediction [16].
12.3.2 Scour
COMMENTARY ON 12.3.2
Scour is the local removal of sediment due to a change in the hydrodynamic regime
resulting from the following mechanisms:
• introduction of a new structure or channel or modifying an existing structure or
channel or basin;
• the direct action of vessel propulsion systems.
Scour from vessel propulsion systems can be very severe and has caused numerous
failures of marine structures. Vessels equipped with nozzles, thrusters and water jets
can generate severe scour holes in a single berthing operation.
In addition to local scour, “global scour” is sometimes referred to (The mechanics of
scour in the marine environment [20]), which refers to the sediment removal due to
the whole structure or facility (as opposed to individual elements of that structure).
It is still, therefore, essentially local, but possibly extensive if the structure is large in
some sense.

The potential for scour should be assessed so that the effects are taken into
account in overall stability and strength of proposed and existing structures,
including jetty piling and quay walls. If the assessment indicates that existing
structures could be destabilized by the proposed works as a result of scour, the
design should be revised accordingly or scour protection works should be
designed to mitigate the effect on existing structures.
The rate and extent of scour for a particular site should initially be assessed
empirically using the methods of assessment of scour at some common
structures (e.g. a slender, cylindrical pile in a steady current; horizontal pipeline
on a flat bed in a steady current).
NOTE Appropriate methods of assessment are given in Dynamics of marine
sands [15], The mechanics of scour in the marine environment [20] and Scour at
marine structures [21].
Assessment should include both local scour effects (e.g. at a pile in a jetty) and
global scour effects caused by a whole structure or by impact of dredging or
other such works.
For circumstances not covered by published empirical methods, or where
preliminary estimates indicate a requirement for further investigations of scour
effects, numerical or physical modelling should be carried out.
The estimated scour depth should be included in the design of substructures,
including in assessment of stability of laterally loaded piles and bearing capacity
of vertically loaded bearing piles.

Section 3: Safety and operational considerations

COMMENTARY ON SECTION 3
This section gives guidance on the operational considerations in the working life
of maritime structures and facilities that are relevant to planning and design.
Such matters include: vessel data; navigation in approach channels; vessel handling
in harbours; berthing and mooring; cargo handling; and health, safety,
environmental and security considerations.
13 Operational considerations for planning and

design
13.1 General
Many of the operational requirements of maritime works are specific to the
particular function or functions of the individual structure, and guidance on
these aspects is given in subsequent parts of BS 6349. However, in all projects,
there should be consultation with appropriate maritime authorities such as the
port harbour and pilotage authority, terminal or facility operator, vessel
operators and handlers (the pilots and tug operators), as appropriate to the
particular circumstances of the development. Consultation should be carried out
at the planning and concept design phases, before the location and layout of
the port, terminal or berth has been fixed.
Studies of required operations including navigation and moored vessel
simulations, as described in Clause 20, should be carried out as part of the
design, to demonstrate to the operator that the proposed facilities,
infrastructure and equipment are suitable to safely achieve the desired
operational requirements and performances under the environmental conditions
prevailing and any design stage operating limits.
13.2 Facility operating manual

Relevant information from the design and execution stages should be made
available to the operator for incorporation into the facility operating manual.
For berths and other facilities used by vessels this should include:
• drawings showing the key dimensions of the berth (including length,
dredged depth, deck levels, mooring and fender positions);
• the types, sizes and displacement of vessels used for the basis for design;
• the allowable loading on the zones at the berth edge and behind the berth
(see BS 6349-1:2000);
• the design stage operating limits (DSOL) for different operations and
operating conditions;
• the environmental limits and other parameters for safe access for
pedestrians and vehicles from vessel to shore considered at the design stage;
• the design working life for the berth and requirements for monitoring,
inspection and maintenance;
• the design conditions used for structural design at the ultimate limit state;
• limiting deflections or other service criteria used for structural design at the
serviceability limit state (and, if appropriate, in other circumstances such as
under accidental loads or after earthquakes);
• the berthing velocity limits and other criteria used for fender design;

• information from navigation and mooring simulation and risk assessments

produced as part of planning and design;
• any other design information that is relevant to setting of limits on how the
berth and immediate hinterland is to be used.
14 Health and safety

Health and safety considerations are fundamental to the operation and
maintenance of ports, marine terminals, facilities and structures, and should also
be intrinsic to planning and design of such facilities.
In addition to operational safety requirements of a facility, the particular health
and safety risks of construction and future maintenance should be taken into
account.
NOTE 1 Attention is drawn to the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2007 [22] and the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
(Northern Ireland) 2007 [23] in respect of the requirement to consider the health
and safety implications of any design decision, in order to minimize risks during
construction and maintenance activities.
Safety in operation should be the primary consideration in design and planning
of facilities for navigation, berthing and mooring of vessels and for handling of
cargo. Liaison between appropriate port, terminal and shipping operators and
designers should take place to ensure adequate transfer of information and
appreciation of operational procedures and requirements, including:
a) numbers, types, sizes and shapes of present and/or expected vessels;
b) provision of tugs, aids to navigation and marine traffic control;
c) pilotage;
d) berthing;
e) mooring patterns, practices, systems and load measurements;
f) berth occupancy, vessel queuing times, port downtime and the effects of sea
and weather conditions;
g) requirements of cargo handling, Ro-Ro traffic, storage and other activities,
including the need or otherwise to allow for future change, or flexibility in
operational usage;
h) requirements for safety zoning and other health, safety and environmental
considerations affecting layout, particularly for terminals handling
hazardous cargoes including oil, gas and petrochemical berths;
i) requirements for personnel or vehicular transfer from vessel to shore using
gangways, ramps or similar systems;
j) emergency response, including fire-fighting and oil spill response.
Such liaison and coordination should commence during the planning phase and
be maintained as design and construction plans are developed.
NOTE 2 Port, terminal and marine facilities expansion and refurbishment projects
require close coordination between the operator and those responsible for design
and construction, to ensure that the risks and particular requirements of
construction works in proximity to ongoing simultaneous port operations are fully
taken into account.
NOTE 3 The Port marine safety code [24] and Guide to good practice for port
marine operations [25] set out good practice for port authorities in respect of the
management of safety of marine operations in ports, including the use of risk
assessment and hazard identification (HAZID) to establish a safety management
system (SMS).

Relevant information, including risk assessments and information from

navigation and mooring simulations from the design and planning for
construction for port and harbour works, should be made available to the
operator and harbour authority when required to inform development of the
SMS and facility operating manual.
NOTE 4 Attention is drawn to the Docks Regulations 1988 [26] and the Docks
Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1989 [27], and to the additional guidance given in
HSE publication COP 25 [28] and its equivalent in Northern Ireland [29]. Outside the
United Kingdom, attention is drawn to the ILO publication Safety and health in
ports [30].
Particular attention is drawn to health, safety and environmental considerations
affecting design and operation of terminals handling hazardous cargoes
including oil, gas and petrochemical berths, and such terminals should conform
to the requirements given in the International oil tanker and terminal safety
guide [N3]. Safety aspects affecting the berthing operations of tankers to oil and
gas terminals should be assessed for design purposes in accordance with the
recommendations of PIANC MarCom Report WG116 [N4].
Works in the coastal zone have the potential to modify the hydrodynamic
regime with adverse impact on safety of recreational users, including bathers.
Such impacts should be carefully assessed in design of all such works.
NOTE 5 The Maritime and Coastguard Agency, the Royal Life Saving Society, the
Royal National Lifeboat Institution and the Royal Society for the Prevention of
Accidents might be able to provide specialist advice in respect of safety
considerations for small commercial vessels and recreational users of the coastal zone
in the UK.
15 Control of pollution and discharges to the sea

15.1 Vessel’s waste
COMMENTARY ON 15.1
The MARPOL convention 12) regulates vessels not to discharge wastes and polluting
substances into the sea and requires ports to provide sufficient reception facilities for
vessel’s waste. Authorities responsible for local implementation of MARPOL through
applicable coastal state legislation can also be consulted for guidance on local
requirements. In the EU, MARPOL is implemented through European Community
Directive 2000/59/EC [31] on port reception facilities.
IMO publications Comprehensive manual on port reception facilities [32] and
Guidelines for ensuring the adequacy of port waste reception facilities [33] provide
guidance on requirements for reception of vessel-generated waste including oily
wastes, sewage and garbage. The United Kingdom Maritime and Coastguard Agency
Port waste management planning: A guide to good practice [34] also provides
guidance including for the development of port and terminal waste management
plans.
Oily wastes include dirty ballast water, tank washing slops, oily mixtures containing
chemicals, scale and sludge from tanker cleaning, oily bilge water and sludge from
fuel oil purifiers.
12)
See www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/
International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx
[last accessed 23 September 2013].

When designing reception facilities for vessel’s waste, the types and quantities
of solid and liquid wastes to be discharged or offloaded by a vessel calling at a
marine facility should be assessed in consultation with the operator. Location
and layout of waste reception facilities should take into account the waste
transfer method for each waste type for the range of vessels to be
accommodated.
15.2 Port wastewater and surface run-off

Surface water drainage systems should incorporate systems to minimize the
potential for discharge of contaminated water in the event of accidental spills of
oil and fuel in areas used by equipment and vehicles or for oil and fuel storage.
NOTE For example, for surface drainage of areas in a port where there is a high
risk of a spill of hazardous materials (e.g. fuelling or fuel transfer locations), a basin
or full retention separator capable of containing a spill might be used. For all other
areas used by port vehicles, grit traps and by-pass separators are likely to be
sufficient.
16 Port and maritime security

Design of port facilities should incorporate security systems and preventative
measures required by the operator to address security threats to ports and
shipping, and should conform to the ISPS Code [N5].
NOTE 1 The ISPS Code [N5] establishes an international framework involving
cooperation between contracting governments, government agencies, local
administrations and the shipping and port industries, to detect/assess security threats
and take preventive measures against security incidents affecting ships or port
facilities used in international trade. Although the application of the ISPS Code can
be seen primarily as an operational matter, there are often implications for layout,
design and detailing of aspects of maritime works, such as means of access, means of
escape (including from the water) and fencing of waterfront areas and structures.
NOTE 2 Attention is drawn to the Port Security Regulations 2009 [35], under which
ISPS Code provisions as applied to EU Member States are applied to the UK.
17 Design working life

The design working life of maritime works should be defined as set out in
BS EN 1990 for the purpose of determining time-dependent performance,
including fatigue-related calculations and design to achieve suitable durability.
NOTE 1 Indicative design working life categories for maritime works are provided
in Table 1, although it is emphasized that actual working life values need to be
carefully considered by project promoters according to the particular requirements
and circumstances applying. For example, the requirements of an industrial
development might be driven by economics of a business case, whereas for assets
forming part of key national or regional infrastructure such as flood protection,
works might require a similar structure to be designed for a longer working life.
The structure should be designed such that deterioration over its design working
life does not impair the performance of the structure below that intended,
having due regard to its environment and the anticipated level of maintenance,
taking into account the aggressive nature of the marine environment and the
difficulty and potential disruption to operational use arising from maintenance
works in a port or exposed maritime location.
NOTE 2 The design working life is also significant when assessing probability levels
for limit state design and for design condition return periods. However, the design
working life is not necessarily the same as the return period of the design condition.

Table 1 Indicative design working life categories for maritime works
Design working Indicative design Examples

life category working life (years)
1 10 Temporary structures A)
2 10 to 25 Structural parts designed to be replaceable within a
structure or facility of longer design working life
3 15 to 30 Structures dedicated to non-renewable natural resources,
petrochemicals or similar industrial or commercial
applications (such as open-piled jetties, mooring and
berthing dolphins, Ro-Ro linkspans)
4 50 Common port infrastructure for commercial and
industrial ports including reclamation, shore protection,
breakwaters, quay walls
5 100 Common port infrastructure including breakwaters for
ports of nationally-significant strategic or economic
value. Infrastructure for regional flood defence or
coastal management infrastructure
A)
Structures or parts of structures that can be dismantled with a view to being re-used should not be considered as
temporary.
18 Vessel data
Comprehensive details of vessels to be accommodated should be established as
part of the functional design basis for ports and marine terminals.
Such details should be obtained from the relevant authorities, end-users, owners
and operators for the actual vessels to be accommodated and those likely in the
anticipated lifetime of the structure.
Vessel details and characteristics that should be taken into account include:
• cargo type, including any potentially hazardous cargoes;
• size and shape (laden and in ballast), including overall length, beam,
draught, flat of side extents, air draught, wind areas;
• vessel handling and navigational requirements;
• cargo or passenger capacity (measured according to cargo type in cubic
metres, tonnes, lane metres, TEUs);
• cargo or passenger handling requirements;
• product transfer manifolds types and position (for liquid bulk tankers and
gas carriers);
• mooring equipment, including deck plans of winch and fairleads, mooring
line type and capacities and winch capacities;
• vessel servicing and waste reception requirements;
• propulsion systems, including thrusters and other water jets that can cause
erosion and scour;
• allowable imposed loadings on the hull.
NOTE 1 Characteristic dimensions and hull forms of many ships vary considerably
according to function, age and operational region.

NOTE 2 Key overall dimensions of length, beam and draught of vessels are
provided for preliminary planning purposes in Annex D for the following shipand
cargo types:
• refrigerated gas carriers – LNG;
• refrigerated gas carriers – LPG;
• liquid bulk tankers (oil, oil products and chemicals);
• dry bulk carriers;
• container ships;
• general cargo;
• Ro-Ro ferries;
• cruise ships.
These values are approximations and are intended to be used for preliminary
purposes only. General guidance on vessel dimensions can also be obtained from
the Lloyd’s Register of ships [36] and from commercially available online vessel
databases.
NOTE 3 Vessel handling considerations are discussed in Clause 19 and Clause 20.
A vessel’s nominal size, tonnage or capacity may be expressed or provided to a
designer as follows:
• gross tonnage (GT), which is determined in accordance with the provisions
of the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969 13);
• deadweight tonnage (DWT), which is measured in tonnes and provides an
approximate indication of the carrying capacity of the vessel;
• the displacement of the vessel, which is the actual mass of the vessel and is
therefore the significant parameter for computing berthing energies and for
calculation of other hydrodynamic parameters.
In addition to the displacement at maximum rated cargo capacity, displacements
in the unladen and ballasted state should also be established for design
purposes.
NOTE 4 Gross tonnage (GT) is not to be confused with gross register tonnage (GRT).
GRT is an obsolete term, although it is still used to describe vessel size by some
parties.
NOTE 5 For the purposes of preliminary planning, the relationships given in
Annex D, Table D.1 may be used to estimate full load displacement from DWT or
gas-carrying capacity. These values are approximations and are not be used for
detailed design unless confirmed by the actual vessel characteristics.
NOTE 6 Product transfer manifold configurations for oil and gas carriers are given
in the following publications:
• Manifold recommendations for liquefied gas carriers [37];
• Recommendations for oil tanker manifolds and associated equipment [38].
13)
See http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/
International-Convention-on-Tonnage-Measurement-of-Ships.aspx

19 Navigation channels and ship manoeuvring

19.1 General
COMMENTARY ON 19.1
The navigational ideal for the design and layout of channels and harbour entrances
would typically call for:
• straight, wide approach channels, the direction of which coincides with the
direction of currents, winds and of the highest waves;
• a wide harbour entrance;
• a large area within the harbour for turning and manoeuvring to jetties and
quays, and adequate separation between moored and passing ships.
Such an ideal layout can seldom be achieved, particularly for harbours on the open
coast, for the two following reasons: firstly, the dominant currents rarely coincide
with the direction of the highest seas, and secondly, aligning the channel with the
highest seas tends to maximize the wave penetration into the harbour. Ports located
in estuaries, where the hydraulic conditions are determined mainly by the tides,
normally offer better protection for seagoing navigation, and many of the larger
existing sea ports are situated in such locations. Access problems can still arise,
however, because vessels can be required to follow the sinuous course of a natural
channel and finally cross the tidal currents to the harbour entrance or riverside
quays. Often extensive dredging works have to be carried out to meet the increasing
navigational demands of larger vessels, and considerable maintenance dredging
operations might be needed to remove siltation both in the artificially deepened
access channel and in the harbour itself.
The layout, alignment and dimensions of approach channels and manoeuvring
areas for ships should be determined according to:
• the size and handling characteristics of the ships that will navigate to and
from the facility;
• the need for other ships to use the approach channels concurrently;
• the marine traffic density, both initially and as forecast in the future;
• the availability, manoeuvrability and capacity of tugs;
• the hazards associated with the products carried by the ships;
• the meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the particular location;
• the engineering constraints of channel construction and maintenance arising
mainly from soil conditions and the coastal or estuarial morphological
environment.
NOTE As noted in Clause 13 and Clause 14, attention is drawn to the
recommendation to involve appropriate operational personnel, such as experienced
masters and pilots, in the planning of new and modified channels and manoeuvring
areas.
19.2 Planning and design studies

Approach channels should be designed in accordance with the recommendations
set out in PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6].
NOTE 1 Guidance is also given in PIANC MarCom Report WG116 [N4].
The scope of numerical simulation studies at the design stage should be
sufficient for the quantitative assessment of DSOL for the facility, in order to
inform the design stage assessment of weather downtime for the operations
envisaged at the facility (see Clause 21).

NOTE 2 Planning and design studies for channels and manoeuvring areas consistent
with the PIANC methodology are normally carried out using a staged approach,
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 Typical planning and design activities for channels and manoeuvring areas according to
design stage
Planning/design stage Typical activities for each planning/design stage

Concept design Relatively rapid assessment of principal dimensions based upon
preliminary environmental data and physical site data, preferably
informed by advice from navigation experts/master mariners and local
pilots/harbour authorities
Layout and dimensions based upon empirical rules and
limited/simplified navigation simulations
Further definition of vessel parameters and operational principles as
the basis of detailed design
Detailed design Development and refinement of the concept design informed by
additional environmental and physical site data and by additional
consideration of operating parameters and risks
Metocean conditions for the proposed layout predicted using
numerical simulation of wave and currents
Real-time navigation simulations (preferably including full mission,
but can be desktop when agreed with the operator to be appropriate
for the planned operations) to fix and optimize layout and make
assessment of operating limits on environmental conditions to be
applied in the operating phase
Morphological studies to assess potential for infill and optimization
of capital versus maintenance dredging
Dynamic studies of ship vertical motions to determine UKC
requirements
Marine traffic assessment and Verification of design where required considering risk of collision or
quantitative risk assessment grounding on quantitative basis by marine traffic risk analysis and
other studies, especially for: heavily utilized channels; busy ports with
multiple terminals and mixed vessel types adjacent to multi-user
channels; and hazardous cargoes
Operational planning “Full-mission” simulations intended to define operating procedures in
detail, for training/familiarization of masters, pilots and tug crews
and to support risk assessment and contingency planning prior to the
start of operations or introduction of different ship types in an
existing channel or turning area

19.3 Vertical channel and manoeuvring area dimensions

19.3.1 General
Vertical channel dimensions should be assessed based on the applicable depth
factors and sub-factors set as follows:
• water level factors:
• reference level (datum);
• design water level;
• tidal and meteorological effects;
• ship factors:
• static draught;
• allowance for static draught uncertainties including trim and list;
• change in water density;
• ship squat;
• dynamic heel;
• wave response allowance;
• net UKC/manoeuvrability margin;
• bottom factors:
• allowance for bed level uncertainties;
• allowance for bottom change between maintenance dredging
campaigns;
• dredging execution tolerance;
• muddy channel beds.
The depth factors are shown in Figure 1.
PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] provides “rule of thumb” guidance on
nominal channel depths below design water level for preliminary use in
conceptual design. These range from 1.10 × maximum design vessel draught in
protected inner channels, with vessels at low speed, to 1.3 to 1.4 × maximum
design vessel draught for outer channel environments subject to heavy swell.
These factors allow for dynamic response of ships, including squat- and
wave-induced motions, and should be taken into account only for draughts
greater than 10 m. In any situation, additional allowances of 0.5 m (inner
channels) to 1.0 m (outer channels) should be made to allow for the risk of
bottom contact for firm or hard bottom types. Ship or fleet operators might
have their own particular UKC policy, and should be consulted at an early stage
in planning of a facility where such an operator is a stakeholder.

Figure 1 PIANC channel depth factors
Key
1 Design water level 11 Gross UKC
2 Tidal offset during transit and 12 Dynamic heel due to wind and turning
manoeuvring A) 13 Wave response allowance
3 Reference level 14 Nominal channel bed level
4 Allowance for unfavourable meteorological 15 Net UKC
conditions A)
16 Allowance for bed level uncertainties
5 Water level factors
(sounding and sediment conditions)
6 Static draught
17 Allowance for bottom changes between
7 Allowance for static draught uncertainties maintenance dredging campaigns
8 Change in water density 18 Bottom-related factors
9 Ship-related factors 19 Channel dredged level
10 Squat 20 Dredging execution tolerance
NOTE This figure is based upon PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] and PIANC PTC II Report WG14 [39].
A)
Values can be positive or negative.

19.3.2 Operational philosophy considerations

Key design and operational philosophy choices for a given location and range of
design ship types and sizes are as follows:
• acceptability of tidal limitations on entry or exit for some or all ships;
• maintenance dredging strategy, specifically:
• depth of capital over-dredge to allow for siltation between maintenance
dredging campaigns;
• adoption of nautical depth approach for channels with beds comprising a
layer of fluid mud of increasing density.
The following factors should be taken into account according to the approach
taken.
• Adoption of a tidal limitation can offer significant reduction in
requirements for both capital and maintenance dredging, but results in
limitations both on the overall capacity to handle shipping (and possible
increased encounter frequency and collision risk of traffic in the channel
during tidal passage windows) and in terms of downtime and waiting time
for shipping. At some locations, tidal currents can also pose a limitation to
channel transit or port entry or exit at certain stages of the tide. It might
sometimes be possible to take advantage of reduced vessel dynamic
response (a ship factor) at lower tidal levels if lower wave or swell action is
present at times of lower tidal elevation.
• Adoption of the nautical depth approach can offer potential advantages in
optimizing capital and maintenance dredging, particularly in areas of high
siltation and other environments with near-bed fluid mud layers. However,
there are significant practical issues and risks that should be addressed in
implementation, including the following.
• A practical criterion for the nautical bottom should be defined (e.g.
selection of the physical mud characteristics acting as a parameter for
the nautical bottom approach and its critical value).
• A practical survey method should be proposed to determine both the
acceptable level and the water–mud interface in an efficient and
reliable way.
• A minimum value for the required UKC relative to this nautical bottom
should be established, noting the consequences of bottom “contact” for
a fluid mud bottom, compared to a hard bottom.
• The effect on the behaviour of ships in these situations should be
assessed to the satisfaction of ship operators and pilots, coupled with
training of operators, assessment of risks of adverse effects on
controllability and manoeuvrability, and contingency plans to deal with
such effects, if they are expected to occur.

NOTE 1 There is no guidance that specifies a particular density to define the

nautical bottom, as there are many parameters that have an impact, including the
density and rheological nature of the mud, which can vary from site to site and also
within any particular site. As a consequence there is a range of values used around
the world from 1 100 kg/m3 to 1 250 kg/m3, and in some cases there are multiple
criteria, depending on the UKC. A pragmatic approach is to start with 1 150 kg/m3
unless there is clear evidence that 1 200 kg/m3 or greater is acceptable for the site in
question, noting that it is a highly site-specific issue and will require a considerably
detailed study to justify higher values. For hazardous cargoes such as liquefied gases
or chemicals, ship operators are often less tolerant of grounding risk than for other
types of shipping and might impose lower density limits for definition of nautical
bottom than required by operators of other shipping. In addition, and in particular
for gas carriers, the ship’s cooling water intakes are generally located towards the
bottom of the ship’s hull and so can be affected if there is a high concentration of
mud or sediment in the water.
NOTE 2 PIANC PTC II Report WG14 [39] provides guidance on development of
maintenance dredging strategies which can be used for channel design optimization.
For additional information regarding implementation of nautical depth in high
turbidity regimes, see PIANC MarCom Report WG102 [40].
19.3.3 Ship factors

Channel depth assessment requires a comprehensive assessment of the dynamic
behaviour of the design ship or ships when navigating through a channel or when
manoeuvring in a port or near a marine terminal, including:
• ship squat;
• dynamic heel;
• wave response.
Squat is experienced by a ship as it moves through water, and the effect is increased
in shallow water and in channels where hydrodynamic interaction between the
water body and the moving ship is further affected.
The effect arises from the displacement of water, which causes an increase in return
currents along the sides of the vessel and between the channel bed and the
underside of the vessel. This is offset by a lowering of the adjacent water level,
causing the vessel to experience sinkage and change of trim.
Additional squat is experienced by each of two ships when they pass, the effect
being accentuated with reduction of UKC and vessel separation, as well as with an
increase of speed. Additional sinkage is also caused by sailing in the proximity of a
channel bank.
Dynamic heel arises during vessel turning and might be significant as a contributor
to overall channel depth requirements in channel bends and in turning areas. During
turning of a vessel, heeling can occur depending on a number of factors including
ship’s speed, rate of turn and tug line forces. Heel is defined here as the
non-oscillating component of motion from environmental and tug forces, whereas
roll is the oscillating component of ship response to waves.
The other component of the ship’s dynamic response to channel depth requirements
is the wave-induced response causing vertical and roll motions of the ship. The
vertical component of response under waves and swell depends on the wave height
and direction and the ratio of the wave length to the relevant characteristic
dimension of the ship, i.e. length for pitch and heave and beam for roll. These
factors determine the forces exciting the motion. The response of the vessel to these
forces is mainly governed by the ratios of its natural frequencies in heave, pitch and
roll to the encountered wave frequency, and by the damping of the motion in these
modes.

In shallow water conditions the small UKC causes both the natural period, due to
increase in added mass, and the hydraulic damping in each mode of movement, to
increase.
The static draught of vessels for channel depth assessment should take into
account:
• the maximum draught at the bow or stern if the ship does not have an
even-keel draught;
• trim and list;
• the presence of thrusters or propulsion equipment which extend below keel
level.
Given the complex hydrodynamics of vessel channel interaction giving rise to
squat, there is significant uncertainty in the prediction of squat for channel
design purposes using available empirical methods. This uncertainty should be
taken into account in determining and optimizing overall channel depth
requirements.
Response amplitude operators (RAOs) from numerical modelling of vessel
response, or other suitable methods for assessing vertical ship response, should
be used to determine vertical motions under expected wave conditions.
Physical modelling should be used as an alternative to numerical modelling in
conditions of low UKC or other circumstances where numerical modelling cannot
accurately simulate vessel dynamic response.
NOTE Use of physical models is less often required since numerical methods are
usually adequate.
19.3.4 Net under-keel clearance

The gross UKC in channel design comprises all the components of draught and
vertical dynamic response and then a further term referred to as the net UKC.
In preliminary concept design this net clearance can simply be taken as a figure
of 0.5 m to 1.0 m depending on the nature of the bed, which in turn determines the
consequence of contact between the ship’s hull and the bed.
The definition of such a net UKC can also be used in detailed design in accordance
with PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6], where a deterministic approach is taken,
but it is frequently more appropriate to adopt the probabilistic or semi-probabilistic
approaches defined by PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 with a minimum
manoeuvrability margin (MM) to ensure that reduced UKC does not result in
inadequate ship manoeuvrability. Practically, this would normally be a concern only
in sheltered inner harbour areas where the allowance for dynamic response caused
by wave action would otherwise be low. PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 proposes a
minimum MM of 5% draught or 0.6 m, whichever is greater.
The overall design gross UKC should be assessed by summation of the
components of draught and vertical dynamic response and an additional net
UKC to provide a safety margin against bottom contact.
19.3.5 Design philosophy

NOTE PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] envisages a concept design stage using
simplified deterministic approach where applicable depth factors are assessed and
combined arithmetically.
The detailed design should include a further assessment of depth factors using
comprehensive analytical methods. When sufficient statistic characterization of
the uncertainties and variability of the depth factors can be obtained, detailed
design may allow for optimization of total depth requirements using
probabilistic or partially probabilistic methods.

For probabilistic or partially probabilistic methods of depth assessment, limiting

design criteria should be defined with respect to acceptable probability of
contact between the channel bottom and the ship’s hull or keel.
PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] indicates possible approaches to the
definition of such criteria, but there are no internationally recognized criteria,
and any such criteria should be agreed on a case-by-case basis with the operator
in conjunction with ship operators and harbour authority when appropriate,
taking into account the risks for different ship types, cargo types and channel
bottom characteristics.
Probabilistic design methods should be used only when the quality and extent
of the input data are sufficient for these methods. When only partially or
incomplete data sets are available, partially probabilistic or empirical methods
should be used.
19.4 Horizontal channel and manoeuvring area dimensions

19.4.1 Alignment and width of channels
NOTE 1 The width of access channels is governed mainly by the steering
characteristics of the vessel in response to the pilot and helmsman when subject to
external disturbances such as the hydrodynamic effects of cross-currents, wind,
waves, bank effects and other traffic. Large ships normally take a relatively long
time to respond to any change in circumstances, and can be rendered even more
sluggish in their response to a given force applied by the rudder, due to the increase
in the hydrodynamic forces and added mass of the ship when the UKC is small.
Thus in negotiating channels with bends, large changes of helm and engine speed
are common (although are often brief), and even in straight restricted channels
vessels can take a sinuous course.
Channel width and alignment should be determined according to the
recommendations of PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6], using empirical rules
for initial sizing and numerical simulation of vessel approach and departure to
confirm and optimize the layout and horizontal dimensions in later stages of
design.
Selection of channel alignment should be primarily by the needs of safe and
efficient navigation, balanced against the constraints of physical and
environmental conditions and the associated engineering considerations, such as
the minimization of capital and maintenance dredging. To achieve enhanced
operability and minimize weather downtime and navigation risks:
• bends or curves should be minimized, and bends avoided at or close to the
ends of the channel and at harbour entrances;
• channels should be aligned, where possible, so that prevailing wind,
currents, waves and swell are not acting across the channel (and thus
causing the ship to deviate from its course).
The effects of cross-currents and wind on manoeuvrability have the greatest
effect on a ship at low speeds in inner channels and final berth approach.
Where strong tidal currents exist, it might be necessary to limit approach and
departure to defined periods around slack water, which should be taken into
account in downtime assessment.
NOTE 2 The definition of channel and fairway dimensions and elements of channel
width as used by PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] are shown in Figure 2 and
Figure 3. A fairway indicates a wider space that can be used by vessels with
shallower draught than vessels using the main deep draught channel.

Figure 2 PIANC definition of channel and fairway
Key
1 Fairway
2 Buoy
3 Channel
NOTE Copyright is claimed in this illustration, which is reproduced from PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6].
Reproduction of this illustration and making products from it might infringe that copyright. Details of the
copyright owner can be found in the Foreword.
Figure 3 PIANC definition of elements of channel width
Key
1 Passing distance, Wp
2 Bank clearance, WBr
3 Bank clearance, WBg
4 Manoeuvring lane, WM
5 Channel axis
NOTE Copyright is claimed in this illustration, which is reproduced from PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6].

The PIANC empirical channel design method for straight channels requires
definition of a basic manoeuvring lane width WBM of 1.3 × B to 1.8B, where B is
the beam of the design ship, according to ship type, to which additional width
allowances Wi should be added to obtain the total manoeuvring lane width WM.
NOTE 3 These additional lane width allowances take into account the effects of:
• vessel speed;
• cross-wind;
• cross-current;
• longitudinal current;
• wave conditions;
• navigation aids;
• channel bottom type;
• depth;
• cargo hazard level.
An allowance Wp should be added as a separation distance between lanes for
two-way channels according to PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6], with
regard to vessel speed, wave exposure conditions and traffic density.
The additional width for bank clearance WBr or WBg (red and green channel
sides respectively) should also be determined according to the recommendations
of PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] according to vessel speed, wave
exposure conditions and the slope and type of the bank.
NOTE 4 As a general guideline, it is suggested that the ratio of channel width to
the beam of the vessel is typically between 4 and 6, for one-way movements,
depending on local conditions. For somewhat smaller vessels passing one another,
the minimum width of channel is typically about 6 to 8 times the beam of the larger
vessels, depending on the exposure and straightness of the channels. For large
tankers, of up to 300 000 DWT, with either straight or curved channels subject to
cross-tidal currents, recommended ratios of channel width to beam lie between 5
and 7.
Two-way traffic of large tankers should be avoided whenever possible.
Bends in approach channels should be avoided or minimized, but if necessary
guidance on determining channel radius and additional width requirements for
concept design should be taken from PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6], with
a recommendation that the conceptual design bend radius should be at least 10
times the length of the largest vessel that is likely to use the channel on a
regular basis.
Detailed design of channel alignment and width should include further
assessment of the considerations from the concept design stage and
optimization of engineering and navigation aspects, based upon:
• more comprehensive physical and environmental data for the location,
including metocean data, soils data and sediment transport data;
• more comprehensive numerical and analytical studies, including
hydrodynamic and morphological studies, ship dynamic response studies,
numerical navigation simulation, traffic studies and navigation risk
assessments;
• further operational and contingency planning, such as planning of tug
requirements and development of design stage operating philosophies and
downtime assessments.
The recommendations of PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6] should be
followed for the nautical aspects of detailed channel design.

19.4.2 Harbour entrances and manoeuvring areas

The port, harbour or terminal approach system typically comprises the following
functional elements:
• outer channel section (assumed to be fully exposed to wave action and tidal
currents);
• the harbour entrance (where ships pass into a water space more protected from
wave action and currents);
• inner channel section (within a protected turning basin or manoeuvring area).
Not all ports or terminals are necessarily physically configured in this way, e.g. the
approach to an oil or gas terminal which is unprotected by a breakwater, but the
design principles involved remain valid.
Design of harbour entrances and manoeuvring areas should take into account
the passage and handling requirements of ships through the entire approach
system to and from the turning area, taking into account of the range of tides,
currents and waves and the assistance available in the form of pilots, tugs and
aids to navigation.
The most significant ship factor for entrance design is the stopping procedure
and distance for the design ships. Actual stopping distances should be obtained
if available for the design ships or ship types, although these are likely to be
deepwater distances from sea trials or tank tests.
NOTE 1 Such tests are not directly applicable inside harbours where the conditions
are characterized by confined and shallow water, low speeds, tug assistance and
manoeuvres with rudder and propeller to hold course.
Stopping distances should be verified using numerical navigation simulation to
determine actual stopping distances based on local environmental conditions,
actual speeds at entrance/exit through entrance and tug assistance.
NOTE 2 For preliminary concept design for ships typically smaller than 50 000 DWT,
this may be estimated by rule of thumb based on the length of the ship and the
condition of the ship (in ballast or loaded); typically this indicates that stopping
distances from the harbour entrance to the centre of the turning are of multiples of
3 (ballast) to 8 (loaded) of the ship’s length.
NOTE 3 Similar rules of thumb exist for the preliminary sizing of turning areas.
Although a turning area does not need to be circular in plan, preliminary sizing
requirements are expressed as a turning circle of diameter of a multiple of the ship’s
length. Typically for modern vessels with tug assistance, an indicative diameter
of 1.8 to 2.0 × the ship’s length can be achieved subject to local wind, wave and
current conditions and UKC. For ships equipped with powerful bow and stern
thrusters, such as are commonly found on modern container and cruise ships, the
indicative turning circle diameter may be reduced to 1.5 to 1.6 times the ship length.
Without tug assistance, much larger turning area dimensions would be required,
typically up to 4 × the ship’s length, although turning in an enclosed basin without
tug assistance is unlikely to be desirable or operationally acceptable for larger classes
of vessels or for ships with hazardous cargoes. Turning areas have to be more
elliptical in shape where there is a prevailing current or wind across the turning area
that will cause the ship to drift during the swing.
NOTE 4 For Ro-Ro or ferry terminals, structures can be used to assist in the turning
of vessels in much smaller manoeuvring areas. Such structures often take the form of
turning dolphins or fendered corners of jetties/quays, where roller fenders can be
used.
Numerical or physical model studies of wave and current conditions should be
carried out to predict conditions along the harbour or terminal approach and in
the turning area.

Conditions in and around existing, new or modified harbour entrances should

be assessed, such that potentially adverse effects on navigation or the
environment are taken into account in design and operational planning,
including the following.
• At the immediate approach to the harbour entrance, sea conditions can
sometimes be rougher than elsewhere, due to the waves becoming steeper,
especially on an ebbing tide.
• Reflection of waves from the harbour walls or breakwaters, particularly
when these are steep-sided, can combine with incident waves to form areas
of confused seas.
• Reflection (total internal refraction) of waves from underwater channel
slopes can cause enhanced wave action at the harbour entrance. This is a
particular risk when prevailing wave or swell is closely aligned to the outer
channel direction and, in addition to navigation hazards, can also give rise
to or enhance erosion of nearby coastlines.
In determining the layout of inner channels and manoeuvring areas, account
should be taken of the need to maintain adequate separation between moving
vessels approaching and departing and moored ships at berths within the port
or at adjacent terminals. The separation distances adopted should be
sufficient to:
• reduce the risk of collision with moored ships (also referred to as allision);
• avoid excessive mooring line loads or ship movements that can disrupt
cargo-handling operations of the moored ship;
• avoid encroachment into a marine exclusion zone or other such area around
the berth to which entry is restricted for reasons of security management.
For hazardous cargo berths, a safety zone might exist in which certain
activities (including those that give rise to sources of ignition) are excluded.
For preliminary assessment with a passing ship speed of 4 knots or less, the
separation distance (hull side to hull side) should be at least 2B and at a passing
ship speed of 6 knots or less, the separation distance (hull side to hull side)
should be at least 4B. This rule of thumb is applicable to ships of B ≥25 m.
19.4.3 Numerical simulation methods for channel and manoeuvring area

spatial design
Numerical simulation methods are recommended for channel and manoeuvring
area spatial design, and the recommendations of PIANC-IAPH PTC II
Report WG30 [N6] should be used for planning and conducting numerical
simulations to inform alignment and dimensions.
For design purposes, an approach should be selected according to the stage in
the design process and the definition of input data from the following generic
methodologies:
• fast-time simulation (desktop);
• real-time simulation (desktop);
• real-time simulation (bridge simulator, also referred to as “full-mission”
simulation).
The methods of simulation, and operations and circumstances to be simulated,
should, where possible, be selected with guidance from specialist personnel with
experience of acting as vessel masters or pilots for similar vessel types, sizes and
environmental conditions.

NOTE 1 Fast-time simulation is normally appropriate to early stages of design

development using simplified characterization of environmental conditions. It is
relatively rapid and is appropriate when a wide number of layout options and
conditions are to be simulated and compared at the concept design stage. It might
also be useful to carry out large numbers of multiple runs on a semi-automated basis
to provide synthetic information on potential variability of a vessel-swept path,
which can in turn inform probabilistic approach to horizontal channel and
manoeuvring area dimensioning for detailed design. However, this form of
simulation is only appropriate in certain circumstances. These are where the actions
of a pilot are reasonably simple and where the concept of a reference track is valid,
such as for the design of relatively long, straight channels, or those with few bends.
In simulating the final stages of an approach to a port or berth, when using tugs or
when turning the ship in a turning area, fast-time simulation might be less
appropriate, due to the complexity of the manoeuvres required.
NOTE 2 Real-time simulations offer potentially more realistic and detailed
simulation of operations with the involvement of mariners and pilots. Real-time
simulation can incorporate up to 360° visualization and a reproduction of the
environment and controls of the ships bridge. Real-time simulation with bridge
simulation offers the maximum potential to realistically represent and investigate
human factors in the channel design. Although the specialized nature of the facility
required and the effort involved in setting up realistic visualizations normally means
that such studies are carried out at later stages of design development (including for
design and selection of aids to navigation) and for operational planning and
training, real-time simulation can also be used effectively with relatively simplified
configurations. Such simplified real-time simulations can be used in the early stages
of design to examine more complex aspects of ship manoeuvring, where fast-time
simulation might be less appropriate.
Whichever simulation methodology is adopted, the numerical models used
should be able to accurately and realistically represent the behaviour of the ship
in a shallow water environment at low speed, and should use manoeuvring
strategies that are both practicable and realistic. The assistance provided by tugs
should also be shown to be appropriate to the environment and the tug type
and mode of assistance.
It is therefore important that in addition to selecting the methodology/human
interface, particular attention should be given to:
• hydrodynamics of the ship and their response in shallow water and to wave
and current effects;
• aerodynamics of the ship’s response to wind effects;
• realism of the simulated effectiveness of tugs (e.g. in close-quarters push
mode versus long line pull mode, in waves, flows/currents and when under
way);
• representation of hydraulic interaction with channel banks or passing ships;
• type and characteristics of thrusters;
• type and characteristics of propellers (fixed or variable pitch) and rudders;
• response and reaction times (e.g. time to deliver power to propellers, time
for tugs to attach a line, time for a tug to apply effective bollard pull);
• accurate representation of wind, waves and currents.
Any coupling between environmental conditions and model response should be
taken into account.
NOTE 3 For example, does the model represent the reduced effectiveness of tugs in
high waves or does this have to be manually adjusted by the operator?

In planning a campaign of numerical ship simulations, an assessment should be

made of the range of environmental conditions, types of normal operations and
types of abnormal operations or exceptional events that are to be considered in
design. The combinations of environmental conditions for the simulations of
normal operations should be consistent with expected environmental operating
limits for the operation or manoeuvre under study. Abnormal operations or
events for simulations should be evaluated by risk assessment on a ship-, cargo-
and location-specific basis.
NOTE 4 PIANC MarCom Report WG116 [N4] illustrates a typical approach for oil
and gas tanker studies, where abnormal or “emergency” scenarios can include:
• ship steering gear failure at the maximum rudder angle likely to be used at a
bend or turn;
• partial steering gear failure, where the rudder can be recovered within a certain
time period (e.g. 2 min to 5 min);
• ship main engine failure;
• blackout on board ship including all onboard systems (loss of engine, steering
and bridge navaid equipment);
• impact of squalls (or similar rapid changes in weather conditions or in visibility)
in locations where they might occur with little warning.
For hazardous cargoes it is typically required that that the ship can be safely handled
in such credible abnormal events in environmental conditions up to the operating
limits.
19.4.4 Marine traffic assessment

In heavily utilized channels and harbour areas, account should be taken of the
need to supplement the dimensional sizing determined from nautical
requirements by use of marine traffic assessment, in order to demonstrate that:
• the channel and manoeuvring area dimensions are adequate for the total
shipping traffic forecast for the design working life;
• risks of collision between moving ships or between moving ships and
berthed ships (allision) or port and terminal infrastructure are minimized
and managed to levels considered appropriate by the harbour authority or
other relevant regulatory body.
Vessel traffic services (VTS) systems should meet the requirements of the
IALA VTS manual [N7].
NOTE 1 Guidance on the methods of conducting marine traffic studies and risk
assessments is given in PIANC-IAPH PTC II Report WG30 [N6].
NOTE 2 In the case of hazardous cargoes or operations, a quantitative marine risk
assessment might be required to establish a safety case demonstrating, for example,
that risks have been reduced to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
20 Berths and mooring

20.1 General
Discussion of operational practices at a planned berth should be held with the
operator, pilots and ships’ masters, with a view to determining the optimum
layout for safe usage and the design parameters necessary for assessing mooring
and berthing loads.

For berths for large ships, including bulk carriers, oil and gas tankers and
container ships, the berthing and de-berthing operation should be taken into
account as an input to berth layout and mooring and fender design, and in
determining clearances from adjacent berths and from navigation channels and
other ship movements.
Navigation studies and simulations for planning and design of channels and
manoeuvring areas, as described in Clause 19, should be used to assess optimum
berth location, orientation and separation distances.
Wherever practicable, berth alignment and location should be selected to
facilitate ship handling in berth approach.
NOTE 1 For example, for LNG carriers and VLCCs berths oriented with the
prevailing wind, the amount of tug force required to assist in berthing is much
reduced compared to an orientation with the prevailing wind beam-on to the ship.
The reduced tug force enhances the degree of control in berthing for a given wind
speed and reduces potential operational downtime. Large vessels are usually
brought to rest a short distance off the jetty or quay and then manoeuvred on to
the quay with the aid of tugs. Electronic speed and distance of approach system may
be employed, using either fixed jetty-based systems with display units visible from
the ship’s bridge, or portable GPS units carried by the pilot. Such systems help the
pilot to keep within the maximum allowable speed and to achieve the optimum
angle of approach for which the fenders and jetty layout have been designed.
Predictions of berthing behaviour may also be derived from measurements recorded
at other berths in comparable situations.
NOTE 2 Navigation studies are not normally suitable to quantify berthing speeds,
although they can provide insights into the difficulty or otherwise of berthing under
certain conditions.
Design of berths for ships that make a bow or stern approach to a berth under
their own power, such as ferries and Ro-Ro vessels, should in particular take into
account the need to ensure safe and efficient ship operations when operating
on short turnaround times. Full discussions with the relevant operators and
authorities are particularly important in this respect.
Records of berthing impacts should be correlated, if possible, with ambient
conditions of wave height and period, wind speed and direction, current velocity
and tug assistance or technical aids.
NOTE 3 Information on safety in respect of berthing of oil and gas tankers is given
in PIANC MarCom Report WG 116 [N4].
For oil, gas, petrochemical and other hazardous cargoes, berthing operations are
affected by stringent security and safety requirements which should be taken
into account in layout and design of berth facilities.
NOTE 4 For example, for LNG facilities, BS EN ISO 28460 defines a marine exclusion
zone (MEZ), which is an area around a jetty in which no unauthorized traffic is
allowed to enter, and which can vary according to jetty operations and different
security levels in force from time to time. The requirements for such a zone have
implications for planning the location and layout of jetties.
In addition to security issues, for oil, gas, petrochemical and other hazardous
cargoes it is typically required to operate a safety zone defined in relation to
the product transfer manifold in which certain operations and activities
(including those giving rise to sources of ignition) are excluded. Requirements
for such safety zones should be established at an early stage in design, since
they can have a large impact on layout and location of hazardous cargo
facilities.

NOTE 5 Figure 4, reproduced from PIANC MarCom Report WG116 [N4], illustrates
the conceptual zoning and separation philosophy to be considered for oil and gas
tanker berths where for preliminary planning purposes the safety zone may be
taken as a radius around the product transfer manifold. Figure 4 illustrates the
importance of considering the potential for interaction between berthing operations
at adjacent berths, including activities of tugs and mooring boats.
Figure 4 Considerations for layout and separation distances of oil and gas tanker berths
Key
1 Berth 1
2 Berth 2
3 Tanker 1
4 Tanker 2
5 Passing ship
d Offset of vessel’s position on approach
L1 Overall length of vessel moored to Berth 1
L2 Overall length of vessel berthing at Berth 2
L3 Length between manoeuvring vessel and end of basin/grounding line
R1 Safety zone centred on vessel manifold at Berth 1
R2 Safety zone centred on vessel manifold at Berth 2
RT Working distance of combined tow line and tug from vessel hull
W1 Spacing between moored vessels and passing vessel
W2 Spacing between a moored vessel and opposite obstruction
W3 Distance between berth fronts at finger piers
NOTE Copyright is claimed in this illustration, which is reproduced from PIANC MarCom Report 116 [N4].
NOTE 6 Safety zoning requirements are usually determined by quantitative risk

assessment, taking into account product type, credible incident scenarios around
product spills such as loading arm failure, spill dispersion modelling, fire and
explosion modelling, safety systems and prevailing environmental conditions. It is
operationally desirable to avoid overlapping safety zones and to achieve a layout
where adjacent berth operations are completely independent. Nevertheless, this is
not always achievable in practice, and for a multi-berth terminal the operator might
accept some limitations on activity (such as suspension of cargo transfer to reduce
risk in the event of a flammable spill) for a short period when a ship is berthing or
de-berthing at the adjacent berth. Any such operational restriction would need to
be taken into account in plant availability and downtime estimates.

For less hazardous products/cargoes, where separation distances are required by

the operator to be kept to a minimum, separation distances between ships
should allow for safe manoeuvring and mooring requirements, and for ship
movement on the berth that results from wind, current, wave and passing ship
effects.
NOTE 7 From a safe manoeuvring point of view, typical separation distances at
major container terminals are in the order of 15 m to 40 m between moored ships
(dimension L3 in Figure 4) depending on vessel size, local conditions, the use of tugs
and the use of the ships’ propulsion/manoeuvring systems.
NOTE 8 Recommendations for the design of fendering and mooring systems,
including the assessment of berthing velocities and energies and the arrangement
and spacing of dolphins and fenders for different berth and quay functions, are
given in BS 6349-4. Recommendations for the assessment of berthing and mooring
loads and actions will be provided in BS 6349-1-2, which is currently in preparation.
Recommendations for the design of quay walls, jetty and dolphin structures are
provided in BS 6349-2.
20.2 Mooring and mooring conditions

20.2.1 General considerations
NOTE 1 The functional requirement of a mooring system is to safely secure the
vessel in position at a berth under the action of environmental and other forces
acting on the vessel when moored and during cargo handling and transfer.
Mooring systems should be designed in accordance with BS 6349-4, taking into
account the particular operational and functional requirements of the facility.
The layout and location of a berth facility should be assessed to determine
whether or not the location will be acceptable for mooring operations for
environmental conditions up to the design stage operating limits.
The assessment of safe and operationally acceptable wave conditions for vessels
to stay at berths should be based upon an assessment of safety, operational and
human factors, including:
• limiting loads and stresses in mooring lines and fenders;
• limiting loads and impact forces on the moored vessel;
• limiting displacements and accelerations for different cargo handling cranes
and dry bulk systems requiring human control;
• limiting displacements and accelerations and consequent stresses in loading
arms, hoses and manifolds for oil, gas and petrochemical products with
transfer by mechanical ship-to-shore connections;
• limiting motions, displacements and accelerations for direct personnel or
vehicular transfer between vessel and shore for crew and passenger access
and for Ro-Ro operations;
• limiting motions, displacements and accelerations for health, safety and
comfort considerations for people on the vessel;
• safety and environmental risks associated with cargo spillage for hazardous
cargoes.
These factors should be investigated by carrying out mooring studies
supplemented with advice from operators experienced in the relevant types
of vessel and cargo types, so that the operability of the berth is established
at the design stage in relation to prevailing environmental conditions.
The environmental limits for different operations and operating conditions
considered at the design stage should be made available for preparation of the
facility operating manual and in planning for operations as described in 13.2.

NOTE 2 Clause 21 gives recommendations for the assessment and quantification of

weather downtime from operability analysis, taking into account wave and other
environmental effects.
NOTE 3 At many locations, wind effects are the dominant factor in restricting
operations with elevated cargo handling equipment such as container cranes and
large petrochemical loading arms.
20.2.2 Methods for assessment of acceptable wave conditions for

moored ships
20.2.2.1 General
In the absence of other operator and safety requirements, the acceptable wave
conditions for moored vessels in general relate to:
• limits of the fender and mooring system load capacity;
• limits of motions (displacement and velocities) affecting cargo operations or
safety of personnel or vehicles transferring between vessel and shore.
There might be other safety- or operational-related issues which could also affect a
vessel’s capacity to remain at a berth, e.g. a requirement for vessels to depart from a
berth when winds or wave conditions are forecast to exceed a defined
environmental operating limit, and before conditions become unsafe for departure.
For ships of 10 000 DWT and larger, assessment of acceptable wave conditions
should normally be based on mooring studies to quantify mooring line loads,
fender loads and vessel motions, and compare them with allowable loads and
motions.
Allowable ship motions should be assessed on the basis of an analysis of the
operations to be carried out when the ship is berthed. Information should be
obtained from cargo handling equipment manufacturers and operators to
determine the acceptable limits of displacements, velocities and accelerations.
Ro-Ro ramps, linkspans and walkways should be designed in accordance
with BS 6349-8.
NOTE For vessels less than 1 000 DWT and for preliminary design for larger vessels
before an operation-specific assessment has been carried out, guidance on limiting
motions and displacement is given in Annex E, which is based upon PIANC PTC II
Report WG24 [41], PIANC MarCom Report WG115 [42] and BS 6349-8.
In the case of cargo operations that impose no obvious limitations in the link
between the vessel and shore, the amount of acceptable movement should be
defined by personnel with relevant experience of similar cargo or vessel
handling operations.
Oil and gas tanker berths should be designed according to the terminal design
provisions of OCIMF MEG3 [N8], including:
• the specific recommendations for berth and terminal designers prescribed
therein;
• the characteristics of ship’s mooring equipment and operational practices
also described therein.
The operational safety requirements for a berth in relation to circumstances
when ships will leave the berth or when ships will remain at a berth in extreme
weather events should be agreed with the operator at the design stage. These
requirements should in turn be used to inform the structural capacity
requirements for berthing and mooring structures and environmental operating
limits.

20.2.2.2 Limits of the fender and mooring system load capacity

In addition to motion criteria, the other principal determinant of acceptable
wave conditions for a moored vessel is the capacity of the mooring system
including mooring lines and equipment, fenders, supporting structures. A
limiting factor for fender loads is also the allowable hull pressure in contact
with the fenders. The capacity of these mooring system components and of the
ship should be assessed based upon the specific ship and mooring equipment
types proposed and information from the operator and from data from the
mooring equipment and fender manufacturer.
Capacities of mooring equipment of oil and gas tankers should be based on the
provisions of OCIMF MEG3 [N8].
NOTE The degree of movement of a moored ship in conditions up to the limiting
capacity of the mooring system in is a function of the softness or stiffness of the
mooring system. At berths for large ships exposed to wave action, softer mooring
and fendering systems can be adopted to increase the limiting wave conditions and
reduce the risk of parting of mooring lines under dynamic loads, provided that the
cargo handling or transfer systems can be designed to accept the increased motions.
For oil, gas and petrochemical berths at exposed locations, this is typically be
possible since liquid cargo transfer arms or hose systems can be designed to accept
large motions. Softening of mooring systems can be achieved by the use of
pneumatic fenders and extended polyamide tails on a ship’s mooring lines.
20.2.2.3 Moored ship dynamic response

Prediction of acceptable wave conditions for mooring and cargo handling for
design purposes should be undertaken by fully dynamic numerical model
studies, supplemented by physical model studies where necessary.
NOTE 1 Some general background information regarding the dynamics of moored
vessels is given in Annex E, E.5.
NOTE 2 For concept design it might be possible to make preliminary assessment of
acceptable wave conditions using benchmarked values for defined classes of vessels
in similar berth configurations. Such values could be compiled from previous studies,
from operational records and from anecdotal information from operators
(particularly pilots and ships’ masters).
20.2.2.4 Numerical models

Numerical models may be used to estimate motions and mooring line loads of
moored vessel under wave action in combination with other environmental effects.
Such models provide solutions to the equations of motion for the six degrees of
motion of the vessel, namely surge, sway, heave, roll, pitch and yaw (see Figure 5).
The six modes of motion are not independent but are to some extent coupled.
The equations of motion include the following variables:
• vessel mass;
• added mass;
• displacement;
• retardation function;
• damping force (mooring lines and viscosity);
• restoring force;
• mooring force;
• external forces (due to environmental locations).

The external wave force comprises first order forces, for which the response is direct
and immediate, and second order forces, where the hydraulic interaction between
waves generates steady or slowly varying drift forces.
Figure 5 The six degrees of freedom of vessel motion
Key
1 Yaw
2 Heave
3 Sway
4 Pitch
5 Surge
6 Roll
In order to represent the effects of first and second order wave forces and in
order to take into account irregular waves and non-linear mooring system
behaviour, numerical simulation should be carried out for the moored ship,
solving the equations at increments in time using a time domain analysis to
produce a time-series of motions and loads.
NOTE 1 This is often referred to as fully dynamic mooring analysis. Wave forces on
the ship hull are often modelled using potential theory using a frequency domain
analysis to sum the components of wave forces in the complete spectrum. This
provides a hydrodynamic transfer function in which the wave force is calculated
through the time increments in the time domain simulation. Simulations normally
take into account a single sea state (expressed as a spectral function) acting on the
complete ship at each point in the time domain.
Alternative formulations of the equations of motion are possible in respect of
the retardation function and radiation forces. Characterization of added mass
and damping terms is important, and the formulation adopted should be
appropriate to the prototype circumstances (e.g. a ship moored at a vertical face
compared to a ship moored at an open jetty).
Coexisting wind forces should be represented in time domain simulations as a
varying force using an appropriate spectral function.
All numerical models should be validated against prototype data or physical
model tests to demonstrate that the models replicate motions and line forces in
idealized conditions.

The uncertainties involved in numerical ship dynamic simulations should be

taken into account when applying results to planning and design of maritime
works. In critical cases this should include use of studies of sensitivity of results
to key input or modelling parameters.
Where indicated by assessment of uncertainties, and in cases where the
prototype conditions and berth configuration cannot be adequately represented
in the simplified idealization inherent in numerical simulation, physical
modelling should be undertaken to estimate motions and mooring line loads.
NOTE 2 For example, numerical simulations often cannot accurately represent
complex wave fields, which can vary over the length of large ships. The
hydrodynamic transfer function is less accurate when physical conditions deviate
from the idealized conditions of the formulation such as, for example, when the
seabed slopes significantly along the length of the vessel, low UKCs and complex
quayside geometry.
The numerical simulation of bound and free infragravity waves in shallow water
and complex harbour geometries, and the inclusion of shallow water
infragravity energy into dynamic ship response, is particularly challenging. The
relative influence of infragravity effects on ships response should be carefully
assessed in deciding upon modelling methods for simulation of mooring of large
ships such as oil tankers, LNG and LPG carriers and container ships.
20.2.2.5 Physical models

Physical moored ship models can be used as an alternative to numerical simulations
to predict the dynamic response of moored ships under wave action. Physical models
offer the potential to more comprehensively and realistically simulate all the
hydrodynamic processes driving ship response and local bed and quay configurations
compared to numerical simulations, although advances in numerical modelling
techniques since the 1990s have resulted in a reduced need for physical modelling in
some instances. Also, although a physical model in a wave basin can potentially
reproduce complex wave conditions in a harbour, the scale of the model required to
achieve this in available wave basin sizes might result in a need to compromise in
the ship model size compared to the preferred maximum scale for optimum
replication of ship behaviour and measurements of movement and mooring loads.
A nominal minimum scale of 1:120 is generally necessary to permit reasonable
accuracy in the measurement of scaled mooring loads. For these reasons it is often
appropriate to adopt a hybrid approach, utilizing both numerical and physical
modelling to represent all variables and circumstances of interest.
Physical model testing of moored ship response is a highly specialized activity that
needs to be carried out in one of a relatively few facilities worldwide that have the
necessary expertise. Recent technological developments in moored ship modelling
include the systems for generating irregular waves and the use of non-contact
optical systems for measuring model ship motions.
Physical models to simulate moored ship response should be scaled using
Froude’s scaling law.
NOTE 1 Froude’s scaling law is applicable because gravity and momentum are
predominant factors in the fluid motion and free surfaces occur.
Froude’s law states that the Froude number, Fr, should be the same in model
and nature, where Fr is calculated as:
u
Fr =
ŒgD
Such models should have the same horizontal and vertical scale.

The linear scale of the model, to which the bathymetry is constructed, is known
as the geometric scale, λ. The scaling relationships between measurements in the
model and in nature should be derived from Froude’s law according to the
applicable scaling relationships including:
• length = λ;
• time = λ1/2;
• velocity = λ1/2;
• discharge = λ5/2;
• force = λ3γ.
The geometric scale of the model should be selected to be:
• large enough to represent the hydrodynamic conditions and bathymetry
affecting the moored ship;
• small enough to ensure that the ship hull form, draught, trim and mooring
properties can be represented;
• small enough to allow for accurate measurement of mooring line loads and
ship motions.
The load–deflection characteristics of fenders and mooring lines should be
represented in the model by a system of cantilever springs or other devices that
can be made to reproduce any non-linear characteristics such as those from
synthetic tails on wire or high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) lines. Fender face
friction should be represented by using low friction faces, taking into account
loss of friction due to wear and tear of surfaces in service.
Mooring line loads should be measured directly by means of strain gauges, and
motions in the six degrees of freedom of vessel movement should be measured
by a system that does not impose forces on the model vessel that could
significantly affect its response, such as non-contact optical motion tracking and
capture systems.
It is not usually practicable to model wind and current loads directly with wave
action, and other methods of adding in such loads should be used where
necessary, such as the use of constant tension lines.
Irregular sea states should be realistically generated by the wave generation
device in the model so that non-linear wave forces are present in the model.
Where infragravity wave energy is present at the prototype location, it should
be assessed whether this is realistically represented in the model. In some cases
it might be necessary to add or compensate for an appropriate infragravity
wave in the wave generator. Careful attention should be given to calibrating the
wave conditions in the model against measured prototype data if available or
using numerical models. Particular attention should be given to the basin
boundaries and to the active absorption capabilities of the wave generation
device to ensure that modelling artefacts (such as reflections or resonances that
are not present in the prototype) do not affect results.
NOTE 2 Passing ship effects may also be simulated by means of a towed, powered
or guided model ship as a source of the waves acting on a moored ship model.

21 Operability and weather downtime

This clause deals with the assessment of weather downtime for marine facilities
design. It is concerned with the effect of metocean conditions on operability and
does not allow for:
• any other operational downtime due to equipment failure, planned or
unplanned maintenance, taking on stores or other procedural or logistical issues;
• weather effects on shipping en route to or from the facility causing delayed
arrival of shipping.
In planning and design of new and upgraded facilities, designers should
establish the DSOL, comprising values of metocean conditions or values of
combinations of conditions, including wind, waves, currents, water level and
visibility, which are deemed to prevent specific operations from taking place.
Estimates of weather downtime should be made at the design stage to quantify
the frequency and persistency over a period of time when conditions are
predicted to exceed the DSOL for each operation or sequence of operations
envisaged in the operating phase of the facility, including vessel arrival,
mooring, cargo transfer and departure.
Functional requirements for availability and operability may be expressed
quantitatively in either of the following ways:
• availability – the amount of time the berth is available, expressed as a
percentage of the overall sample time;
• weather downtime – the amount of time the berth is unavailable, expressed
as a percentage of the overall sample time.
At the early stages of design and layout optimization, weather downtime may
be quantified by reference to the percentage exceedance of environmental
limits for each of the key operations of approach/departure, mooring, and cargo
handling and transfer.
At later stages of design or when appropriate to the facility requirements,
potential weather downtime should be assessed using a theoretical marine
operability model appropriate to the nature of the facility and operations to be
carried out.
NOTE 1 The operability model normally defines a simplified sequence of operations
including separate DSOL and durations for:
• pilot pick-up;
• arrival transit of approach channel, connection of tugs, approach to berth;
• berthing and making fast;
• vessel berthed – cargo-specific preparations for cargo transfer (e.g. cool down of
transfer arms for a liquefied gas berth);
• vessel berthed – cargo transfer (loading and/or unloading) taking place;
• vessel berthed – cargo- or vessel-specific preparations for departure;
• departure transit of approach channel;
• pilot departure.
The values of the DSOL should be assessed according to the applicable basic
criteria for safety and operability. Such basic criteria may include environmental
values:
• provided by pilots, masters and operators with experience relevant to the
particular operation;

• derived from navigation simulations (see 19.4);

• derived from moored ship studies related to overall vessel motions, safety of
personnel, cargo handling, mooring line loads and fender forces (see 20.2)
or from static analysis of moored ships not subject to wave action;
• relating to cargo handling or transfer equipment related to rated wind
speeds for safe operations.
NOTE 2 In this context, criteria at the ship-shore interface could include those
relating to:
• connections to loading arms or hoses for liquid cargo transfer systems;
• cargo handling using container or other cranes for Lo-Lo operations;
• vehicles and wheeled cargo using Ro-Ro ramps.
Weather downtime can exhibit significant season-to season and year-to-year
variability, and downtime assessments should statistically characterize the range
of variability in downtime through the design working life of the facility,
utilizing, for example, long-term measured or synthesized time series data of
wind, waves, currents, tidal levels and visibility.
NOTE 3 Acceptable figures for downtime vary according to the type of operation,
ship type, cargo handled and frequency of ship calls. Different downtime values may
be defined for specific operations (such as moored at berthed and transferring
cargo) or more general downtime for all operations, from pilot boarding on ship
arrival at the port approaches to pilot leaving on sailing away from the port after
loading cargo. For a crude oil export terminal at an exposed location, for example,
it might typically be considered acceptable to plan on an expectation of an average
year-to-year weather downtime (berth closed due to weather) of 5% to 10%.
However, such downtime might not be acceptable for an intensively utilized
container terminal or LNG import terminal. Furthermore, the operational impact
of 5% annual downtime is likely to be unacceptable if it is predicted to occur all in a
single 3-month season. For many intensively used facilities which are operationally or
commercially sensitive to weather downtime, it is important to characterize weather
downtime statistically, including year-to-year and month-to-month variability, as an
input to cargo handling, storage and shipping logistics simulations.
NOTE 4 For container terminals, PIANC MarCom Report WG115 [42] provides
guidance on the assessment of ship and overall terminal efficiency, taking into
account motion criteria of the range of design ships.
22 Design operating conditions

NOTE 1 Recommendations for the structural design of quay walls, jetties and
dolphins are given in BS 6349-2, based upon the application of loads set out in
BS EN 1990.
Design situations as the basis for structural design of marine facilities should
take into account the operating philosophy established with the operator at the
planning and design phases, and the DSOL.
Conditions of normal use for marine facilities appropriate to assessment of
actions and combinations of actions in a persistent design situation should
include both normal and extreme operating conditions (3.1.30 and 3.1.16
respectively).
Accidental design situations should be as defined in BS EN 1990. Accidental
design situations for marine facilities should include the accidental operating
condition (3.1.1). Credible accidental design situations may be established by risk
analysis for the specific operations proposed and the prevailing environmental
conditions.

NOTE 2 Recommendations for the estimation of actions from moored ships based
upon these design operating conditions will be included in BS 6349-1-2, which is
currently in preparation.
NOTE 3 These design situations allow for the fact that for large ships and exposed
berths, it is not normally expected that a ship would remain alongside in an extreme
storm event, since at many locations it is unlikely that the ship’s mooring lines,
equipment and fittings would have sufficient strength to stay moored in extreme
winds or sea states. In some circumstances, however, it could be required for
moorings to be designed for extreme environmental conditions. An example might
be where a floating installation is moored for a long period at a quay. Also for small
vessels, it might be the case that normal operating conditions could allow for
extreme environmental conditions, although it would be relatively unusual for these
to be of the same magnitude as the extreme condition for structural design
considered in the extreme operating condition.
NOTE 4 The environmental conditions that are “consistent with the DSOL for the
facility” vary by location, operation and phase in the asset lifecycle. For example, for
conceptual design of a new and exposed oil and gas jetty, it might be decided to
take a berthed ship with one in 1 year return period event as the normal operating
condition. At detailed design stage, however, mooring studies might have been
carried out to establish limiting conditions from the moored ship according to
limiting mooring line load criteria, and this might suggest environmental conditions
of lesser magnitude than the one in 1 year return period event and which may be
applied to detailed structural design.
NOTE 5 Accidental operating conditions might include such events as ship impact
or overload of one or more mooring lines up to breaking load or ship winch render
load, due to operator error or equipment malfunction.
23 Maintenance
Designers should determine requirements for maintenance in the operation
and maintenance phase of the asset lifecycle, taking account the potential
impacts of:
• planned or unplanned maintenance on operations;
• safety of operations arising from simultaneous maintenance activities;
• safety of personnel involved in inspection works, particularly when involving
the use of divers in or close to operational areas.
Maintenance dredging activities in particular should be planned in consideration
of the feasibility of carrying out dredging operations, in proximity to other
shipping and small vessels as appropriate to the location in question.
NOTE 1 PIANC MarCom Report WG103 [43] provides guidance to inform
development of lifecycle management strategies.
NOTE 2 Further guidance on maintenance and inspection requirements for jetties,
dolphins and quay walls structures is given in BS 6349-2, and for oil and gas jetties
information is given in the SIGTTO-OCIMF Jetty maintenance and inspection
guide [44].
NOTE 3 General recommendations in respect of the materials aspect of
maintenance are given in BS 6349-1-4.

Annex A Organizations with a role in coastal activities in

(informative)
the United Kingdom
A.1 Organizations with a statutory role
In addition to its own statutory role in managing coastal activities and
development, DEFRA lists organizations with a statutory role in Managing
coastal activities: a guide for local authorities [45] as follows:
• Maritime and Coastguard Agency;
• harbour authorities;
• Department for Transport (DfT);
• other statutory bodies:
• Crown Estate Commissioners (foreshore and sea bed ownership);
• Countryside Agency (landscape conservation, recreation and amenity);
• English Nature (nature conservation);
• Environment Agency (water quality, flood defence, conservation and
recreation);
• Health and Safety Executive;
• National Trust (coastal landowner);
• port health authorities;
• sea fisheries committees.
In 2009 the Marine Management Organisation (MMO) was established (see
www.marinemanagement.org.uk/about/index.htm 14)). Activities of the MMO
include:
• marine planning;
• marine licensing;
• marine nature conservation;
• fisheries management;
• enforcement;
• marine emergencies.
The MMO is an executive non-departmental public body (NDPB) established and
given powers under the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 [46]. It incorporated
the work of the Marine and Fisheries Agency (MFA) and acquired new roles,
principally marine-related powers and specific functions previously associated
with the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) and the Department
for Transport (DfT).
14)

A.2 Shoreline management plans

Much of the UK coast is subject to shoreline management plans (SMPs), the
exception being Northern Ireland. SMPs extend to sections of coast that are
considered to be self-contained in terms of sediment movement and can
therefore be treated as being quasi-independent of adjacent stretches of coast
for management purposes. The following list indicates locations and the
respective organizations responsible for managing and monitoring shorelines:
• Southern England: the Standing Conference on Problems Associated with
the Coastline (SCOPAC);
• South Coast (Selsey Bill to Portland Bill): the Southern Coastal Group and
the Channel Coastal Observatory;
• South East Coast (Kent and Sussex): the South East Coastal Group;
• East Anglia and the Wash: the East Anglia Coastal Group;
• Gibraltar Point in Lincolnshire (including the coastline of Yorkshire, Durham
and Northumberland) to Saint Abb’s Head: the North East Coastal Group;
• North West England (Cumbria and Lancashire) and North Wales to Great
Orme Head: the North West England and North Wales Coastal Group;
• Great Orme Head to Pembrokeshire: the West of Wales SMP;
• Pembrokeshire to Lavernock Point: the South Wales SMP;
• Severn Estuary from Lavernock Point to Somerset: the Severn Estuary
Coastal Group;
• Devon, Cornwall and Dorset to Portland Bill: the South West Coastal Group.
For coastal management on Scottish coasts, the Scottish Government or the
relevant District Council might be useful sources of information. Similarly, the
Northern Ireland Assembly can be contacted for coastal management issues
there.
A.3 Voluntary and non-regulatory organizations

Voluntary, non-regulatory organizations are also involved in coastal activities.
The Royal Life Saving Society is the UK’s leading drowning prevention
organization and the governing body for life saving and life guarding.
Royal Life Saving Society members patrol (some) beaches ensuring the safety of
bathers. In addition, it provides a range of programmes, awards and
qualifications to help people to learn skills and techniques which can help
save lives.
The Royal National Lifeboat Institution exists to save lives at sea. It provides
a 24-hour on-call search and rescue service up to 50 miles from the coast of the
United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents is involved in the promotion
of safety in all areas of life, including on or near water. It provides information,
advice, resources and training and plays a vital role in advising local authorities
on avoiding danger.

Annex B Metocean data acquisition

(informative)
COMMENTARY ON ANNEX B
Metocean conditions, as referred to in this part of BS 6349, are the subset of physical
environmental conditions relating to meteorological and oceanographic conditions.
This annex provides guidance on issues which need to be considered in planning
metocean data acquisition activities for planning and execution of maritime works,
including considerations for projects outside the United Kingdom.
The type and method of collection of information, and some possible formats for
the final presentation of data, are also outlined.
Subclause B.1 describes some environmental aspects that are relevant to definition
of the scope, duration and timing of the data collection programme, depending on
the results of initial desk studies using available data sources.
B.1 General considerations

B.1.1 Rapidly varying conditions
If conditions in an area can vary rapidly, the data collection regime might, for
example, include for measurement and recording of individual maxima, minima
and continuous “high time-resolution” data in addition to averaged values, to
enable extreme conditions to be derived.
Examples of rapidly varying conditions include:
• winds: squalls, microbursts, downdraughts, tornadoes, tropical storms,
harmattan winds, katabatic winds;
• waves: tropical storms;
• currents: solitons, density or turbidity events, eddy events, restricted flows;
• ice: ice pressure build-up in high ice concentrations;
• atmospheric pressure: rapid pressure change such as during topical storms or
depressions and polar lows.
B.1.2 Infrequent conditions

In many areas, the type of climatological conditions that cause an extreme event
occur very infrequently. As a result, short- to medium-length data sets might
miss any example of these phenomena and result in severe under-estimation of
extreme conditions. If infrequent but severe conditions could exist in an area,
data collection needs to be supplemented by other long-term data sources
which cover both time and space in the region of interest, such as satellite,
hindcast or public domain data.
Examples of this include:
• typhoon, hurricanes and tropical cyclones (especially when they occur
outside their normal range and, when they do, dominate the metocean
design criteria, e.g. a tropical storm event between 10°N and 10°S);
• tornadoes and tornadic water spouts;
• tsunamis;
• icebergs and ice islands, including major ice shelf and glacier break-off.

B.1.3 Long-term oscillations and inter-annual variability

There are several long-term oscillations which occur naturally in different areas
of the globe and impact different regions. Most installations have to survive the
full cycle of these oscillations, but as the oscillation periods are typically 5 years
to 30 years, data acquisition rarely covers the full oscillation cycle. The phases of
relevant oscillation with respect to the period of data collection need to be
assessed, as the phase of an oscillation can bias data collected to be more
calm/rough, hot/cold or dry/wet than the regional norm.
The main long-term oscillations include:
• the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO);
• the Arctic oscillation (AO);
• the Pacific Decadal oscillation (PDO);
• the El Niño/La Niña-Southern oscillation (ENSO);
• the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD);
• the Atlantic Multi-decadal oscillation (AMO).
B.1.4 Climate change (trend and variability)

Climate change is resulting in higher variability and trends in conditions in many
areas. These need to be considered when making measurements and preparing
design criteria. Short-term data collection might not capture trends, variability
or fully representative conditions. This aspect is more important for installations
that are expected to have extended lifetimes.
B.1.5 Parameters impacted by proximity to the coast, island and shoals

Maritime structures in coastal or shallow water are affected by the interaction
of the coastline, islands, shoals and the seabed with the meteorological,
oceanographic and ice-related conditions. Data collection and modelling need to
take into account the complexity that can arise from this interaction. Typically
specific near-shore hydrodynamic or coastal modelling studies and assessments
would be required to assess the conditions in the area of interest, taking into
account the following.
• Infragravity waves are low-frequency waves (nominally 0.003 Hz to 0.05 Hz)
and are important for harbour oscillations, sediment transport, and other
near-shore hydrodynamic processes. Infragravity waves could represent an
important consideration for vessel mooring and tanker on/offloading
operations, especially for large vessels, having longer natural periods. There
are implications for both design and operation, including the calculation of
extreme loading on mooring systems, extreme vessel motions, mooring
system fatigue and the availability of on/offloading systems.
• Storm surge represents the water surface response to wind-induced surface
shear stress and pressure fields. Storm-induced surges can produce
short-term water surface rise to an elevation considerably above mean
water levels. Where the coast resists water movement, storm surges and the
associated relaxation currents can be more severe than offshore.
• Solitons are usually generated by a disturbance in the fluid interface as the
water passes over a bathymetric feature and hence need to be considered in
shallow water, although the waves also propagate into deep water.
• Seiches can be important for design waves in harbours bays and large lakes.
Any external perturbation to the lake or embayment can induce an
oscillation, and this needs to be modelled or measured.

• Turbidity currents (a rapidly moving, sediment-laden layer of water moving

down a slope) can be important for structures where there is instability and
an underwater slope. The risk can be higher near highly sediment-laden
river outflows and submarine canyons.
• Tsunamis, although rare and unpredictable, can have a very severe impact
on coastal and shallow water locations, and run-up studies are required
where there is a high seismic hazard. Coastal locations need to be selected
to minimize the impact of potential run-up where possible.
• Waves shoal, refract and break as they pass into shallow water.
• Waves diffract due to the interaction of waves with structures and also due
to the interaction between waves and currents.
• Katabatic winds carry high-density air from a higher elevation down a slope
under the force of gravity. Katabatic winds can rush down elevated slopes
at very high speeds and can have a big impact on onshore and coastal
facilities near where these winds occur.
• Nearshore sea ice can have very different characteristics to offshore ice floes
because shallow water conditions can cause ice pile-up and ride-up with
grounded ice, severe ice ridging and ice gouging.
B.2 Meteorological data acquisition

B.2.1 Wind
There are several sensor options for measurement of wind speed and direction,
• Cup and vane type. This is a commonly available instrument. The main
disadvantage is bearing wear, which can result in poor responsiveness and
ultimately low readings.
• Propeller type. This is a commonly available, sensitive instrument. The main
disadvantage is that the speed and direction are linked, and failure of the
wind vane can result in incorrect wind speed measurements.
• Acoustic type. The main advantage of this instrument is the lack of moving
parts, resulting in low maintenance, although it can be affected by heavy
precipitation. It can also be configured to measure vertical wind speeds.
• Doppler radar (Lidar). The main advantage of this instrument is that it can
be used to measure wind profile, but it can also be affected by heavy
precipitation and is less commonly used.
As wind sensors are commonly mounted in elevated locations, they might be
vulnerable to lightning strikes.
B.2.2 Precipitation
Automatic sensors are available for measurement of precipitation, but it is
recommended that snow depth and durations, where relevant, are measured
manually in accordance with national guidelines. Types of rain gauge include
the following.
• Tipping bucket. This is a commonly-used standard instrument. It is important
to scale the bucket size and tipping rate to the precipitation intensity. This
type of sensor is vulnerable to vibration, and has limitations in measuring
snow amount even when heated.
• Optical rain gauge. The accuracy of this instrument has not been
established.

B.2.3 Air temperature and humidity

Sensor options for measurement of temperature and humidity include the
following.
• Thermistor type (wet and dry bulb). This is a commonly available standard
solution. The water reservoir for the web bulb sensor needs to be kept full,
or the sensor measures the dry bulb temperature and not the lowest
temperature that can be reached by the evaporation of water. Dew point
and humidity can be calculated from the wet and dry bulb temperatures.
• Humidity probe. By using direct humidity measurements, this option
removes the maintenance tasks associated with the wet bulb sensor, but
probes are likely to drift due to contamination caused by salt and/or other
contaminants. To protect against this, it is preferable to select a probe that
is solid and with a sensor protected from liquid water, dust and dirt, e.g. by
a PTFE filter.
B.2.4 Visibility
While visibility can be determined manually, all optical sensors need regular
cleaning. Sensor options include the following.
• Single base line transmissometer. This type of sensor is typically used on
runways and is not practical in confined spaces. Precipitation can lead to
window contamination. Good alignment is critical for correct operation.
• Optical forward scatter. This type of sensor assumes that the surrounding
visibility is the same as that between the sensor heads, so careful
positioning of the sensor is important to avoid any nearby features or
facilities that might affect visibility near the sensors. Contamination by dust
and other airborne particulates means that the lens needs to be cleaned
regularly. Some sensors can self-correct for window contamination by
precipitation.
B.2.5 Atmospheric pressure

There are several sensor options for measurement of pressure, including the
following.
• Precision aneroid barometer. This type of sensor is reliable, suitable for quick
pressure measurements and independent of temperature change. Its light
weight and insensibility to shock and vibration means that it is ideal to use
as a mobile calibration instrument.
• Silicon diaphragm. This type of sensor exhibits negligible hysteresis or
temperature drift.
• Silicon capacitive absolute pressure sensor. This type of sensor has high
measurement accuracy and good long-term stability.
B.2.6 Solar radiation and hours of sunshine

B.2.6.1 Solar radiation measurement
There are several sensor options for measurement of solar radiation pressure,
• Thermopile-based pyranometers designed for measurement of solar
irradiance. These are reliable and low-maintenance, although the black
bodes need to be calibrated every 2 years.
• Radiometers designed for the measurement of sunshine duration (i.e. as the
time during which the direct solar radiation exceeds the level of 120 W/m2).
These are reliable and low-maintenance. Radiometers can be designed to be

sensitive in particular wave lengths of interest, e.g. incoming short wave

lengths or outgoing long wave lengths or in the specific bands of ultraviolet
or infrared.
B.3 Oceanographic data acquisition

B.3.1 Water levels
B.3.1.1 Water level measurements
There are several types of tide gauge available, including the following.
• Tide pole or staff. This is a simple graduated pole set up vertically on a fixed
structure in the water so that the changing level of the sea surface can be
read by an observer. While this is not useful for long-term high resolution
data recording, if it can be levelled in and referenced to the local chart
datum, it can provide a long-term reference for an automatic tide gauge
and other measurements or surveys.
• Float operated gauges. These are normally installed in stilling wells that
dampen the wave action. The vertical movement of the float is translated to
a height which is recorded at regular intervals.
• Radar type. This is typically mounted above the water, and measures the
distance to the water surface by measuring the time taken for a pulse to
travel down to the water and be reflected back to the source. The main
advantages are the low maintenance cost, as the gauge is out of the water,
and generally high accuracy and reliability. Water levels can be sampled at
frequencies typically up to 10 Hz and the results averaged over a specified
period (typically 10 min). The raw data need to be inverted and the sensor
height referenced to a local datum.
• Pressure type. This is typically mounted on the seabed, and measures the
water pressure, which is converted to the height of the water column above
the sensor. The height of the gauge needs to be levelled in and the data
corrected for the atmospheric pressure.
• Bubbler type. This works by pumping typically compressed air into the
water. The pressure created in the measuring tube is directly proportional to
the length of the water column above the bubble. The sensor is able to
self-correct for atmospheric pressure, as this can be measured in the same
way above the water.
• Acoustic type. This is typically able to measure the distance from the sensor
to a target. Sensors can be susceptible to acoustic noise. The main
advantage is the low maintenance cost, as the gauge is out of the water.
This sensor is cheaper than the radar type, but the data quality is usually
less good.
B.3.1.2 Tidal analysis

If a sufficiently large database is obtained, an analysis of the records can
produce the astronomical tidal harmonic constituents, which can then be used
to predict astronomical tidal heights. These predictions assume that no other
changes occur at the relevant site, and their accuracy depends on the size and
accuracy of the original database. It is possible to obtain sufficient harmonic
constituents for a site from continuous records of 30 days to make adequate
predictions. A full tidal analysis from a minimum of 1 year’s continuous data is
sufficient to predict accurate astronomical tidal heights. However, this can only
provide astronomical tidal heights, and actual water levels can differ
significantly due to meteorological effects.

Admiralty tide tables list daily predictions of times and heights of high and low
waters at a selected number of standard ports. These predictions are of universal
application and are usually based on continuous observations of the tide over a
period of at least 1 year at that standard port. The tables also list data for
secondary ports, enabling predictions to be calculated from the predictions listed
for standard ports.
Harbour authorities and others also publish almanacs and tide tables. Whereas
Admiralty tide tables give heights referred to chart datum, i.e. the datum of
soundings on the latest edition of the largest scale Admiralty chart, it is not
unusual for locally produced tide tables to be based on a different datum.
Certain commercial companies also offer tide prediction services.
NOTE Commercial and harbour authorities often obtain their predictions from the
Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory, Bidston, Birkenhead, England when
information is required in a more detailed or specific format than is provided by the
Admiralty tide tables.
B.3.2 Currents
B.3.2.1 Measurement of currents
Current speed and direction can be measured:
• directly at a location by current meter or acoustic Doppler current profilers
(ADCPs) (see B.3.2.2);
• indirectly by float tracking or dye tracing (see B.3.2.3).
Float tracking or dye tracing provides information on the general circulation
patterns in an area of interest.
B.3.2.2 Current meter observations

Direct current measurement provides information on current speed and
direction at a specific depth or, in the case of ADCP, continuously through the
water column. Current meter options include the following.
• Direct reading current meters are traditionally deployed, typically manually,
from a vessel, and they give a direct reading of current. They have only a
limited practicability and accuracy, although models are now available
where data is recorded internally in a data logger. They have typically been
superseded by more accurate electromagnetic or acoustic instruments.
Current speed is measured using a horizontally mounted propeller/Savonius
rotor, and current direction is measured by the alignment to the current
direction using a vane compared to an internally housed compass. The main
disadvantages are that the current speed is dependent on the current
direction, and in low current regimes, the instrument often does not rotate
to point into the current direction due to its weights and bearing friction.
Additionally, care has to be taken in the presence of waves, as the rotor
instruments tend to over-register speed under wave influence. Under some
circumstances the impellor’s movements can be affected by marine growth.
• Recording current meters (RCMs) record data internally and are typically
deployed on mooring. Early RCMs also used a Savonius rotor and vane, but
now all instruments measure current speed using methods that are
independent of current direction. This includes electromagnetic current
meters, which measure changes in an induced magnetic field, and acoustic
current meters, which measure the apparent variations in the speed of
sound due to the water movement. These meters normally measure the
current velocity at frequent intervals, e.g. once or ten times per second, and
either record a burst of data, e.g. 10 min/h, or perform a vector average to
remove the orbital currents before recording.

• ADCPs measure current speed and direction over a range of depths. While
the most common orientation is to place an upward looking instrument on
the seabed, instruments can also be deployed on a mooring either upward
or downward looking. Near shore, an instrument could be deployed
sideways looking to measure currents across an estuary or harbour area.
There are a number of factors that affect accuracy, resolution and range,
and the ADCP type needs to be selected and configured for the specific use,
including the deployment depth and required measurement accuracy.
Typically temperature, heading and inclination data are also recorded and
can be used to correct measurements if the sensor becomes tilted but is still
within its operating range.
B.3.2.3 Float tracking

This method of tracking water movement involves the introduction of readily
identifiable material that moves with the water, thus directly indicating its path.
The size and shape of the floating object affects its reaction to the surrounding
water movement and therefore whether it faithfully follows that movement.
The standard float assembly consists of a vaned drogue usually made out of
canvas, wood, metal or plastics, joined by thin rope or wire to a surface buoy.
The length of rope determines the depth of water at which the drogue lies and
follows the water motion. The drogue is typically 0.5 m to 1.0 m long and, when
suspended at a depth of, for example, 2 m, its path is an expression of the
average horizontal movement of a water parcel between 2 m and 3 m below
the surface.
The standard drogue float can be modified to follow surface water movement
by reducing the length of rope between the drogue and the top mark so that
the top of the vane assembly is just on the sea surface. To follow movement in
the top 100 mm or to estimate the true path of a surface phenomenon such as a
grease or oil film, however, specially designed surface floats may be used. These
can consist of disc shapes or spheres that float on the surface, neutrally buoyant
bottles, cards or even finely chopped vegetables.
Tracking is a major problem with submerged or surface floats.
For a submerged float, a large surface buoy or marker such as a flag or radar
reflector is subject to windage and, in the case of a buoy, to influence from the
surface water currents in which it is floating. These top marks therefore need to
be kept as small as possible consistent with the need for good visibility. In order
to aid relocation, small radio transmitters, GPS transmitters or underwater
acoustic devices can be used together with radio direction finding antennae or
acoustic receivers. Location by sonar has the advantage that the surface float
can be smaller. These devices are most useful in the dark and easier to find than
the flashing lights previously employed. Methods have been developed to
remove the windage influence from the resultant track of a float, but further
work is necessary before the techniques are widely adopted.
For surface floats, aerial tracking and/or photography can provide a useful
method of recording float positions but is too expensive for most applications.
Large floats can be tracked by GPS transmitter which ensures the full path and
final position is accurately known.
A logship is a particular design of float used to show average horizontal motion
over a greater depth of water, such as 6 m to 10 m. It consists of a long thin
member with identification on one end and weights at the other, so that it
floats vertically just under the water surface. Typical materials used are
telegraph poles, tree trunks, bamboo poles or lengths of aluminium. Logships
are particularly useful in navigation studies and harbour layout planning
because their lengths can be adjusted to be representative of the relevant vessel
draught.

Floats can also be used to obtain point-specific information by releasing them at

the bows of a moored vessel and timing their passage over the known distance
to the stern. Alternatively, floats attached to an anchored vessel by a known
length of floating cord can be allowed to drift astern. The velocity can be
calculated from the time for the float to run to the end of its tether, and the
current direction can be found by taking the bearing of the float. In both of
these applications it is likely that the presence of the vessel will modify the
current speed and direction and therefore the float path. A crude estimate of
current velocity can be obtained from the log reading and compass heading of a
vessel moored so that it is free to lie with the current.
As stated, the floats do not follow the same turbulent flow paths as the water
itself and so only indicate the average horizontal movement. Another limitation
of float track information is the portrayal of a linear picture of water movement
with no real cover of the water depth. However, float tracking can give a rapid
and relatively cheap impression of general water movement. Several floats can
be followed at any one time with repeated releases from one position, or
multiple releases with drogues set at different depths. Residual tidal flows can
be determined by tracking a float over a complete tidal cycle and determining
the distance between its release and recovery positions.
Floats can be deployed unattended if a net movement is required rather than
knowledge of the path taken to arrive at the end point. Commonly the floats
have messages attached asking the finder to record the time and place of the
float recovery and to return the information. To reduce the chance element of
the recovery, beachwalkers can be employed to search for the landed floats.
Similar methods can be used to tag bottom currents when boat following is
impossible without, for example, acoustic links. The method can only yield
minimum possible water speeds, as without other valid information it has to be
assumed that the float took the shortest distance between the points of release
and recovery and that the float was recovered as soon as it arrived at its final
location.
B.3.2.4 Measurement of diffusion

Much research over many years has been carried out to develop various methods
of tracing water movement, in particular for the disposal of effluent into the
sea where the rate and extent of dispersion together with mass transport are
important criteria. An indicator was sought with physical properties similar to
those of the water to be labelled. Techniques that were developed were the use
of dyes, bacterial organisms and radioactive materials, but the last of these is no
longer feasible because of public health restrictions on the strength of isotopes
that could be released.
B.3.2.5 Presentation and analysis of field data

The effort and cost of data collection can be significant. It is important that the
method of interpretation is considered during the design of the fieldwork, to
avoid spending time and money on data that are irrelevant or unnecessary. In
particular, the method of position fixing and its accuracy relative to the
requirements of the tracing method needs to be taken into account.
Interpretation of the data can range from visual intuitive examination of a few
results to sophisticated computation of a large quantity of information. It is
important to remember the aims and ultimate objectives of the study, both
when considering the method of data presentation and during interpretation.
Raw data need to be archived so that others can make use of them.
Charts play a major role in the presentation of water movement information,
irrespective of which method of tracing is adopted. At the simplest level, the
chart only shows the position of measurement. A pictorial representation of the

measured data can be a useful addition, such as a scatter diagram or central

vector diagram for current observations or a record of tracer concentration.
Charts are essential for presenting data such as float tracks or for showing vessel
tracks during dye traverses. Several spot readings can be contoured to show
similarities and trends, and this can be a useful technique for the discussion of
bacterial counts. A summary chart showing water movement in broad terms as
derived by the survey can be a useful aid to understanding the current regime
of the area. Additional information on other variable environmental conditions,
such as sea state, wind and tidal levels, needs to be readily available for
reference.
Annex C Sediment transport data acquisition

(informative)
The most common ways of measuring suspended load under currents are as
follows.
• Depth integrating sampler. This collects and accumulates a sample as it is
lowered to the seabed and lifted back again. The sampler is moved at a
uniform rate in both directions. If the sampler is retrieved full then
measurements will be biased, because the sampler will probably have
stopped filling over the last part of the water column. The aim is therefore
to have the sampler full to about 90% of its capacity. Therefore, this
equipment is restricted in use to shallower depths by its capacity to store
the water sample. Use of such a sampler also implicitly assumes a steady
current (i.e. no variation in time over the sampling duration). The dry
volume of sediment captured is then interpreted as the volume of sediment
transported over the sampling duration (per width of the sampling device),
and can easily be converted into a standard volumetric suspended sediment
transport rate, qs m3/s/m.
• Point (grab) sampler. This operates in a similar manner, except that it has an
inlet valve that can be opened or closed as required. Thus, it is possible to
point sample suspended sediment transport rate at known depths,
interpolate between estimates at various depths, and then integrate over
the water column. The method has the advantage of explicitly accounting
for depth variation of suspended load.
• Optical, acoustic backscatter and other devices. A range of optical
backscatter (OBS) and other devices are in use and continue to be
developed for directly or indirectly measuring sediment concentrations. Use
of such devices may be considered in some circumstances when very high
accuracy and detailed information is required and when these can be
practically be deployed. It is advisable to seek specialist literature and advice
if such devices are to be deployed. Indirect measurements of sediment
concentrations always need to be supplemented by local calibration against
directly measured sediment concentrations.
Methods of measuring bed load under currents include the following.
• Sediment traps. These are intended to cause sediment to be deposited into
a container as it is transported along the bed. Thus, the net bed load
transported over a certain duration can in theory be measured. Problems
include burial of the trap and contamination with suspended load just
above the bed.
• Tracer studies. These involve monitoring of the movement of coloured or
“tagged” sedimentary particles. These methods have been widely used in
the past, but are fraught with problems: they are prone to “tagged”
sediment loss, slow and subject to limitation of size of sediment (lest it
become suspended load or too small to track).

Annex D Key dimensions of ships for preliminary design

(informative)
purposes
D.1 Vessel dimensions
Figure D.1 to Figure D.10 display dimensions from a large sample each for the
major ship types that were either in operation or being ordered in 2011.
Three scattergraphs displaying length overall, breadth (beam) and draught are
displayed for each ship type against the parameter of most relevance to the
planning process. The parameter used in most cases is DWT, which is a measure
of the weight of cargo to be carried by the vessel. The exceptions are:
• container ships, for which the dimensions are displayed against
TEU capacity;
• gas carriers, for which the dimensions are displayed against gross gas
capacity;
• Ro-Ro ships and ferries, for which the dimensions are displayed against total
lane length in metres;
• cruise ships, for which the dimensions are displayed against passenger
numbers.
In the case of dry and liquid bulk ships, the data are displayed at two scales, one
scale being from 0 t to 50 000 t DWT and the other covering the entire range of
ships.
The scattergraphs are developed using data from www.sea-web.com 15), which
covers a very large proportion of the world fleet, and the data are sorted into
categories. Each figure includes a box giving the following statistics:
• total size of sample;
• numbers of each category of vessel included in the scattergraph dataset.
These figures are given for general planning purposes only, and are necessarily
general in scope. At detailed design stage it is necessary to obtain data on a
range of specific ship sizes that will be relevant to the terminal or facility in
question.
In particular, for Ro-Ro vessels the relationships provided do not allow for
mezzanine decks which might give increased capacity for cars and smaller
vehicles for a given vessel length.
15)

Figure D.1 Dimensions for LNG vessels related to gas capacity
Length vs gas capacity
Size of sample 391

Breadth vs gas capacity LNG tanker 391
Draught vs gas capacity
Source: BSI Technical Committee CB/502, based on data from www.sea-web.com by kind permission
of IHS Global Limited.

Figure D.2 Dimensions for LPG vessels related to gas capacity
Length vs gas capacity
Breadth vs gas capacity Size of sample 1 304

LPG tanker 1 282
LPG/chemical tanker 22
Draught vs gas capacity

Figure D.3 Dimensions for liquid bulk carriers and tankers related to DWT
Length vs DWT
Size of sample 13 371

Alcohol tanker 4
Breadth vs DWT Asphalt/bitumen tanker 197
Caprolactam tanker 4
Chemical tanker 1 094
Chemical/products tanker 4 019
Coal/oil mixture tanker 1
Crude oil tanker 1 948
Crude/oil products tanker 706
Edible oil tanker 12
Fruit juice tanker 11
Latex tanker 1
Molasses tanker 6
Molten sulfur tanker 36
Products tanker 2 360
Draught vs DWT Products tanker 1 064
Shuttle tanker 88
Tanker (unspecified) 1 650
Vegetable oil tanker 35
Water tanker 124
Wine tanker 11
Grand total 13 371

Figure D.4 Dimensions for liquid bulk carriers and tankers related to DWT (carriers up to 50 000 DWT)
Length vs DWT
Breadth vs DWT Size of sample 9 831

Alcohol tanker 3
Asphalt/bitumen tanker 186
Caprolactam tanker 4
Chemical tanker 1 046
Chemical/products tanker 3 647
Coal/oil mixture tanker 1
Crude oil tanker 80
Crude/oil products tanker 220
Edible oil tanker 12
Fruit juice tanker 11
Latex tanker 1
Molasses tanker 6
Draught vs DWT Molten sulfur tanker 36
Products tanker 2 038
Products tanker 866
Shuttle tanker 5
Tanker (unspecified) 1 514
Vegetable oil tanker 33
Water tanker 112
Wine tanker 10

Figure D.5 Dimensions for dry bulk carriers related to DWT
Length vs DWT
Breadth vs DWT
Aggregates carrier 394
Bulk carrier 10 778
Bulk carrier (with vehicle 7
decks)
Bulk carrier, laker only 19
Bulk carrier, self-discharging 88
Bulk carrier, self-discharging, 90
laker
Bulk/oil carrier (OBO) 25
Cement carrier 433
Limestone carrier 42
Ore carrier 273
Draught vs DWT
Ore/oil carrier 56
Powder carrier 4
Refined sugar carrier 2
Urea carrier 8
Wood chips carrier 182

Figure D.6 Dimensions for dry bulk carriers related to DWT (carriers up to 50 000 DWT)
Length vs DWT
Breadth vs DWT
Aggregates carrier 394
Bulk carrier 4 394
Bulk carrier (with vehicle 5
decks)
Bulk carrier, laker only 19
Bulk carrier, self-discharging 57
Bulk carrier, self-discharging, 66
laker
Bulk/oil carrier (OBO) 1
Cement carrier 433
Limestone carrier 42
Ore carrier 21
Draught vs DWT Ore/oil carrier 51
Powder carrier 4
Refined sugar carrier 2
Urea carrier 8
Wood chips carrier 114

Figure D.7 Dimensions of container ships related to TEU capacity
Length vs TEU
Breadth vs TEU Size of sample 5 536

Container ship (fully cellular 17
with Ro-Ro facility
Container ship (fully cellular) 5 516
Passenger/container ship 3
Draught vs TEU

Figure D.8 Dimensions of general cargo ships related to DWT
Length vs DWT
Breadth vs DWT Size of sample 16 029

Deck cargo ship 183
General cargo ship 15 301
General cargo ship 107
(with Ro-Ro facility)
General cargo ship, 14
self-discharging
General cargo/tanker 4
Open hatch cargo ship 361
Palletized cargo ship 59
Draught vs DWT

Figure D.9 Dimensions of Ro-Ro ferries related to lane length
Length vs Ro-Ro lane length
Breadth vs Ro-Ro lane length Size of sample 1 479

Passenger/Ro-Ro ship (vehicles) 881
Passenger/Ro-Ro ship 61
(vehicles/rail)
Rail vehicles carrier 14
Ro-Ro cargo ship 523
Draught vs Ro-Ro lane length

Figure D.10 Dimensions of cruise ships related to passenger capacity
Length vs passenger capacity
Breadth vs passenger capacity Size of sample 3 754

Passenger ship 3 207
Passenger/cruise 547
Draught vs passenger capacity

D.2 Estimation of displacement

For the purposes of preliminary planning, the relationships given in Table D.1
may be used to estimate approximate full load displacement from DWT or
gas-carrying capacity. These values are approximations and are not be used for
detailed design unless confirmed by the actual vessel characteristics.
Table D.1 Approximate values of displacement from nominal ship capacity
Vessel class Approximate estimate of displacement, in tonnes (t)

Liquid and dry bulk carriers, container Gas carriers
and general cargo ships
From deadweight tonnage From nominal gas capacity
(DWT), in tonnes (t) in cubic metres (m3)
General cargo ships 2.1 × (DWT)n, where n = 0.953 1 —
Dry bulk carriers 2.1 × (DWT)n, where n = 0.947 5 —
n
Container ships 2.1 × (DWT) , where n = 0.960 5 —
Liquid bulk tankers (oil, oil 2.1 × (DWT)n, where n = 0.950 5 —
products, chemicals)
Refrigerated gas carriers – LNG — 20 000 + 0.6 × (nom. gas
capacity)
Refrigerated gas carriers – LPG — 5 000 + 0.9 × (nom. gas
capacity)
D.3 Estimation of block coefficient

The block coefficient of a vessel is used in the assessment of berthing energy
(see BS 6349-4) and represents the relationship between the displacement and
the overall dimensions. It is calculated as:
MD
Cb =
LBPBdρw
Table D.2 lists typical ranges of value for the block coefficient for various
modern types of ships which can be used for preliminary design purposes in the
absence of more specific information for the range of vessels to be
accommodated at a facility.
Table D.2 Typical ranges of Cb
Vessel type Range of Cb

Tankers and bulk carriers 0.71 to 0.88
Dry general cargo and oil and dry cargo 0.60 to 0.85
combination carriers
Gas carriers (LNG) 0.69 to 0.78
Gas carriers (LPG) 0.52 to 0.66
Container 0.60 to 0.71
Ro-Ro 0.70 to 0.80
Passenger and cruise ships 0.59 to 0.70
Car carriers 0.53 to 0.66
Ferry 0.54 to 0.65

Annex E Guidance on assessment of acceptable wave

(informative)
conditions for moored vessels
E.1 General
The functional requirement of a mooring system is to secure the vessel safely in
position at a berth under the action of environmental and other forces acting
on the vessel when moored and during cargo handling and transfer.
Acceptable conditions for mooring are investigated by carrying out mooring
studies supplemented with advice from operators experienced in the relevant
types of ship and cargo types.
This annex gives guidance on limiting motions and displacement for planning
and design purposes for small vessels less than 1 000 DWT, and for preliminary
design for larger vessels before an operation-specific assessment has been
carried out. The guidance in this annex is based upon PIANC PTC II
Report WG24 [41], PIANC MarCom Report WG115 [42] and BS 6349-8.
PIANC PTC II Report WG24 [41] is a source of guidance on:
• the characteristics of different vessel types, moorings and cargo handling
methods;
• indicative values of acceptable wave criteria for mooring small craft and
pleasure boats.
PIANC MarCom Report WG115 [42] gives guidance for container vessels.
BS 6349-8 gives recommendations for the design of Ro-Ro ramps, linkspans and
walkways.
E.2 Small craft and fishing harbours

PIANC PTC II Report WG24 [41] provides recommended maximum wave
height criteria according to wave direction for small craft and pleasure boats
up to 20 m in length, and these are reproduced in Table E.1.
Table E.1 Wave criteria from small craft
Length of Maximum wave height criterion, Maximum wave height

small craft, beam/quartering seas criterion, head seas
pleasure boat Tz Hs Tz Hs
m s m s m
4 to 10 <2 0.20 <2.5 0.20
2 to 4 0.10 2.5 to 4 0.15
>4 0.15 >4 0.20
10 to 16 <3 0.25 <3.5 0.30
3 to 5 0.15 3.5 to 5.5 0.20
>5 0.20 >5.5 0.30
20 <4 0.30 <4.5 0.30
4 to 6 0.15 4.5 to 7 0.25
>6 0.25 >7 0.30
NOTE Copyright is claimed in this table, which is reproduced from PIANC PTC II
Report WG24 [41]. Reproduction of this table and making products from it might infringe
that copyright. Details of the copyright owner can be found in the Foreword.

The values in Table E.1 typically apply to craft moored at fixed pontoons, jetties
or quay walls. Larger wave heights might be tolerable in situations where
careful attention is paid to selection of mooring type and design. For swinging
moorings, a limiting maximum Hs of 0.6 m is often adopted for planning
purposes.
The limits provided in Table E.1 are defined as conditions that have an
acceptable frequency of occurrence of once per year. It is necessary to assess the
risks for safety and damage to small craft and fishing vessel in the event of
more infrequent events. For a harbour for permanent mooring of small craft
and pleasure vessels, in the absence of other criteria, Table E.2 gives limiting
indicative wave conditions for an low annual probability event (average return
period Tr = 50 years).
Table E.2 Wave climate criteria for small craft considering extreme events
Length of Maximum wave height Maximum wave height

small craft, criterion, beam/quartering criterion, head seas Tz > 4 s
pleasure boat seas Tz > 4 s
Tr = 50 years Tr = 1 year Tr = 50 years Tr = 1 year
m m m m m
10 to 20 0.30 0.15 to 0.25 0.60 0.20 to 0.30
The response of pleasure craft and fishing boats to waves with periods of 1 min
or longer can be expected to be similar to the effect produced by currents.
Hence wave energy at such periods is not considered significant for such craft
once they are moored, and the criteria given in this subclause apply to the
residual height of waves inside the harbour at storm or swell wave periods.
Table E.1 applies to the maximum wave conditions that are normally considered
to be acceptable in marinas. One of the factors that led to the suggested limits
is that boats are often moored close to one another so that very little
movement is possible before damaging collisions occur. For marinas in exposed
locations, it is frequently necessary to build a system of overlapping
breakwaters, in order to achieve acceptable wave conditions. A useful guide for
preliminary planning in such situations is that the open sea is not to be directly
visible at water level from mooring positions inside the marina at any state of
the tide. Inner harbours or basins might need to be provided where pleasure
craft can be accommodated safely.
E.3 Fishing harbours

The wave criteria given in Table E.1 may also be used to make preliminary
assessments of acceptable wave conditions for small fishing boats up to 20 m
long, although fishing vessels are generally more strongly built than pleasure
craft.
For larger fishing vessels, acceptable wave conditions can be derived from the
limiting motion criteria for safe working conditions as set out in E.4.
E.4 Vessels larger than 1 000 DWT

Depending on vessel type, cargo handling requirements and mooring
characteristics, the limiting wave conditions might be governed either by the
mooring system strength or by the maximum permissible vessel motions.
In the absence of other information, the following criteria may be adopted to
estimate limiting wave conditions for safe mooring:
• for fishing vessels, coasters, freighters, ferries in the range 1 000 DWT
to 8 000 DWT in the range 1 000 DWT to 8 000 DWT, see Table E.3;
• for other vessels larger than 10 000 DWT, see Table E.4;

• for ferries and Ro-Ro vessels, see Table E.5;

• for container ships, see Table E.6 and Table E.7.
The values in Table E.3, reproduced from PIANC PTC II Report WG24 [41], are
based on limiting the dynamic impact of a moored vessel against the quay. The
limiting condition for damage to vessel and/or quay is the kinetic energy of the
vessel. This has been studied in the Nordic countries for moored fishing vessels
up to 3 000 GRT, and the recommended criteria are stated by PIANC PTC II
Report WG24 [41] to apply to vessels up to 8 000 GRT, such as coasters,
freighters, ferries and Ro-Ro vessels, as well as fishing vessels.
Table E.3 Recommended maximum velocity limits 1 000 DWT to 8 000 DWT
Vessel size Surge Sway Heave Yaw Pitch

DWT m/s m/s m/s degree/s degree/s
1 000 0.6 0.6 — 2.0 —
2 000 0.4 0.4 — 1.5 —
8 000 0.3 0.3 — 1.0 —
NOTE Copyright is claimed in this table, which is reproduced from PIANC PTC II
Report WG24 [41]. Reproduction of this table and making products from it might infringe
that copyright. Details of the copyright owner can be found in the Foreword.
For larger ships, Table E.4, based upon PIANC PTC II Report WG24 [41], gives
indicative motion (displacement) criteria for safe working of cargoes for a wide
range of vessel types. Guidance for container ships is given in PIANC MarCom
Report WG115 [42].
NOTE The motion (displacement) criteria provided in Table E.4 are simplified and
might in particular not represent latest developments for large ships and particularly
for modern cargo handling equipment and control and systems. Advice from
specialist cargo handling equipment and control system suppliers and operators can
provide further information on most up-to-date systems.
For oil and gas tankers in particular, the preliminary motion criteria in PIANC
PTC II Report WG24 [41] are very high. With recommended mooring line
patterns, pre-tensioning and line tending, limitation of mooring line loads to an
allowable proportion of minimum breaking load (MBL) can result in vessel
excursions at the manifold which are typically reduced to displacements of less
than 1 m. As noted in Table E.4, loading arms may be designed to accept larger
surge, sway or yaw off the jetty as a safety precaution to prevent arm damage
and hydrocarbon release from excursions due to accidental or abnormal
circumstances outside the normal operating envelope. Furthermore, some
petrochemical loading arms such as those for LNG and LPG include additional
safety systems such as emergency shutdown (ESD) and Emergency Release
Systems (ERS), which would automatically initiate at excursions less than those
indicated by PIANC PTC II Report WG24 [41].
In addition to simple motion criteria, velocities and accelerations can be
significant for some cargo handling systems, for connecting ship to shore
connections by hoses or arms and for passenger and vehicle transfer for Ro-Ro.
Recommended maximum motion criteria for safe working conditions of Ro-Ro
vessels are included in Table E.5, based upon the recommendations of BS 6349-8,
which was in turn developed from the recommended values given in PIANC
PTC II Report WG24 [41].

Table E.4 Guidance on maximum motion criteria for safe working conditions
Vessel type Cargo handling Type of motion

equipment Surge A)
Sway A)
Heave A) Yaw A) Pitch A) Roll A)
m m m ° ° °
Fishing vessels Elevator crane 0.15 0.15 0.4 3 3 3
Lift-on-lift-off 1.0 1.0 0.4 3 3 3
Suction pump 2.0 1.0 0.4 3 3 3
Freighters, Ship’s gear 1.0 1.2 0.6 1 1 2
coasters Quay cranes 1.0 1.2 0.8 2 1 3
General cargo — 2.0 1.5 1.0 3 2 5
Bulk carriers Cranes 2.0 1.0 1.0 2 2 6
Elevator/ 1.0 0.5 1.0 2 2 2
bucket-wheel
Conveyor belt 5.0 2.5 — 3 — —
Oil tankers Loading arms 0.5 to 0.5 to — — — —
2.0B) 2.0B)
Gas tankers Loading arms 0.5 to 0.5 to — — — —
1.0B) 1.0B)
NOTE This table is based upon PIANC PTC II Report WG24 [41].
A)
Motions refer to peak-peak values (except for sway: zero-peak).
B)
These values are modified from PIANC since, although the loading arms may be designed to accept larger surge,
sway or yaw off the jetty, the range of safe operation of the arms might be less and limit switches are likely to
trigger emergency shut-down systems at lower motions.
Table E.5 Recommended maximum motion criteria for safe working conditions of Ro-Ro vessels
Motion Vessel type Movement Velocity

Normal Extreme Normal Extreme
operating operating operating operating
condition condition condition condition
Range/surge Normal Ro-Ro ±0.3 m ±1.0 m 0.12 m/s 0.3 m/s
Rail ramp ±0.05 m — 0.4 As above
Sway Normal Ro-Ro ±0.3 m ±1.0 m 0.12 m/s 0.3 m/s
Rail ramp ±0.05 m — — —
Heave Normal Ro-Ro ±0.3 m ±1.0 m 0.12 m/s 0.3 m/s
Rail ramp ±0.2 m — 0.4 —
Roll/heel A) Normal Ro-Ro ±2.0° ±5.0° 0.3°/s 0.5°/s
Rail ramp ±1.0° — — —
Yaw Normal Ro-Ro ±0.25° ±0.5° 0.15°/s 0.2°/s
Rail ramp — — — —
Pitch/trim B) Normal Ro-Ro ±0.5° ±1.0° 0.08°/s 0.1°/s
Rail ramp ±1.0° — — —
NOTE This table is based upon BS 6349-8.
A)
Not combined with swaying.
B)
Not combined with heaving.

Recommendations on the (un)loading of container ships is given in PIANC

MarCom Report WG11 [42]. The report uses the concept of significant motion
criteria rather than maximum motion criteria given in PIANC PTC II
Report WG24 [41]. The report recommends that ship simulation modelling is
carried out for all ships in locations where motions are likely to be or known to
be high. For concept design, the values in Table E.6 are applicable for an
(un)loading efficiency of 95%. The basis of the range of limiting surge values
given in Table E.6 is further clarified in Table E.7 according to the applicable
placing criteria.
Table E.6 Guidance on maximum allowable significant motion amplitude conditions for container
ships for (un)loading efficiency of 95%
Ship type Principal motion

A) B)
Surge Sway Heave B) Yaw B) Pitch B) Roll B)
m m m ° ° °
Container ship 0.2 to 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 1
NOTE This table is based upon PIANC MarCom Report WG115 [42].
A)
The two values for surge are for placing criteria of 0.1 m and 0.2 m, which represents connection via twist lock
pins and spreader flaps as shown in Table E.7.
B)
For large container ships not exposed to beam-on swell, the limiting motion is surge. Other motions are usually
found to be acceptable for an efficient (un)loading process when surge is within these limits.
Table E.7 Surge criteria for container ships for (un)loading efficiency of 95%
Placing criterion Basis for placing Maximum allowable significant

criterion surge motion amplitude
(Tsurge = 30 s to 100 s)
0.1 m Twist-lock pins 0.2 m
0.2 m Spreader flaps 0.4 m
NOTE This table is based upon PIANC MarCom Report WG115 [42].
E.5 Further background to moored ship dynamic response

Recommendations regarding methods of numerical and physical modelling of
moored ship response in order to assess acceptable wave conditions for moored
ships are provided in Clause 20. Some further background regarding factors
affecting moored ship dynamic response is provided below.
In particular there are a number of factors which make it difficult to define
acceptable conditions directly in terms of simple sets of wave conditions.
These factors include:
• the range of ship types and hull forms;
• the hydrodynamics of moored-ship response to wave action in shallow
water;
• the range of berth configurations and near-berth bed slopes (marginal
quays of different types, open piled jetties) and consequent different
hydrodynamic interaction with the moored ship;
• the complex nature of shallow water wave fields, particularly in harbours
where reflection and diffraction effects might be significant;
• different mooring layouts;
• different mooring line and tail material and properties;
• the contribution to mooring forces and motions of other environmental
effects, including wind and currents;

• the contribution to mooring forces and motions of wave energy at different

frequencies, including bound or free infragravity waves of periods in excess
of 25 s at some locations.
When a floating body oscillates in water, it creates a disturbance. In open water,
the inertia of the surrounding water accelerated by the motion of the body
effectively increases the mass of that body (added mass). Oscillation also
produces waves that propagate away from the body, carrying energy with them
that tends to damp out the oscillation (radiation).
The forces tending to restore a moored vessel to its equilibrium position are
buoyancy forces for vertical motions and forces supplied by the moorings for
horizontal motions. These restoring forces give rise to natural periods of
oscillation. For vertical motions, these can be within the range of swell and
storm waves. For horizontal motion, they vary from about 20 s for vessels
of 3 000 t displacement to periods of 1 min or longer for vessels in excess
of 100 000 t.
The wave forces that act on a vessel to cause oscillation can be divided into two
types. The first type is linear wave forces of the same period as the waves, which
can be obtained by integrating the fluctuating water pressure over the
submerged area of the hull. Because the vessel usually alters the wave pattern
around itself, the problem of diffraction of the wave system by the vessel has to
be solved before the wave force can be determined. These forces are capable of
exciting the natural periods of vertical oscillation of a vessel.
Non-linear moorings are also capable of exciting the natural periods of
horizontal oscillation. The strongest non-linearity in moorings arises because the
fenders are usually stiffer than the mooring lines. In a beam sea, a vessel can
move transversely on and off the fenders at a sub-harmonic of the wave period,
i.e. the wave period divided by n, where n is an integer, and the largest motion
occurs at the sub-harmonic that is nearest to the natural period of this motion.
This type of vessel response can be avoided by making the fenders as soft as the
mooring lines. It does not necessarily follow, though, that relatively soft fenders
are better than relatively stiff ones, because the second type of wave forces
described in this subclause could excite a larger resonant response of a vessel on
softer moorings.
The second type of wave force is non-linear. This occurs as a consequence of the
irregular nature of the sea surface. Because waves travel in groups, they produce
secondary wave forces with the periodicity of wave groups. These secondary
forces are smaller than the linear wave forces described in this subclause but
they have periods similar to the natural periods of horizontal oscillation of
moored ships. Because the natural damping of these oscillations is low, quite
small secondary wave forces are capable of building up large resonant
oscillations of a vessel on its moorings. For a vessel that is scattering the waves,
a force is produced at the waterline due to scatter of the momentum carried by
the waves. Because this momentum is larger in a group of high waves than in a
group of small waves, the force produced has the periodicity of wave groups.
The fluctuating water pressures produced by bound infragravity waves
associated with wave grouping or free infragravity waves also act on the ship’s
hull to produce a significant dynamic response in shallow water at wave group
periods.

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DAVIS, J.D. et al. Environmental considerations for port and harbor
developments. World Bank Technical Paper No. 126. Washington, DC: World
Bank, 1990.
HAKES, P. The Essex guide to environmental impact assessment. Chelmsford:
Essex Development Control Forum and the Essex Planning Officers
Association, 2007. 19)
17)
Available at www.mcga.gov.uk/c4mca/guidetgp_-final_version.pdf
18)
Available at http://archive.defra.gov.uk/rural/documents/countryside/
coastal-guidance.pdf [last accessed 23 September 2013].
19)
Available at www.essex.gov.uk/Environment%20Planning/Planning/
Minerals-Waste-Planning-Team/Planning-Applications/Application-Forms-
Guidance-Documents/Documents/eia_spring_2007.pdf

MARINE MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION. Environmental impact assessment.

Marine licensing guidance 8. Newcastle upon Tyne: MMO, 2011.
WHITEHOUSE, R.J.S., SOULSBY, R. L., ROBERTS, W. and MITCHENER, H.
Dynamics of estuarine muds. London: Thomas Telford,1998.
VAN RIJN, L.C. Principles of sedimentation and erosion engineering in rivers,
estuaries and coastal seas. Blokzijl: Aqua Publications, 2012.

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© The British Standards Institution 2013 • i

15.2 Port wastewater and surface run-off 50

ii • © The British Standards Institution 2013

Table D.1 – Approximate values of displacement from nominal ship

© The British Standards Institution 2013 • iii

Relationship with other publications

Information about this document

iv • © The British Standards Institution 2013

• normative referencing of specific PIANC documents;

Use of this document

Contractual and legal considerations

© The British Standards Institution 2013 • v

© The British Standards Institution 2013 • 1

3 Terms, definitions, symbols and abbreviations

3.1.1 accidental operating condition

3.1.2 asset lifecycle

3.1.3 chart datum

2 • © The British Standards Institution 2013

3.1.4 concept design

3.1.5.1 residual current

3.1.5.2 tidal current

3.1.5.3 total current

3.1.6 deadweight tonnage (DWT)

3.1.7 design stage operating limits (DSOL)

3.1.8 design working life

3.1.9 detailed design

© The British Standards Institution 2013 • 3

3.1.12 environmental operating limits

3.1.14 extreme high water

3.1.15 extreme low water

3.1.16 extreme operating condition

3.1.17 facility operating manual

3.1.18 gross tonnage (GT)

3.1.20 infragravity wave

3.1.21 marine facility

4 • © The British Standards Institution 2013

3.1.22 marine growth

3.1.23 maritime authority

3.1.24 mean low water springs (MLWS)

3.1.25 mean sea level

3.1.26 mean wind speed

3.1.27 metocean parameters

3.1.28 nautical bottom

3.1.29 nautical depth

3.1.30 normal operating condition

© The British Standards Institution 2013 • 5

3.1.31 operation and maintenance

3.1.33 planning phase

3.1.34 polar low

3.1.37 return period

3.1.38 scatter diagram

3.1.39 sea state

6 • © The British Standards Institution 2013

3.1.43 significant wave height

3.1.45 spectral peak wave period

3.1.48 still water level

© The British Standards Institution 2013 • 7

3.1.49 storm surge

3.1.51.1 astronomical tide