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Aquatic plants - also called hydrophytic plants or hydrophytes - are plants that have
adapted to living in aquatic environments.
One of the main problems facing submerged aquatic plants is their inability to obtain
oxygen. Unlike terrestrial plants, these plants cannot obtain the vital gas through their
stomata because they are submerged in water.
Therefore, the stems, roots, and leaves of submerged aquatic plants posses aerenchyma
cells, which supply oxygen to the rest of the plants.
Aerenchyma is a parenchyma tissue with large intercellular air spaces. It stores and
transports oxygen to living tissues.
Air spaces within the tissues help to keep the aquatic plant buoyant so that its leaves can
reach the top of the pond, thus maximising the amount of sunlight it receives.
Submerged aquatic plants utilise living in water to their fullest advantage. Since these
plants are in no danger of drying out, the leaves have few or no cuticles on the surface of
their leaves.
In addition, the stems of these plants are limp and delicate with little strengthening tissue
because they utilise the water for support.
The leaves tend to be thin, flexible and narrow. These finely dissected leaves offer little
resistance to running water and can be dragged through the water without tearing.
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Characteristics of hydrophytes:
1. A thin cuticle. Cuticles primarily prevent water loss, thus most hydrophytes have
no need for cuticles.
2. Stomata that are open most of time because water is abundant and therefore there
is no need for it to be retained in the plant. This means that guard cells on the
stomata are generally inactive.
3. An increased number of stomata, that can be on either side of leaves.
4. A less rigid structure: water pressure supports them.
5. Flat leaves on surface plants for floatation.
6. Air sacs for floatation.
7. Smaller roots: water can diffuse directly into leaves.
8. Feathery roots: no need to support the plant.
9. Specialized roots able to take in oxygen.
For example, some species of buttercup (genus Ranunculus) float slightly submerged in
water; only the flowers extend above the water. Their leaves and roots are long and thin
and almost hair-like; this helps spread the mass of the plant over a wide area, making it
more buoyant. Long roots and thin leaves also provide a greater surface area for uptake of
mineral solutes and oxygen.
Wide flat leaves in water lilies (family Nymphaeaceae) help distribute weight over a
large area, thus helping them float near surface.
Many fish keepers keep aquatic plants in their tanks to control phytoplankton and moss
by removing metabolites.
Many species of aquatic plant are invasive species in different parts of the world. Aquatic
plants make particularly good weeds because they reproduce vegetatively from
fragments.
Gregor Mendel is highly attributed for his work in genetics. The father of genetic studied
the inheritance of characteristics from the common garden pea plant, Pisum sativum, and
was credited with discovering the two basic laws of inheritance: the law of segregation
and the law of independent assortment.
4. Two genes, each found on the same locus along a pair of homologous
chromosomes, are needed to determine one characteristic.
6. A dominant allele is one which, when present, even singly, is strong enough to
determine the phenotype. The two following conditions can allow a dominant
allele to express itself in the phenotype.
a) Homozygous dominant: two dominant alleles present.
b) Heterozygous dominant: one dominant allele and one recessive allele present.
Clotting help
Our blood is exposed to the air when there is a wound. We do not want harmful
microorganisms to infect the wound, nor do we wish to lose blood at the site of injury.
The good news is this: our blood contains platelets, which help blood to clot. A clot
closes the wound and disallows blood loss.
Human heart
B: Pulmonary artery - transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs from the right
ventricle of the heart.
C: Pulmonary vein - transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atrium of the heart.
D: Vena cava - brings in deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body to the
right atrium of the heart.
3. There are four chambers: left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle and right
ventricle. Explain why the left ventricle has the thickest muscle wall.
(Tip: Where does it pump its blood to? Does it undergo high pressure?)
It must be able to withstand very high pressure because it pumps blood to all
parts of the body.
4. There are four main valves: bicuspid valve, tricuspid valve and two semi-lunar
valves. State their function.
(Tip: All valves ensure a one-way flow of blood)
o Bicuspid valve - prevents the backflow of blood between the left ventricle
and the left atrium.
o Tricuspid valve - prevents the backflow of blood between the right
ventricle and the right atrium.
5. There are four structures involved in the beating of the heart: sinoatrial node
(SAN), atrio-ventricular node (AVN), bundle of His and Purkinje fibres. State the
functions of the SAN and AVN.
(Tip: The two nodes act like batteries and generate electrical impulses that cause
the cardiac muscles to contract)
The two nodes act like batteries to produces electrical impulses that cause the
cardiac muscles to contract.
Meeting gametes
Study the following details for a better understanding of gametogenesis and what happens
after it.
9. Product of fertilisation
o Male - none.
o Female - A diploid zygote (containing 46 chromosomes), which then
develops into an embryo.
What happens after sexual intercourse?
• Possibility I
o A sperm meets the secondary oocyte and penetrates it.
o Meiosis II quickly occurs in the secondary oocyte, and an ovum and a
polar body is formed.
o The polar body degenerates.
o The nucleus of the ovum fuses with the nucleus of the sperm.
o Fertilisation is successful and a diploid zygote is formed.
o The female is pregnant.
• Possibility II
o None of the sperms meet the secondary oocyte. This could mean ovulation
has
not occurred yet;
occurred but the secondary oocyte, which can only live for 24
hours, has died.
o No fertilisation occurs.
o No zygote is formed.
o The female is not pregnant; she gets her next period as usual.
It transports oxygen, enzymes, water, nutrients (glucose, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids,
glycerol and amino acids), carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, waste substances, and
even heat!
Transport of oxygen;
• Cell involved - Red blood cell
• Pigment used - Haemoglobin
• Oxygen transported by the blood in the form of oxyhaemoglobin
Granulocyte (a leucocyte)
My nucleus is lobed and my cytoplasm granular
A soldier I am with a nucleus irregular
To eat your enemy is my function
And, for that, I have both gut and gumption ... Who am I?
Platelet
At a cut, I act fast and cause a clot
This is my life, this is my plot
But I do it only when you need me too
For if you lose your blood, you'd soon turn blue ... Who am I?
Note:
While blood plasma takes up 55% of blood fluid, blood cells make up the remaining 45%
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blood cells : sel-sel darah
blood plasma : plasma darah
blood transport : pengangkutan darah
blood vessel : salur darah
granulocyte : granulosit
interstitial fluid : cecair intertis
leucocyte : leukosit
lymph duct : nodus limfa
lymphatic system : sistem limfa
lymphocyte : limfosit
phagocytes : sel-sel fagositosis
platelet : platlet
valve : injap