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Introduction
The pepper plant is a perennial woody vine that is native to India, growing to four metres
in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where
trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are five to ten centimetres long and three to six
centimetres broad. The flowers are small, produced on spikes four to eight centimetres long at
the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening to seven to 15 centimeters as the fruit matures. Pepper is
the dried fruit of the flower and is extensively cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brazil,
Madagascar and Sri Lanka. Pepper originates from the Malabar coast of Southern India, and was
spread from there by emigrating Hindus to Indonesian and Malaysia (Kueh Tiong Kheng, 1978).
Pepper was an important and popular spice to trade within Oriental countries, even as early as
2000 years ago. The most popular variety was the long pepper (Piper longum L.) from Bengal.
Once the British influence in India grew the East India Company took over the pepper trade and
the vast tonnage brought in on its ships reduced the price, turning it into an everyday item rather
than a luxury. Pepper is neither savoury nor sweet and adds flavour and heat to cooking.
In Malaysia, the main pepper producing area is the State of Sarawak which accounts for
more than 95% of the total Malaysian production. Other smaller producing states are Johor and
Sabah. In 2003, the area under pepper cultivation in Malaysia was estimated at 13,000 ha.
Semongok I, Semongok II, Semongok III, Semongok Perak, Kaluvally, Kuching, Belantung,
Djambi etc are some of the varieties grown in Malaysia. In 2003, Malaysia produced 22,000 tons
of pepper comprising of 19,800 tons black and 2,200 tons white (Loh Chow Fong, 1970).
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1.2 ) Problems Of Diseases Associated With Cultivation Of Pepper.
Pepper diseases are quick to spread and hard to kill once it's too late. They can wipe out
entire crops, and spread to other vegetables nearby. Pepper diseases are easily preventable but
they have to be spotted in time. Quick action is necessary to prevent further damage, and
spreading to other vegetable crops (Olaf K. Ribeiro, 1996). Disease problems are major
constraints in the cultivation of pepper in all pepper producing countries and Malaysia is no
exception. In Sarawak, pepper vines are affected by a myriad of diseases and some of these are
devastating causing heavy crop losses or plant death while others are less severe with minor
economic significance. Below are some examples of diseases and causal agents that farmers
faced with the pepper cultivation.
1. Phytothora capsici
Phytothora capsici is a fungus that attacks peppers. It affects the root system, stems and leaves.
It will spread to the entire crop if it is not found in time.
2. Bacteria Spot
Bacteria spot occurs in tomatoes and peppers. It can be recognized by the angular spots
surrounding the vegetable.
3. Insects
Pepper plant bugs can weaken the plant, and give bacteria and other diseases an easy access to
infect the plant. Treat pepper plants with an insecticide or create your own with water, crushed
pepper and garlic.
4. Southern Blight
Southern blight is very common is most prevalent in warmer climates. Southern blight causes the
pepper plant to wilt and the roots to rot.
5. Ripe Rot
Ripe rot occurs with ripe fruits and vegetables. To prevent ripe rot you should harvest peppers
before they become overly ripe.
Cucumber mosaic virus (CVM) is the most important virus to pepper plants across the globe. It's
responsible for shocking the plant to its death. There are many different strains of this virus
worldwide, and is most often spread via aphids.
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I had focused on the foot rot diseases in pepper which is caused by the fungi Phytothora
capsici. The fungus had caused epidemical lost to farmers and also could destroyed the plant
itself. Foot rot caused by Phytophthora capsici is deemed the most devastating disease of
pepper.. Below are the details about the Phytophthora capsici including its diseases distribution,
symptoms of diseases, identification of the fungus and the epidemiology caused by this fungus.
Phytophthora capsici is known to infect many species of pepper, tomato, and other
members of the solanaceae family. Melon, cucumbers, and other members of the plant family
cucurbitaceae are also attacked (Amar Tyagi, 2006).
2. Taxanomy
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Chromista
Phylum: Oomycota
Class: Oomycetes
Order: Peronosporales
Family: Pythiaceae
Genus: Phytophthora
Species: P. capsici
3. Symptoms
Infection usually starts at the collar region of the vine. Leaves become progressively yellowed,
wilted and defoliated. Branches droop. Characteristic fimbriate-edge leaf lesions may develop on
leaves. The underground stem has brownish-black lesion and most of the roots are rotted leading
to death of the vine in few months' time(Donald C. Erwin, 1996). Epidemics of pepper fields are
caused by Phytophthora capsici during disease conducive wet weather. Leaf blights begin as
small water-soaked areas on the underside of leaves. These enlarge to form irregular spots of
various shapes and sizes. Infected leaf tissue is wilted, light green or gray-green, later becoming
tan to white and scalded in appearance. With moisture, leaf spots have a water soaked border.
The pathogen moves into stems from infected leaves and sections of the plant are killed. Rots
which develop at the soil line or that affect major branches cause the plant to wilt or die. Root
rots can be severe and stunt the plant or cause plant decline. Fruit rots are irregular in shape and
olive green or light green with water soaked borders(D.C. Erwin,1983). Rots expand rapidly and
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fruits can be completely diseased and desiccated, causing the formation of mummified fruits.
Infected seeds are brown and shriveled.
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4. Biology And Diseases Distribution
Phytophthoras may reproduce sexually or asexually. In many species, sexual structures have
never been observed, or have only been observed in laboratory matings. Phytophthora capsici
produces microscopic, asexual spores called sporangia. Asexual (mitotic) spore types are
chlamydospores, and sporangia which produce zoospores. Chlamydospores are usually spherical
and pigmented, and may have a thickened cell wall to aid in its role as a survival structure(D.P.
Tripathi , 2008). Sporangia may be retained by the subtending hyphae (non-caducous) or be shed
readily by wind or water tension (caducous) acting as dispersal structures. Also, sporangia may
release zoospores, which have two unlike flagella which they use to swim towards a host plant.
Sporangia are nearly spherical to pyriform (pear shape), hyaline (colorless), papillate(pointed at
the tip), deciduous (spores fall from the colony) and have a long pedicel (stalk) attached to the
base of the spore. In water, sporangia form and release several swimming spores called
zoospores(D.P. Tripathi , 2008). Sporangia also germinate directly by producing several germ
tubes that begin new fungal colonies. In homothallic species, sexual structures occur in single
culture. Heterothallic species have mating strains, designated as A1 and A2. When mated,
antheridia introduce gametes into oogonia, either by the oogonium passing through the
antheridium (amphigyny) or by the antheridium attaching to the proximal (lower) half of the
oogonium (paragyny), and the union producing oospores. Like animals, but not like most true
Fungi, meiosis is gametic, and somatic nuclei are diploid. Phytophthora capsici is heterothallic
and has two mating types (A1 and A2). Both mating types are needed for the abundant
production of sexual spores which already mention above, oospores. Oospores are thick walled
and form within a mother cell called the oogonium, which is red or orange in some types of
media. Some species of Phytophthora are induced to form oospores when the mating type of
another species is present. This pathogen grows well between 25 and 30 C.
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Picture 3: Life cycle of Phytophthora capsici.
Notes that Phytophthora capsici is distinguished from other Phytophthora species by its
sporangial morphology. Sporangia of P. capsici are caducous (easily separated from
sporangiophores), have long pedicels, and are spherical to elongate with a tapering base.
Phytophthora forms:
A: Sporangia. B: Zoospore.
C: Chlamydospore. D: Oospore.
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5. Epidemiology
In pepper fields, the fungus is soil borne and initial infections of roots, collars, and lower leaves
occur which survives between crops as oospores in soil or mycelium in plant debris. The fungus
grows within the host and produces sporangia on the surface of diseased tissue, especially leaves.
Sporangia are spread by splashing water from irrigation or rain. Soil moisture conditions are
important for disease development. Sporangia form when soil pores are drained, and they release
zoospores when soil is saturated (soil pores are filled with water). The disease is usually
associated with heavy rainfall, excessive-irrigation, or poorly drained soil. Frequent irrigation
increases the incidence of the disease(Olaf K. Ribeiro, 1996). Warm conditions are favorable for
disease development. Oospores are resistant to desiccation, cold temperatures, and other extreme
environmental conditions, and can survive in the soil, in the absence of a host plant, for several
years. Oospores germinate and produce sporangia and zoospores. With moisture present,
zoospores are formed and released. Zoospores are released in water and dispersed by irrigation
or surface water. Zoospores are able to swim for several hours and infect plant tissues These
zoospores swim for a few minutes to more than an hour before encysting. Environmental
conditions such as water temperature, nutrition, pH, and other factors determine the length of
time zoospores continue to swim. Zoospores first lose their flagella and then encyst and form a
cell wall, germinate and infect plant tissues .Encysted zoospores germinate by producing a thin
fungal hypha or thread. Abundant sporangia are produced on infected tissues, particularly on
affected fruit. Sporangia are dispersed by water or in wind-driven rain in the air. Sporangia may
either germinate directly and infect the host plant or germinate and give rise to zoospores that are
released in water and infect the plant. The germ tube commonly penetrates the leaf through
stomates which are natural opening in the leaf epidermis. Larger germ tubes produced by
sporangia also penetrate the leaves. Sporangia are also moved within the field by contact with
field equipment, clothing, gloves, tools, etc. Movement of soil from one field to another on
equipment or boots will move this pathogen. The fungus survives in the soil in host debris.
Roots, stems, and mummified fruits left in the field after harvest, harbor the pathogen for
months. Phytophthora capsici is also seed borne. The pathogen grows within the host and
produces sporangia on the surface of the infected tissues. If the environmental conditions are
conducive, the disease develops rapidly. Although the pathogen produces chlamydospores on
culture media, their role in pathogen survival and diseases epidemiology is not known.
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6. Diseases control recommendations
The following cultural practices can help to manage foot rot diseases caused by Phytophthora
capsici . Rotation with non-susceptible crops will reduce the amount of Phytophthora capsici
surviving in soil. Fresh, clean seeds should be planted in new potting mix to establish healthy
transplants. Monitor seedlings as well as the field and remove diseased plants as soon as they
occur. Some cultivars are more tolerant, and better resistance in pepper to Phytophthora capsici
are also being developed(Hans Lambers,2006). Because P. capsici can survive in soil for several
years, fields without a history of Phytophthora blight should be selected for planting. Although
no cropping rotation period has been established for effective management of foot rot disease, it
is recommended to select only fields that have not had a history of foot rot disease, eggplant,
peppers, or tomatoes for at least 3 years. Fields should be selected that are well isolated from
fields infested with P. capsici. High soil moisture favors the development of foot rot disease,
thus well-drained fields should be selected and excessive irrigation should be avoided. Also
avoid planting pepper in areas of the field that have poor drainage. The field should be scouted
regularly for Phytophthora capsici symptoms, especially after major rainfalls, and particularly in
low areas of the field. When symptoms are localized in a small area of the field, the infected
plants should be plowed into the soil. Plants should be sprayed with effective fungicides at the
first sign of the disease. Healthy fruit should be removed from the infested area as soon as
possible, and they should be checked for disease development routinely. Growing cover crops
and mulching with plant materials including straw can also be used to manage the dispersal of
the pathogen. Besides, to prevent and contain this disease, an integrated disease management system
should be adopted. Cuttings to be planted should obtain from foot rot-free gardens to avoid
introducing the disease to a new area. The field should have a good drainage system as waterlogged
environment is conducive for disease development. Sharing of farm tools and foot-wares between
gardens are not encouraged and they should be disinfected after use. Pruning of lower branches up to
30 cm above ground should be practiced to prevent them coming in contact with the soil. Vines
should be inspected regularly as success in containing foot rot depends very much on early
recognition of the disease followed by prompt application of a suitable chemical.
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6.2) Biological And Chemical Control
Among chemicals in addition to copper fungicides systemic fungicides which are compatible
with biocontrol organisms such as Metalaxyl and Potassium phosphonateare are used.
seedling death and reduce foliar blight and foot rot. Seed treatment with either mefenoxam
[Apron XL LS at the rate of 0.42 ml /kg (0.64 fl oz/100 lb) seed] or metalaxyl [Allegiance FL
at the rate of 0.98 ml /kg (1.5 fl oz/100 lb) seed] can protect seedlings of pepper against
applications of dimethomorph [Acrobat 50WP at the rate of 448 g /ha (6.4 oz/A)] plus copper
sulfate [e.g. Cuprofix Disperss 36.9F at the rate of 2.25 kg/ha (2 lb/A)], at weekly intervals,
can provide effective protection against foliar blight and foot rot caused by Phytophthora
Acrobat plus copper can minimize crop losses to Phytophthora foot rot in pepper fields. It is
important to note the farmer must use the exact amount of fungicide so that the Phytophthora
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7. References
1. Loh Chow Fong, 1970, Phytophthera foot rot of pepper (piper nigrum L) in West
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur : Chawangan Perkembangan, Jabatan Pertanian .
2. Donald C. Erwin and Olaf K. Ribeiro, 1996, Phytophthora diseases worldwide, St. Paul,
Minn: APS.
3. D.C. Erwin, S. Bartnicki Garcia ,1983, Phytophthora: its biology, taxonomy, ecology and
pathology, , St, Paul: American Phytopathological Society.
4. Kueh Tiong Kheng, 1978, Pepper foot rot , Sarawak : Department of Agriculture.
5. D.P. Tripathi , 2008, Plant pathology at a glance : (encyclopedia of plant pathology) ; for
students of general botany, microbiology, mycology, plant bacteriology, plant virology,
plant nematology and plant pathology, Jodhpur : Scientific Publishers.
6. Amar Tyagi, 2006, Plant pathology, New Delhi, India : Anmol Publications.
7. George N. Agrios , 2005, Plant pathology 5th ed Edition, Amsterdam ; Boston : Elsevier
Academic Press.
8. Hans Lambers, F. Stuart Chapin III, Thijs L. Pons , 2006, Plant physiological ecology ,
New York : Springer.
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