Introduction

Introduction

Epic poetry is generally the weightiest expression of a cultural community and

is the source and inspiration for future generations and future literature. It is often
encyclopaedic as it reflects the history, culture, philosophy and aspirations of a nation
in a lofty or 'elevated' style. In simple words, it may be defined as large-scale
narrative poetry of high seriousness on heroic themes with the hexametre as its
characteristic metre. According to Bowra ( 1945), 'An epic poem is by common
consent a narrative of some length and deals with events which have a certain
grandeur and importance and come from a life action especially of violent action such
as war'. It is concerned more with external action than internal feelings. It is this,
which makes epic poetry the natural expression of early national life.

The epics may be classified as oral or primary epics and written or secondary
epics. The oral or primary epics are also known as folk, popular, true or authentic
epics or epics of growth. The written or secondary epics are sometimes referred to as
literary or artificial epics or epics of art. The primary epics are those, which have
developed into its final form through orally transmitted folk poetry. These poems are
stories of legendary events. These events usually took place a long time before and
had undergone several changes in their context before appearing in the epic form.
Many versions of the same events are also to be found due to the fact that they were
treated in folk songs and had travelled many regions before they reached the epic
form. These folk songs were eventually written down by anonymous poets. The
secondary (literary or written) epics are works of a single known author. These epics
are meant to be read unlike the oral epics which are essentially improvised recitations.
The earliest literary epics though developed into an independent form held on many
of the features of the oral epics. They were mainly heroic and mythic tales. While the
oral epic's main characteristics were simplicity and straight-forwardness of narration,
the literary epic emphasizes the poet's skill in richness of language and style. For the
poet of the literary epic the devices of oral poetry are useful only for their antiquated
elegance. They no longer hold a utilitarian value. These epics belonged to a culture/
society, which had become more sophisticated; therefore, these epics were more

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carefully designed and had a complex psychological pattern than that of the oral
epics. Whereas the oral epics reflected a society which had 'indigenous' admiration
for the extroverted deeds of rugged individuals or accepted an individual code of
honour'. (New Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol.III, 1977 b, p.921).

The origin of the epic poetry in India may be traced to the dialogue-hymns in
the R.gveda. In later Vedic literature -the Briihmal].as - we find reference to the
Itihiisas, Akhyiinas and Pural].as. The recital of these epic poems formed a part of the
religious ceremonies at sacrificial and domestic festivals as well as the social
assemblies which conditioned the elevated style and diction of the epics. There were
professional story-tellers (Aitihasikas and Paural].ikas) in very ancient times. When
epics were transmitted from one place to another and from one age to another they
accumulated into their framework the folklore, cultural elements, customs and beliefs
of the people. The epic poet drew abundantly from the rich store of the narratives -
ltihasas, Akhyanas, Pural].as and Gathas, which had accumulated in pre-Buddhistic
times. They organized these narratives included or enhanced the description as well as
didactical and spiritual material.

Further, in the Indian tradition, epic (sargabandha, 'canto composition or

simply mahakiivya, great kavya) is one of the five main forms of kavya (literature).
The other four are drama (natya), lyric (anibaddha, independent verses, or
khandakavya, 'short kavya'), biography (akhyayika, 'history'-usually of a living or a
recently living person), novel (katha, 'story', 'tale'). Different literary theorists like
Bhamaha, Dal}qin, Rudrata, Bhoja etc. have expressed different views regarding epic.
While Bhamaha emphasizes that an epic should be based on what is good (i.e. have
moral as well as aesthetic purpose), should be 'meaningful' arthya, whilst the
expression must be elegant (avoiding vulgarity). It should also be realistic, i.e.
congruent with the nature of the world. He also puts forth the view than an epic takes
on a philosophical character. The action is not simply a particular enterprise by the
hero. It is seeking and attaining of the recognized ends of human existence-wealth
(artha, including power), pleasure (kama) virtue (dharma), 'release' (mok~a, release
from transmigration). Thus, the story tends to lose its individual character and to

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become a general expression of the pursuit of these ideals, a generalized symbol of
human endeavour. Dandin introduces some new points like sufficient development of
the story and of the aesthetic experience. Also the cantos should not be too long and
should be well-fitted together (to make the whole poem a unity). The metres should
be carefully chosen. An epic should be rich in content, significant in action and
sophisticated in language. He also suggests three ways of beginning an epic, with a
benediction iisis, salutation, or invocation 'niimakriyii or by plunging straight into the
story vastunirdesa.

The Persian literary tradition consists of literary greats like Sheikh Sa'df,
Maulana Rumf, Khuwaja Shams al-Din Hafiz Shirazi, Nizamf, Jamf Herawi and, of
course, Firdausf. The revival of Persian literature started in Persia in the tenth century.
The language of Pehlavf or Middle Persian was the language that most of the work
was being done on. However, by this time Arabic was the language of the religion
and sciences, and Old Persian (the language of Achaemenids) was becoming extinct.
Arabic and the new religion (Islam) brought with them new ideas and abstract terms.
Mixed with Arabic, the Persian language was reborn different from Old Persian. It is
noteworthy that this language was first received in Balkh (Northern Afghanistan) and
then in the courts of Persian princes who claimed independence from the weak
Abbasid Khalifas (after mid ninth century). These princes of the Samanid and
Saffarid dynasties began to set up their own courts and kept court-poets. These court-
poets also served as 'public relations officers' whose poems would praise and glorify
their patron prince. These poems were then heard by the public and were distributed
to other courts. The poet would gain popularity and be rewarded accordingly, if not he
would change courts.

In the Persian literature epic or hamaseh is the most popular literary form. But
not much is written about the definition, construction qualities, purpose, etc. of
Persian epics. They are not dealt with in detail. From whatever information is
available, it can be said that the definition, structure and the characteristics of the
Persian epic poetry is the same as that of the epics of other languages or culture. The

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epic Shdhndma may be considered as the standard example of a perfect epic. There
are six most important forms of Persian poetry which may be divided as follows:

I. Forms common to the Arabs and the Persians

A. The Qasida (Panegyric)

B. The Ghazal (Ode)

C. The Qat'a (Fragment)

II. Forms peculiar to the Persians

D. The Rubdf (Quatrain)

E. The Ma~7Javf (Couplet)

F. The Tarjfat etc., (Stanzaic Poems)

(Hekmat, 1956)

Each form has its own representative poets who are recognized as masters of
that particular class, e.g. Firdausf whose epic Shdhndma is written in Masnavi (in one
uniform motaqudreb metre). The Persian epic poets drew abundantly from ancient
memories, ancient Indo-European and Indo-Iranian traditions, pre-historic religious
tradition, viz. Zoroastrianism and other pre-Islamic religions, and popular tradition
consisting of legends, stories, fantasies about persons and places, real or imagined
that form a part of nation's culture but are not necessarily part of the mainstream of
the national tradition. They made use of this material by organizing, enhancing,
describing it and making the necessary changes to suit their specific needs. But the
greater part of the Persian epic tradition was written down in Islamic times by Muslim
writers for Muslim audiences. This religio-cultural setting obviously influenced what
was set down and how it was presented. Regardless of when they were written down,

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however, these stories, legends, motifs, beliefs and attitudes have their roots deep in
the past, and this past shows itself in way both obvious and subtle.

Greek literature begins with the Homeric epics 'Iliad' and 'Odyssey',
belonging to the seventh century B.C. and marking the beginning of Western
literature. But we know nothing of their antecedents. The Greeks of the fifth century
B.C. and earlier were greatly influenced by Homer, whose impact was all-pervasive
in the development of Greek literature and in their whole attitude to life as well as
poetry. Accounts of events in very early days were recorded in verse and the earliest
historical information was provided by the epic poets. It was until about 500 B.C.
that, under the influence of philosophical and scientific thought in Ionia, the first
prose histories began to appear. Hecataeus of Miletus played a leading part in their
development.

The epic poets made use of oral songs that were traditionally sung by the
bards of their time. These songs, which were more than a thousand years old were
about the deeds of the Greek heroes of the Trojan war. Around this historical Trojan
War was a group of tales with the theme of journey, wanderings and return. The epics
were generally written in dactylic hexametre (e.g. Iliad and Odyssey) probably the
traditional metre the bards used for centuries to preserve in memory the heroic deeds
of their great heroes.

Thus the epic, be it Indian, Persian on Greek, stands for a form which has
certain distinguished qualities. The most important of them all is the single action
expressed in a grand manner so as to elevate the human mind. The main aim of the
epics has been to create pleasure for the audience through thought and words.

Aristotle ( 1920) has Homer as the standard model for his discussion of the
epic in his On the Art of Poetry. Aristotle gives five features of the epic. The first
being that the construction of the epic should be based on a single action and that the
epic, whether simple or complex, should be a story of character. The length of the
epic is not restricted as that of the tragedy. This gives the poet the freedom to add

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many episodes; and the poet is able to describe a number of incidents that take place
simultaneously, thereby adding to the grandeur of the epic. In conformity with
Aristotle's view the poet has to stick to the iambic and trochaic metres as they are the
metres of movement, the one representing that of life and action, the other that of
dance. When referring to the language of the epic he says that the poet should resort
to elevated diction only when there is no action, thought or character to be dealt with.
If not the diction would undermine the action, the expression of thought and the
creation of a character.

The five conditions that Longinus (1965) gives in his essay On the sublime
furnishes a clear verification of the qualities of an epic. The first and foremost of
theme is grandeur of thought. Any great work should have the power to evoke great
thoughts in the minds of the audience. It should also be a stimulus for human
passions. The vigorous and spirited treatment of the passions in the epic should
inspire emotions. Another feature of a sublime work, according to Longinus, is the
use of the figures of speech. The employment of noble diction creates dignified
expressions. This is achieved through the proper choice of words, the proper use of
metaphors and other ornaments of diction. The structure of the whole work of art
elevates it to an exalted level. This is brought about through their arrangement of
words.

Sainte Beuve (1963) in his essay What is a Classic observes that unity of
arrangement and execution as the main features of a classic. The author of a classic
'enriches the human mind, increases its treasures, causes it to advance a step, discover
moral truth and reveal external passion through his exploits'.

In the Indian tradition, the main purpose of a literary composition is to delight

the human mind and abolish its ignorance. Kapoor (1998) traces the concepts of the
various authors of Indian poetics on this matter starting with Bharata which are as
follows:

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 According to Bharata the kiivya 'provides a guidance to ordinary people in the
conduct of life (and also help them) have serious thoughts (sastriya artha). In
Kavyalankara Bhamaha [already discussed] in Kiivyalankiira says, 'Composition of
good poetry produces ability in dharma, artha, kama, mok~a also in arts. It also
confers pleasure and fame'. In his Kiivyalankiira Sutra Vamana states that, 'Poetry,
when excellent, accomplishes perceptible as well as imperceptible results, bringing
about as it does pleasure and fame'.

According to Mammata, the author of KiivyaPrakiisa, 'kiivya brings fame and

riches, knowledge of the ways of the world and relief from evils, instant and perfect
happiness (iinanda), a counsel sweet as from the lip of a beloved consort ....... The
main aim of kiivya, however, is the attainment of the pure unmixed pleasure that
flows instantaneously on the experiencing of rasa, sublating the direct effect of the
word and its meaning. As such poetry differs from the Vedas, in which the word, in
the form of a master's command, predominates; it differs also from the Purii7Jas, in
which the predominant element is friendly counsel (not to be followed literally). Such
(kiivya) is the work of (kavis), clever in depicting things in a manner passing the
comprehension of ordinary men; it offers to other poets and cultured men counsel
most persuasively ...... As such (kiivya) is by all means to be studied and cultivated'.

In his Vakroktiiivita, Kuntaka says that the kiivya aids man to procure
puru~arthas, for as sastra dissolves avidyii (lack of knowledge), kiivya destroys
aviveka (lack of discrimination).

The comments made by Viswanatha may be taken as the last line. In his
Sahitya Darpa1Ja he states, 'through Vedas and sastras, the four ends attained without
rasa and with lot of dukha (suffering). (This is) possible only for (the) one who has a
mature mind. But as kiivya is the product of iinandasmuha (aggregate of pleasure) it
helps even young immature minds to attain the four ends'.

Thus the focus of my study are the epics RiimiiyarJa, Shdhndma and Iliad that
are the representative epics of three cultural communities and have been read,

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exploited and relevant in all times as these are not historically bound in space and
time. They (the epics) are defining texts of the three cultures. What binds them as a
thread is the 'crisis' in the civilization! society that triggers 'epic' action and each
community responds to the crisis with its own specificity - but, war is a common
element in that response. A study of the crisis as reflected in these epics is, therefore,
interesting and relevant. As the title suggests, the present work is an attempt to
examine the crises - the issues and events - that trigger action in these epics, their
consequences and the response of the protagonists (discussed in chapter 2, 3, 4). The
study, as part of the explanatory background, analyzes the place these epics have
occupied and continue to have in the respective societies (social and ethical
structures) and the influence they exercise on the people (personal relationships).
These are discussed in Chapter 1. It also hopefully highlights how these three
traditions (Indian, Persian and Greek), despite being shaped in very different
environments and historical periods share common grounds in their responses to the
human condition.

The methodology employed by me involves close reading and analysis of the

primary works (text) towards a maximal interpretation. After a preliminary content
analysis, portions of texts that concern the crises and actions of major characters/
protagonists in response to them have been identified which to some extent enables a
comparison of the three epics. Hence from description, the study proceeds to analysis
and comparison.