Chapter One

Introduction
What is Philosophy?
The Philosophical Background of Logic
Logic is one of the subjects of Philosophy that emulates not material things
or physical phenomena but ideas or concepts, propositions or premises and their
inferential relations to attain the truth value of the conclusions
It is necessary to take up the etymological and real definition of Philosophy
to strengthen the philosophical background of Logic.
Etymological Definition of Philosophy
Philosophy comes from the Greek infinitive verb (philein), which means to
love; and (Sophia) which means wisdom. Therefore, etymologically speaking,
Philosophy means love of wisdom.
Philosophy, therefore is a science of sciences all that exist (of beings), in
their ultimate causes and principles through the help of human intellect alone.
Real Definition of Philosophy
Philosophy is a pursuit for meaning.
Practically the words means to gaze or look for something. Philosophically,
it is more of a pursuit or quest for the meaning of something. It has the
fundamental principles to understand the meaning.
Fundamental Principles in the Definition of Philosophy
1. It is a sciences, because it is a systematic body of knowledge which is not
only based on the ideas,
2. Of beings, because from the point of view of metaphysics, it tells everything
that exists, or may exist, of everything knowable. Ergo est., it is therefore,
the highest synthesis of all dealing with man, nature and of course with
GOD. It is therefore qualified as mother of all sciences because of its much
unabridged meaning, scope.
3. In their ultimate cause, it tells us all about asking and answering not only
the facts and causes but which conforms to reality.
4. Through the help of human intellect alone, because Philosophy deals with
the human metaphysical reason, toward the concept of Theosophy, (from
the Greek word/theos means God and /Sophia means wisdom, therefore it
means a philosophical study of the wisdom of GOD).
A Continual Relationship to Sciences and Art
There is a continual relationship of Philosophy to Sciences and Art. They are
both interested in the knowledge of seeking to ask questions and answering
the questions to the best possible philosophical conclusion. Therefore,
Philosophy starts always with the question “why”?
On the other hand, Philosophy seeks the highest ultimate knowledge while
Sciences seek knowledge of facts. Therefore, Philosophy takes full cognizance
in the findings of science because science seeks to determine facts and facts
are its end products.
It is concluded that a method being used in this continual relationship to
sciences involved the interpretation and explanation of the ultimate relation
and meaning of facts.
Philosophy and Art have a common goal in seeking the truth. They have a
common interest in philosophizing, interpreting experiences and manifesting
the meaning of life.
Here’s a little story from Plato’s most famous book, “The Republic”.
Socrates was talking to a young follower, named “Glaucon”, and was telling
him this fable to illustrate what it’s like to be a philosopher – a lover of
wisdom: Most people, including ourselves, live in a world of relative ignorance.
We are even comfortable with that ignorance, because it is all we know. When
we first start facing the truth, the process may be frightening, and many
people run back to their old lives. But if you continue to seek the truth, you
will eventually be able to handle it better. In facts, you want more! It’s true
that many people around you now may think you are weird or even a danger
to society, but you don’t care. Once you’ve tasted the truth, you won’t ever
want to go back of being ignorant!
[Socrates is speaking with Glaucon]
[Socrates:] And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is
englisghtened or unenlightened: --Behold! Human beings living in an
underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all
along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs
and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them,
being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and
behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the
prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built
along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in fron of them,
over which they show the puppets.
And do you see, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and
statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials,
which appear over the wall? Some of them are shadows.
You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners. Like
ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of
one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave?
Types of Philosophy
Philosophy is divided into types: Speculative Philosophy and Practical
Philosophy
Speculative Philosophy
1. Cosmology (from the Greek word /Cosmos plus/logos) means
philosophical study of being in the nonliving world.
2. Metaphysics (from the Greek word /meta-ta-fusica) means something
that goes beyond or philosophical study of being in its most general
form.
3. Theodicy (from the Greek word/God) philosophical study of BEING in its
highest form.
4. Anthropology (from the Greek word /antropos means man)
philosophical study of being with its body and soul.
5. Rational Psychology (from the Greek word /Psyche means soul)
Philosophical study being with its sould.
 In relation to man:
6. Logic (from the Greek word /logos means thought) science and art of
correct thinking.
7. Epistemology (from the Greek word /Episteme means human
knowledge) philosophical study of human knowledge with regard to
value of thought.
8. Ethics (from the Greek word /ethos means man’s willy) Philosopihcal
study of the morality of the human act that distinguished good from evil
and right from wrong.
Applied Philosophy
The results of Speculative Philosophy are applied to specific topics and
discussion in the different aspects of individuals’ life such as society,
history, education, religion, etc.
1. Philosophy of Man - the metaphysical dimension of man as a person.
2. Social Philosophy – the study of interpersonal relationship between man
and society.
3. Philosophy of religion – the meta-personal study of man with God.
4. Axiology – philosophical study of man’s value.
5. Aesthetics – Philosophical study of man’s beauty and perfection.
6. Oriental Philosophy – Philosophical study of Oriental ways of life.
7. Philosophy of Education – Philosophical and methodological approach of
teaching and procedural learning process.
The correct reasoning with maturity of character is the heart of logical
undertaking; the contents of this book are basically founded in it. To
understand more the fundamental principles of logical reasoning, the next
chapter will deepen the knowledge of the students.
Chapter Two
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
What is logic?
Nominal definition of Etymology:
LOGIC comes from the Greek word logos/ whiche means thought,
study or science.
 Real Definition:
Logic therefore, is an art and science of fundamental principle of
correct thinking.

It is a science of fundamental principle of principles, laws,

pedagogical method which man’s mind must follow in its way of thinking
for its validity and licitly attaintment of truth.
Fundamental Principles of the Definition of Logic
1. Science because it is a body of organized pedagogical method of true
knowledge toward with the rectitude of reasoning.
2. An Art because the validity /licitly argument is done wonderfully.
3. Fundamental principle because it involves the metaphysical foundation
of cause and effect, principle of identity and principle of non-
contradiction.
4. Of correct thinking it denotes ownership toward the conformity to the
rules of rectitude as conclusion.
Is child born logician?
Yes, because Logic deals with the mental process of thinking. Futhermore,
daydreaming and imagining are most likely not considered as logic because they
do not say something in the process of thinking but rather memorizing or a simple
recall because it involves the capability of thinking. Therefore, it is justifiable that
the child born logician. It inquires the truth that becomes the nucleus of
knowledge. Correct thinking is the process of drawing out conclusions from the
Correct thinking is the process of drawing out conclusions from the previously
known data to arrive in rectitude. However, any reasoning that does not conform
to reality may not always be true because it does not investigate the truth as the
certainty but rather it may focus on the right and correct certitude of thinking.
Examples:
All Medical Technicians are students.
But, Jerome is a Medical Technician.
Therefore, Jerome is a student.-------------------------------------------------------------valid
and licit

All monkeys are rational.

But, Dogs are animals.
Therefore, Dogs are rational-----------------------------------------------------------------valid
and illicit

All girls are sweet.

But, Angela is sweet.
Therefore, Angela is a girl------------------------------------------------------------------invalid
and licit

Men are handsome.

But, Angela is handsome.
Therefore, Angela is a man.--------------------------------------------------------------invalid
and illicit
The Formal Object of Logic
When it comes to logic, reasoning is the conformity to reality. Therefore, it
involves always the validity and licitly arguments. It leads the students of
searching the truth from the known toward the unknown and from the easiest
datum towards the most difficult datum. An argument is genuine when it is both
valid and licit.
Examples:

Some leaves are green.

But, grass is a leaf.
Therefore,grass is green.----------------------------------------------------------valid and licit

Some lawyers are honest.

But, John Angelu is a lawyer.
Therefore, John Angelu is honest.-------------------------------------------------valid and
licit as well.
Importance of Logic
According to Benito Reyes, (1947), a pragmatist, there are ten (10)
importances in application of capability of valid and licit thinking. They are as
follows:
1. It develops the habit of clear thinking. It teachers us how to think, either we
read or hear correctly and logically. It is only when we think that we
commit mistakes and very seldom to think if it is correct.
2. It is a guide in the process of drawing out conclusions. We have a lot of
experienced things to be considered and ofter wrong decisions as well. The
process of thinking will instruct us to understand deeply.
3. It emphasizes the imporatance of definition. It tells us the real and nominal
definition that conforms to reality. It denotes clarity and precision in the
use of terms which is one of the most required principles of the process of
thinking.
4. It help us interpret the facts adequately. Genuine and accurate facts’
interpretation is very important then it comes to the conformity of truth. It
trains us analyzing, classifying and defining facts.
5. It cultivates the habit of looking for the assumptions presupposed in
reasoning. Some people are often confused by delicate and unnoticeable
arguments because of incorrect reasoning that puts us on guard against
mistake.
6. It trains us in the technique of determining implications. It provided training
in order to develop the ability to comprehend implications and protect us
with technique in determining assumptions.
7. It helps us detect fallacies and avoid self-deceptions. It gives us an auxiliary
to illogical reasoning. Every person has a gift of common sense, but
common sense must be developed in order to make a progress as an
instrument of philosophical reason.
8. It helps us persuade or convince other. No man is an island. Loving oneself
is to acknowlednge and share life with others. It therefore trains us in
various methods having a good and right decision in thinking of others.
9. It stimulates scientific thinking and love of truth. An order person requires a
clear reasoning. Logic is important equipment in order to comprehend
sciences. The primary goal of logic is truth in order to simplify the truth
statement. It seeks an argument of a perfect quality which asserts itself.
10.It familiarizes us with terminology and problems in Philosophy. This is the
question of why, how and what is in reality. The assertive curiosity gives us
interpersonal relationship between things and themselves. All of us think
because it is the right way to Philosophy.
Types of logic:
1. Based of FORM AND CONCEPT
1.1 Formal Logic
Formal logic is the structure, correctness, sequence that follow the
rules. It looks with the given standards. It is therefore that an argument
must be good and not only in form but in content as well.
Example: John Louie is a student
Our concerned is how it is structured or build to create a sound
reasoning. The given example tells us that John Louie is the complete
subhect, is, is the main verb in the third person singular of the infinitve
form of the verb to be, a, is the indefinite article and the student is the
complete or simple predicate in the sentence
1.2 Material Logic
Material logic is the subject matter, the content and the truth. It is
the conformity of the reality.

Example; John Dewee is a man.

 We may ask from this example that: Is John Deewee really a man? If
that is so, therefore our argument is true. The correct reasoning is
formally valid unless one or many of the rules are violated. A good
and sound reasoning then is one that is formally valid and licit and at
the same time, materially valid and licit as well.
2. Based on PROCESS OF THINKING
2.1 Deductive Logic
Deductive logis is one in which the arguments flow logically and
correctly into the conclusion. It is also called as FORMAL DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC. It is therefore, from general to specific or particular.
Example:
All Filipinos are Asians. (General)
But, John Deewee is a Filipino (Particular)
Therefore, John Deewee is an Asian (Particular)
2.2 Inductive logic
Inductive logic is one in which the statement flows logically
from particular to general or universal. It implies the sense of
probability and closely related to the scientific method of
inquiry which flows from specific to universal.

Example:
This man talks. This Grandfather……This
Wife…… This son or daughter …….Therefore, all given subjects
talk.
THREE MAIN DIVISIONS OF LOGIC:
Even if we sleep, our process of thinking always awakes and it never rests.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas in Summa Theologiae, It is one of the most
complex realities in existence. In order to comprehend their nature, it introduces
the three divisions of logic namely: SIMPLE
APPREHENSION, JUDGEMENT AND REASONING.
SIMPLE APPREHENSIOn
Simple denotes an act that cannot be resolved to another form and
Apprehension denotes an act of conceiving an object. Therefore, Simple
apprehension is the process through which the capability of thinking
comprehends the objective reality as it is outside the mind. When one holds the
idea or thought tightly, it is therefore formed through the use of term.

Example of tersm: man; mortal;John Deewee

JUDGMENT
Judgment comes from the latin word “iudicare” which means to pronounce
regarding the agreement or disagreement between two concepts is made.
Therefore, Judgment is the process through which an argument may assert or
deny something. It is therefore the process of knowing whether it is assertive or
denial, not assertive and denial. The expression of judgment is also called as
proposition and not preposition.

Example of the proposition: John Deewee is a student.

In this given example of the proposition, it contains the simple subject,
simple predicate and is, the verb in the third person singular of the infinitive verb
to be. In relation to English grammar, we do have the basic sentence patter like:S-
TV-DO-IO. So do as in logic, we have S-C-P which means SUBJECT-COPULA-
PREDICATE.
REASONING
REASONING is the process through which the mind of the capability of
thinking arrives at the conclusion from the previously possessed judgment. It tells
us how to form a new proposition from the premises and it is also called as
INFERENCE, otherwise known as the process to arrive in a certain conclusion.
Basically this inference is usually expressed through Syllogism which will be
discussed in the succeeding chapter.
Example of an Inference: Joseph is with Mary.
But, Peter is with Joseph
Therefore, Peter is with Mary.
Furthermore, in order to have the methodological parallelism in as far as three
divisions of logics are concerned, it relates ut on how these three divisions explain
and emphasize to different dimensional aspects of other subjects. Therefore,
from the point of view of Philosophy, logic presents SIMPLE APPREHENSION,
JUDGMENT AND REASONING, from the Psychological point of view; we have
KNOWLEDGE,ATTITUDE AND SKILL, from the theological point of view, we have
PROPHETIC, PRIESTLY AND KINGLY, from the educational point of view, we have
COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR, from the Oriental philosophy we
have, MIND, SOUL AND BODY, from the mulplicity of language, we have
INFORMATIVE, EXPRESSIVE AND DIRECTIVE, from the Filipino Christian Living, we
have the HEAD, HEART AND HAND.
To have a clear view of the three basic divisions of Logic, a tabular scheme is
presented.
Mental Act Mental Product External expressions

1. Simple Apprehension Idea/ Concept Term

2. Judgment Pronouncement of two Proposition

ideas
3. Reasoning Argument Inferential Syllogism
thinking

The pronouncement of two ideas is the affirmation or negation of the

proposition give. The judgmental property of proposition is true or false. The
property of syllogism is validity and licitly.
Below is the dimensional chart that shows the logical parallelism to different
aspects of the different field of studies
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE
Basic Functions of Language
According to Irving Copi (1968), there are three basic functions of language
that based on the integral parts of man namely: Head-Informative; Heart-
Affective; Hand-Directive.
1. INFORMATIVE
This is the most common function of language wherein we inform or asking
information about the things we know and ask about the things that we do not
know yet. If one person asks your name like I am John Deesee, then what you
used is an informative discourse. Therefore in Logic, the proposition and
argument are either assertive or denial; positive or negative.
2. EXPRESSIVE
This second function of language illustrate emotions and attitudes where
being expressed wonderfully. This will be found basically in poetry. It also
illustrates common exclamations like: Oh my God! It also expresses different
moods and mere expressions of feelings and emotions. Furthermore, these
arguments do not deny or affirm something.
3. DIRECTIVE
This last function of language is most easily seen in commands or requests.
It is which prevents an action to be done. Example: Kindly come early.
Chapter Three
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
What is a concept?
A concept comes from the Latin infinitive form of the verb “concepire”
means to conceive. A concept means a mental image which is created by the
process of thinking on the process of conceiving an object. Therefore, it is a
representation of an object by the intellect through which a student
comprehends a thing. On the other hand, it is attained through the process of
abstraction.
ABSTRACTION
 Abstraction comes from the Latin infinitive form of the verb “abstrahere”
which means to separate or to move away. It is therefore, a mental act by which
the process of thinking studies the physical characteristics with regard to its
color,size,material, etc., in order to think of the purpose of an object.
ATTENTION
Attention is also a mental act by which the process of thinking fixes its
consideration upon one particular object after having sense it. For example, if you
are driving a car, you need a full attention of driving a car. As a student, you
basically pay attention to your professor because a good professor must be a
good student, first.
MENTAL REFLECT ACTIVITY
This is also called as reflection. It is also a mental act of having aware of an
act itself so that it looks things objectively, having differences between the two
given arguments.
For example: face of the man and the face of a cat.
COMPARISON
It is also mental act by which the process of thinking notices his similarities
and differences in the objects having the same essence or with the same genuses
of classes.
For example: Angela and Monkey
They are both the same in essence but Angela is a rational animal and
monkey is a brute
TYPES OF CONCEPT
There are four types of concept with different classification:
1. Concept based on Intention
2. Concept based on Subject and Form
3. Concept based on Substance and Accidents
4. Concept based on Existence and Possession
1. Concept based on Intention:
1.1 First Intention-it is a concept by which you know things in the process of
thinking independently . For example: All of us we know that the dog has four
legs. Difinitely the concept of the “dog” is taken as an animal with four legs. It is
therefore understood that the dog is according to what it is in eality; regardless of
what we think about it.
1.2 Second Intention-it is a concept by which we conceive a thing in reality
in so far as the process of thinking understands. It is not regardless of what it is in
reality but how it is in our process of thinking. For example the Los Angeles,
California is the city of angels. Here, Los Angeles, California is understood to be
the place of the city of Angels in so far as the mind says it.
2. Based on Subject and Form
These subject and form are also called as essence and quiddity
metaphysically. The subject is the one who is spoken of, therefore it has or which
is looked upon as having a perfection or attribute embodied in it. While the Form
is that which an object exist as it is.
For example:
SUBJECT-glass’ness has quiddity, the glass’ness
-book’ness has quiddity,the book’ness
Form – dog has an animality that makes dog animal or a real animal
3. Based on Substance and Accidents
Substance comes from the Latin word “Substantia” means the existence in
itself without requiring another being as a subject of its inherence. It is the
existence of the form and not mere modifications of the subject which they
inhere to. These are being classified into two: namely, Absolute concept and
Connotative concept.
3.1 Absolute Concept- it denotes the meaning of a complete substance endowed
with its independent reality. When it signifies something to the mind, Absolute
concept becomes an Abstract concept.
For example: the absolute concept of a MOON is its brilliance;
The absolute concept of a dog is its animality
3.2 Connotative concept- It represents form without the subject. When it comes
to an English grammar, it tells something about the adjectives that being modified
to the subject. It is therefore in logic that, it signifies the object as an accident
existing in the substance.
For example: The wise man found Jesus in the manger.The word wise is used as a
modifier that modifies to the subject man.
4. Based on the Existence and Possession
In this concept, it tells something about assertive or denial; positive or negative.
4.1 Positive concept-it signifies the possession or the existence of something
For example: beautiful,happy,or love,etc.,
4.2 Negative concept-it denotes the non-existence or non-possession of
something.
For example: non-beautiful,non-happy,non-love,etc.,
TERM
What is a term?
A term is an external sign of a concept and last element of a proposition. A
term is oral if it is uttered and written if it is drafted. There are five types of terms,
namely:
1. Terms according to the kinds of concept
2. Terms as a last element of the proposition
3. Terms as a sign of a concept
4. Terms as to incompatibility with other term
5. Terms as to definiteness of meaning
1. TERMS ACCORDING TO THE KINDS OF CONCEPT
1.1 FIRST INTENTION AND SECOND INTENTION (Refer to the explanation of
concepts from the topic above)
1.2 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE TERMS
1.3 ABSOLUTE AND CONNOTATIVE TERMS
1.4 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TERMS

1.2.1. ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE TERMS

1.2.1.1 Abstract- Is a term which pertains to the abstract quality in form
only, thus it cannot be perceived by the senses.
Example:
Frugalness of a man
Faithfulness of a woman
1.2.1.2. Concrete- Is a term which pertains to the expressions of a form and a
subject.
Thus it can be perceived by the senses.
Example:
Strawberry Jam: You can taste, see and touch.
Jay-Em is tall, dark and handsome – Jay-Em embodies the abstract
quality of being handsome. You can see his height and color of the skin.
1.3 ABSOLUTE AND CONNOTATIVE TERMS
1.3.1 Absolute- it pertains to the definition of a complete subject which is based
on independent reality.
Example:
Every lily is a flower
Man is a rational animal. Man is a social being.
1.3.2 Connotative – it pertains to the object as an accident manifested in a
substance. It expresses a form only.
Example:
Singer
Teacher
Table, chair, book
1.4. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TERMS
1.4.1 Positive- it pertains to the possession or existence of something.
Example:
Knowledge,vibrancy,wisdom
1.4.2. Negative-it pertains to the non-possession or non-existence of something.
Example:
Ignorance,passive,arrogance
2. TERMS AS LAST ELEMENT OF A PROPOSITIOn
2.1 SUBJECT
2.2 PREDICATE
3. TERMS AS A SIGN OF A CONCEPT
3.1 THE SIGNIFICANT TERM- When it stands for his own existence. In English
grammar, the significant terms are the subject and the predicate.
3.2 THE NON-SIGNIFICANT TERM- When it does not stand for his existence like
the demonstrative adjectives and demonstrative pronouns, THE INDEFINITE
ARTICLE “THE” AND DEFINITE ARTICLES “A OR AN” USED AS MODIFIERS.
4. TERMS AS TO INCOMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER TERM
4.1 Contradictory- This is term which is mutually exclusive. Hence, the two
terms are in contrast with one another, without the possibility of a middle term.
For example: Legal-illegal,valid-invalid,correct-incorrect
4.2 Contrary- This is a term that is opposing to one another, similar to
opposition but there is the possibility of a middle term.
For example: small-large,hot-cold,ebony-ivory
4.3 Correlative-This is a term that is mutually related to each other. To the
extent of being dependent to one another.
For example: Bride- groom, master- slave, and teacher-student
4.4 Privative – These are terms that expresses one is perfect, the other is
lacking.
For example: Wealth-proverty,sight-blindness,hearing-deaf
5. TERMS AS TO DEFINITENESS OF MEANING
5.1 UNIVOCAL comes from the latin word “unus” means one infinitive verb of the
Latin word “Vocare” means to call, in short, to call one. A term with exactly the
same meaning at least in two occurences.
For example: Peter cultivates the plant. Plant is an ice factory.
5.2 Equivocal is a term maybe considered, if it exhibits difference in meaning
whenever it is used in at two occasions.
For example: His lover gave him a ring, The bell rings
5.3 Analogous Term, are terms that express partly the same and partly different.
For example: Peter stands in one food at the foot of the cross.
PROPERTIES OF TERMS
Terms are properly understood by its property. There are three properties
of terms, namely:
1. Comprehension
2.Extension
3.Supposition
1. COMPREHENSION come from the Latin word “comprendere” means to
understand. It is therefore, the totality of all essential characteristics belonging to
the given term.
For example: Man is a rational being. For instance, if we consider the term “man”,
we might predicate to him the character of a rational being with possessed
knowledge.
2. EXTENSION of the terms are terms that denote individual things or particulars
that express the totality of all the individual things or particular things for which
the essential characteristics belonging to a term can be applied.
For example the word President, what would be the essential characteristic of the
President? A President should be what? A ruler, a person of principle, elected by
the people, a leader of the country; therefore,in relation to the concept the word
President is connected to its comprehension. However, the essential
characteristics of the word President necessitate an extension of a term.
Therefore, the word President denotes his singularity, particularity and
universality. That is why; we have the classification of terms according to
extension.
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
2.1 UNIVERSAL
2.2 SINGULAR
2.3 PARTICULAR
2.1 UNIVERSAL
A term is a term which appliedto each member of a given class. For instance; all
leaves are green. The term subject “leaves” has a universal extension by the
virtue of its quantifier “all”. This denotes that everything that is “leaves” is
universal.
2.2 SINGULAR
A term is a term which applied only one specific object, individual or a group. For
instance, “He is a catholic priest.” The term “He,” in the given example denotes
that the subject is applied to one only person which happens to be a male.
2.3 PARTICULAR
A term is a term which appliedto an indeterminately designated portion of its
absolute extension. By the term “indeterminately”, we predicate a thing that is
not absolutely qualified. For instance,”some students are medical technicians”,
the subject term “students” is applied to undetermined number of “students”.
Weather the term is applied to two or more “students” the answer wil always be
speculative.
3. SUPPOSITION come from the Latin word “sub” means under and Latin infinitive
form of the verb “ponere” means to put. Therefore, it is to put under. This is also
a property of a term that acquires from its use in the proposition. There are two
kinds of supposition, namely; Formal Supposition and Material Supposition.
3.1 Formal Supposition uses the word for its real meaning. For instance,
Manila is the capital of the Philippines. We all know that Manila is the capital of
the Philippines,therefore Manila uses for its real meaning.
3.2 Material Supposition is a kind of Supposition that uses a word for itself
alone. For instance, UPH stands for University of Perpetual Help.
DEFINITION
What is a definition?
The word definition comes from the infinitive verb of the Latin word
“DEFINIRE” which means to enclose within a limit. Therefore, it is term that being
defined. It signifies an act of defining a term. It is not a proposition but a term,
because a proposition is composed of the complete subject and a complete
predicate. There are two kinds of definition, namely; Real definition and Nominal
definition that divided into four kinds such as nominal definition by etymology;
nominal definition by example; nominal definition by synonym and nominal
definition by description. There are five kinds of real definition namely: essential
definition, distinctive definition,genetic definition, causal definition and accident
definition.
1 Real definition come from the Latin phrase “definitio rei” which means
definition of thing. Definitio uses a noun followed by the word “rei” in genitive
case in Latin declension which denotes ownership means of thing. Basically it
means the nature of that thing. It manifests the intelligible structure of the thing
explicitly be the term to be defined.
1.1 Essential definition- It is a definition that is complete. It is the equivalent of
species, wherein it is constructed by genus and specific difference. It explains the
essence of a thing.
Example: Man is a rational animal.
A Triangle is a three sided-polygon
1.2 Distinctive definition- It is a definition that explains what a thing is. It is noted
for the attributes or properties of a thing.
Example: Man can drive automobile.
Oxygen is a tasteless,odorless gas, 1.105 times as heavy as air.
1.3 Genetic definition- It is a definition that pertains to the process of origin or
the production of a thing.
Example: Dengue is a tropical disease transmitted by the mosquito, causing fever
and pain the joints.
1.4 Causal definition-It is a definition that pertains to efficient and final cause.
Efficient cause gives the producer of a thing. Final cause means the purpose of a
thing.
a. Efficient cause- Gives the producer of a thing.
Example:
Askalz is the Philippine Football team created by the Philippine Sports
Commission
The book “Experience day by day with God” is written by henry and Richard
Blackaby
b. Final Cause- Gives the purpose of a thing.
Example.
Marriage is the union between man and woman for procreation and conjugation.
1.5 Accidental definition- this refers to a thing that may be contigently connected
with its properties.
Example:
The book is thick and voluminous
The table is made of wood
A good marriage is a product of Faithfulness and Love for each other.
2. Nominal definition comes from the phrase “definition nominis” which means
definition of names. Again, Nominis comes from the latin word nomens which
means name. It is in genitive case of the Latin declension “ nominis” which means
of name because it denoted ownership. This divided into four kinds namely;
2.1 Nominal definition by etymology defines the word from its origin in infinitive
verb. For instance, the word Philosophy comes from the infinitive of the Greek
word /philein which means to love and /Sophia which means wisdom, literally
speaking to love of wisdom.
2.2 Nominal definition by example denotes a definition by giving a term to be
defined. In this sense, it denotes its example. For instance, if an innocent person
asks, what is a laptop? Definitely show you him laptop; you are telling him that is
a nominal definition by example.
2.3 Nominal definition by synonym defines a word by giving words with similar
meaning. For instance, the word big is synonymously means large.
2.4 Nominal definition by description which denotes by describing the thing
signified by a term in order to indicate what a thing is that is being spoken of. For
instance, the word pen is used for writing and not to throw to the students.
Rules of a good definition
The following rules, excerpts from L. Buenaflor, have to be considered in
order to be able to identify whether the term to be defined is really appropriate
for the defining term or not.
1. Clarity – A definition should avoid vagueness or ambiguity. A highly theoretical
definition and figurative language most be avoided. It must be presented in a
terminology that an average person is likely to understand it must not be
misleading as well.
Example:
Obscure definition
Net is the reticulated fabric decussated at regular interval with
interstices and intersections.
Figurative definition
A clock is a time that heals and erases the memories of a painful yesterday.
2. Adequacy – A definition must be specific. It must not be to narrow or too
broad.It is said to be narrow if it prevents us from applying a term to all of the
things to which it cannot be applied. It is said to be broad if it allows us to apply a
term to things which it cannot be applied. It must also be interchangeable.
Example:
A wolf is a sheep killing animal
This definition of a “wolf” is too narrow because it does not include all
wolves,since there are wolves that do not kill sheep; it is also too broad because
the sheep killing is applicable to animals other than wolves.
3. Positive – A definition must not be needlessly negative. As a rule, opposition is
not an adequate way of defining terms. A definition must state what a thing is,
not what a thing is not.
Example:
A male is not a female.
Stupidity is the opposite of intelligence
4.Brief – A definition must not be circular. It should be specific and precise.
Example.
A preacher is the one who preaches.
A sewing kit is a kit for sewing