Music Education Research

ISSN: 1461-3808 (Print) 1469-9893 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cmue20

‘If I play my sax my parents are nice to me’:

opportunity and motivation in musical instrument
and singing tuition

Jennifer Driscoll

To cite this article: Jennifer Driscoll (2009) ‘If I play my sax my parents are nice to me’: opportunity
and motivation in musical instrument and singing tuition, Music Education Research, 11:1, 37-55,
DOI: 10.1080/14613800802547722

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/14613800802547722

Published online: 18 Mar 2009.

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Music Education Research
Vol. 11, No. 1, March 2009, 37
55

‘If I play my sax my parents are nice to me’: opportunity and motivation
in musical instrument and singing tuition
Jennifer Driscoll*

Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts & Human Sciences, University of Surrey, UK

Little consideration has been given to the factors which motivate children to take
up music tuition, or their reasons for giving up. In part, this is a reflection of the
limited extent to which children have been consulted directly in relation to issues
exclusively affecting them. This study considered opportunity and motivation for
young people taking up music tuition, and the most influential factors in their
decisions to discontinue. Young people aged 13
14 were surveyed by means of
questionnaires to 33 schools in one English local authority. The findings highlight
key issues in relation to equality of access and gender differences in take up and
discontinuation. Analysis confirms a sharp increase in discontinuation rates on
transition to secondary school. The most commonly cited reasons for disconti-
nuation are considered, together with the relative importance of family and peer
support amongst this age group.
Keywords: instrumental tuition; motivation; equality; discontinuance

Introduction
Considerable research has been carried out into motivation in a wide range of human
activities, but relatively little in relation to what motivates pupils to take up musical
instrument or singing tuition, and to discontinue learning. Susan Hallam (2002,
239), who has led research in the UK into musical motivation, summarised the
position thus:
(M)uch of the research into musical motivation has focused on the influence of the
family and to a lesser extent the teacher. There has been relatively little consideration of
what motivates pupils to take up playing a particular instrument and continue with
it . . . the role of peers, the school environment and the wider community in sustaining
motivation have been relatively little explored . . . These are important omissions in the
literature, which need to be addressed.

In a survey of the provision of music services in 15 English Local Authorities, the

Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) echoed these views in concluding that
‘(t)oo few music services explore in any detail the patterns and reasons for
discontinuation and are therefore not able to take appropriate action and address
these significant issues’ (Ofsted 2004b, 18).
Ofsted also commented that the need to attract funds appeared to be diverting
some authorities from their stated policies, particularly in terms of ensuring access,
inclusion and equality of opportunity (Ofsted 2004b). Although most music services1

*Email: Jenny.driscoll@kcl.ac.uk
ISSN 1461-3808 print/ISSN 1469-9893 online
# 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14613800802547722
http://www.informaworld.com
38 J. Driscoll

in England had a system of fee remission for pupils from low-income families, some
were very small and little consideration was given to supporting families whose
income was just above the relevant limit. The percentage of pupils entitled to free
school meals2 receiving tuition was low. Neither schools nor local authorities had
secure systems to monitor or promote access to lessons by pupils from low-income
families.
Since then, a variety of initiatives have been introduced in the UK to increase
access to music instrumental and singing tuition. The success of the Widening
Opportunities pilot programmes at Key Stage 2 (ages 7
11) in increasing interest in
music tuition (Hallam, Rogers, and Creech 2005) has led to the Key Stage 2 ‘music
entitlement’, and one year’s free whole class instrumental and vocal tuition has been
instituted for the 7
11-year age range. The Music Manifesto Report no 2 (2006)
recommends that every primary school child should be offered the opportunity of
sustained and progressive instrumental tuition.
However, it appears that the progress made in primary schools is rarely sustained
when pupils transfer to secondary school at age 11, when many abandon tuition
(QCA 2005). Ofsted found that the tuition provided by music services was
concentrated at Key Stage 2 (ages 7
11), and also noted ‘a clear and disappointing
reduction in the percentage of pupils continuing tuition in Key Stages 3 and 4’ (ages
11
16) (2004b, 3). The report suggested that relevant factors included the negative
impact of the transition to secondary school, lack of progress, negative peer pressure
and lack of opportunities for ensemble-playing, but found that music services did not
have in place firm systems to monitor or address the reasons for discontinuation.
The Music Manifesto Report no 2 (2006) recommends a more personalised
approach to learning for children aged over 11, and stresses the importance of
listening to young people and empowering them to determine their own musical
path. Such an approach was implemented by the Musical Futures3 project, which
introduced informal approaches to music teaching and learning in larger group and
class settings. The project sought among other things to improve pedagogy, and
address learner disengagement and hindrances to motivation (Price and Amore
2007, 8), and resulted in a number of significant findings at school level in relation to
this age group. Evaluation found that pupils responded positively to the inclusive
approach, in which they were treated equally as musicians and required to take
responsibility for their own learning, and concluded that pupils’ motivation
increased significantly (Ofsted 2006). However, although there has been a huge
increase in community musical activities over the last decade (Swanwick 2008), the
findings of the Musical Futures project suggest that reaching disengaged pupils
requires school involvement, and that circumventing school provision only attracts
students who are already motivated (Price and Amore 2007, 19). Ofsted concluded
that there was as yet little evidence of enhanced musical involvement outside the
project, including by increased take up of instrumental tuition (2006).
Extra-curricular tuition, however, remains central to instrumental and singing
lessons and it is still the case that little research has focussed directly on children’s
experiences of musical instrument and singing tuition outside the classroom
(Triantafyllaki 2005). Rostvall and West (2003) suggest that a perception that
musical aptitude is the most significant predictor of music teaching outcomes may be
responsible for a lack of consideration of drop-out rates. This study therefore aimed
to contribute to an understanding of young people’s experiences of music tuition by
 Music Education Research 39

consulting young people aged 13
14 directly, to elicit the most influential factors in
their decisions to take up and to discontinue instrumental or singing lessons.

Context
Whilst the context of the study is secondary schools in England, and some of the
issues relating to equality of opportunity reflect the availability of tuition, the
status of music education in schools is a matter of concern in many jurisdictions
around the world (Benedict 2006), whilst considerations of student motivation and
drop-out apply universally. It should be noted that because of their ages and the
time at which the research was carried out, the young people who took part in this
research had not had the benefit of the policies intended to increase participation
described above.

Research literature
Most people take up an instrument when in full-time education, often because it is
arranged on their behalf by their parents, or encouraged by their school. Others are
self-motivated by a desire to take a general interest in music further, or are motivated
by the fact that they have friends who play. For both boys and girls, the main reason
for starting to learn an instrument appears to be personal desire (MacKenzie 1991),
but there has been very little research on the relationship between motivation to
engage with instrumental lessons and the institutional learning environment, or how
cultural and societal factors mediate motivation to play or to continue to play a
musical instrument (Hallam 2002). Instrumental teachers regard the support of the
head teacher and class music teacher as crucial to effective instrumental teaching
(Hallam and Prince 2000).
Choice of musical instrument by or on behalf of children remains gender-biased
(Hallam, Rogers, and Creech 2008), although measured musical ability is similar in
boys and girls (Hallam 1998). Although girls appear increasingly willing to play
traditionally ‘masculine’ instruments as well as high-pitched ‘feminine’ ones, boys’
choices have remained stereotyped (Harrison 2007). These preferences are learned,
and can be manipulated (Bruce and Kemp 1993). The resulting pattern of instrument
choice has been found to limit some pupils’ access to worthwhile and musically
balanced ensemble experiences (Ofsted 2004b). In secondary schools in England,
around 60% of pupils receiving instrumental tuition are girls (Hallam, Rogers, and
Creech 2005), and Button (2006) suggests that at Key Stage 3 (ages 11
14), pupils’
attitudes to music in school reflect gender-stereotypical roles, with girls exhibiting a
more positive approach, and less anxiety than boys. However, whilst women’s
participation in careers in classical music has increased in recent years, they continue
to earn less as a group than their male counterparts and to remain in less senior
positions (Bennett 2008).
In the early stages of learning, relatively uncritical, sympathetic encouragement
is important, whilst for more advanced students, high-status role models may
enhance motivation (Hallam 2002). Parental support and encouragement is one of
most significant factors for young classical musicians (Sloboda 1991), and was also
found to be an important factor in a small-scale study of university students who
continued to play after leaving school (Chen and Howard 2004). The amount of
40 J. Driscoll

practice is a key variable in the determination of music performance, and parents

of high-achieving children generally support practice by supervision or encourage-
ment. However, as children become older they need to practise more independently.
Constant supervision is likely to lead to resentment and may be counter-productive
in the long term (Sloboda and Davidson 1996). Forcing children to practise,
discouraging them from doing so, being too critical or demanding, or having
unrealistic expectations, may negatively impact on motivation. Negotiating
individual practising contracts and asking students to keep written practice reports
can be effective, but although the support of parents and teachers is influential in
encouraging girls to practise, boys tend to be more influenced by their peers
(Hallam 2002). The most important attitudinal factor in levels of practising is the
individual’s self-determination (Hallam 2002), but even the most able individuals
find it hard to motivate themselves to rigorous practice (Sloboda et al. 1996).
Hallam (2001) identified three components to motivation: social motivation
(wanting to please others); intrinsic motivation (enjoying completion of a task for
its own sake); and achievement (wanting to do well). She asserts that the value
attached to a task by family, friends, school and society is crucial to engendering
motivation, but intrinsic motivation is a key to sustain motivation over time.
Schmidt (2005), however, found no significant correlations between motivation
variables and gender.
There is considerable research into adult satisfaction, but children’s satisfaction
has attracted much less attention. Duke, Flowers, and Wolfe (1997) found that young
piano students cited personal pleasure more often than any other extra-musical
benefit. Rife et al. (2001) assert that feelings of satisfaction are vital to continuing
with instrumental lessons because they act as positive reinforcement, providing
intrinsic motivation. They devised a Music Lesson Satisfaction Scale for children
aged 9
12. No significant differences were found in satisfaction scores between boys
and girls. However, children aged nine reported significantly higher levels of
satisfaction than children aged 12. Woodwind players showed higher satisfaction
levels than string players (most probably because of the greater technical difficulty in
playing string instruments). Children who liked to practise were more likely to be
satisfied with their lessons overall. Children seemed to appreciate the challenge and
concentration of music instrumental lessons and gained satisfaction from improve-
ment. The number of years of learning was not taken into account and the authors
warn against generalisation of the findings.
Hallam (2002) maintains that a study of drop-outs is crucial to a full
understanding of musical motivation. Studies including drop-outs suggest that those
who give up did less practice and attained less (Hallam 1998; Sloboda et al. 1996).
They may perceive themselves as unmusical, receive less family encouragement or
consider that their strengths lie elsewhere. Other explanatory factors include lower
socio-economic status, lower ability to understand instructions, and poor self-
concept in relation to general academic achievement (Hallam 1998). In a survey of
Local Authority Music Service provision in 2005 (Hallam, Rogers, and Creech 2005),
the estimated drop-out rate was 10% in the course of a school year. Explanations for
giving up included loss of interest (27%), the prioritisation of school work (14%) and
the competing demands of other extra-curricular activities (8%).
The existing research is predominantly psychological in perspective and has
generally not focussed on children’s lived experiences of music tuition. This study
 Music Education Research 41

endeavoured to adopt a more child-focussed approach by exploring young people’s

experiences of music tuition in terms meaningful to them.

Methodology
The study used survey methodology. All schools in one English county were
approached and asked to administer a questionnaire to one class of children aged
13
14. To boost the number of children who had played instruments within the
sample, schools with specialist performing arts or music status were informed that
their participation was of particular importance. Forty-two schools (55%) agreed to
take part in the research, although only 33 (43%) returned completed questionnaires.
In all, 820 questionnaires were completed, but there was a wide variation in the
number of pupils completing questionnaires in each school, from eight to 32,
indicating a wide range of pupil response rates. Most schools indicated that music
was taught in mixed-ability classes, but where this was not the case it was not always
possible to ascertain which ability group participated. This has implications for the
assumptions that can be made about the representativeness of the sample, and the
validity of school-level comparisons.
The questionnaire was piloted on a small group of slightly younger children, to
ensure that it could be readily understood by less able or less confident children in
the selected age range. An informal cognitive interview with the pilot group of
children was then carried out, to check their understanding of the questions and
instructions, and the questionnaire was amended before being piloted a second
time.
Of those who completed the questionnaire, 481 (57%) stated that they had had
instrumental or singing lessons outside normal class music lessons at some time
(excluding recorder lessons). This is far higher than would be expected from the
figures given by Hallam, Rogers, and Creech (2005, 2007) of 13% of children at Key
Stage 2 taking lessons, and Ofsted (2004b), which concluded that the proportion of
children having instrumental tuition peaks at age 11 at 14%, declining to 9% by age
14. The high proportion of children who had had instrumental lessons in the current
study is probably explained by several factors. Firstly, the county in which the study
was conducted is relatively wealthy, with a tradition of high standards in music
provision, and a very successful youth orchestra. Secondly, it is likely that schools
with stronger instrumental tuition were more likely to agree to administer the
questionnaires, introducing bias at the selection stage. Thirdly, five out of the seven
specialist performing arts or music schools agreed to take part. It is also possible that
pupils who chose not to complete the questionnaire were predominantly those who
had never taken up lessons. Finally, it appeared from notes returned with some
completed questionnaires that some teachers had selected ‘good’ music groups in
order to provide plenty of interesting information for the study. Although, the
sample is therefore not representative of the population in question, and is heavily
biased, a more equal balance of players to non-players allowed analysis relating to a
wider range of issues.
Error may have been introduced where routing instructions or questions were
misunderstood, or where respondents deliberately answered incorrectly. Children are
also prone to the primacy effect; that is, tending to choose the first of a variety of
options (Scott 2000).
42 J. Driscoll

Ethical considerations
Children are a vulnerable group of respondents, but also a group which is often not
consulted on issues affecting them. At all times regard was given to the need to
balance children’s vulnerability against their right to give their views and provide
information on matters pertinent to them. In addition to the University of Surrey
Code on Good Research Practice and the British Sociological Association Statement
of Ethical Practice (March 2002), regard was made to the National Children’s
Bureau (NCB) Guidelines For Research (2003) and the key considerations set out by
Alderson (1995).
Since the children were under 16, the consent of parents or gatekeepers was
sought in addition to that of the children themselves (NCB Guidelines for research
2003, 3). Letters were sent to the head of Music in each school as gatekeepers, and
they pursued the necessary procedure for consent within the school, which in some
cases necessitated the consent of the head teacher to the contents of the
questionnaire. Letters to parents were provided to schools with the questionnaires,
to be sent to parents before administration of the questionnaires, so that schools
could answer any concerns parents might have. Parents were asked to contact the
school if they did not wish their child to take part, and were informed that children
would otherwise be permitted to decide for themselves if they wished to participate.
The questionnaires included a preamble in simple terms to explain that the
questionnaire was anonymous and confidential and (in bold) that pupils did not
have to answer any questions they did not want to. This was discussed with the
children completing the pilot to ensure it was readily understood.

Findings
Overview of the data
Eight hundred and twenty respondents completed questionnaires: 454 girls, 364 boys
and two of unspecified gender. Thirty-three state schools participated, of which five
held specialist status in the Arts, Performing Arts or Music. One boys’ school
participated, and four girls’ schools; the remainder were mixed, including all the
specialist schools.
Of the 481 respondents who had ever had lessons, 271 (58%) still played at least
one instrument. Of the 339 (41%) of all respondents who had not had lessons, 117
(35%) stated that they would have liked to, a figure not dissimilar to that of 40%
reported by Lamont et al. (2002) in a study of nearly 1500 pupils aged 8
14. Nearly
two-thirds (64%) had tried out instruments, but there was no significant association
between the opportunity to try out instruments and the desire to have lessons among
respondents who had never had lessons.

Ethnicity
Eight pupils did not state their ethnicity. Of those who did, 13.8% were non-Whites,
comprising 36 mixed races (4.4%), 27 Asian (3.3%), 18 black (2.2%), 13 ‘other’
(1.6%) and 11 Chinese (1.1%). Cross tabulation showed a significant association
between ethnicity and take up of tuition at the 1% level: in particular, only 22.2% of
black children in the sample had ever had lessons (Table 1). It was not possible to
 Music Education Research 43

Table 1. Association between ethnicity and take up of music tuition (p B0.01).

Ethnicity

Have you ever had lessons? White Black Asian Chinese Mixed race Other Total

No
Count 286 14 12 5 11 1 329
% within ethnicity 40.6% 77.8% 44.4% 45.5% 30.6% 8.3% 40.7%
Yes
Count 418 4 15 6 25 11 479
% within ethnicity 59.4% 22.2% 55.6% 54.5% 69.4% 91.7% 59.3%
Total
Count 704 18 27 11 36 12 808
% within ethnicity 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

draw conclusions from the high take up rates of mixed race and ‘other’ ethnicity
respondents without more detailed information as to ethnic background. No
significance was revealed in relation to discontinuation and ethnicity.

Age
Figure 1 shows that take up rates increase from age three, peak at 11, and thereafter
decrease. Discontinuation rises dramatically from age 11, when children enter
secondary school. Age 14 is omitted from the chart as insufficient respondents had
completed their 15th year.
Cross tabulation demonstrated a significant association between age of starting
to play an instrument and the likelihood of discontinuation (pB0.01). Only first
instruments played were considered, since progress on subsequent instruments is
generally quicker and therefore more satisfying. Excluding children who had started
lessons at 13 or 14, who would not be expected to have discontinued so soon, the
optimal ages to start to learn to play an instrument are shown to be six or seven,

Frequency of take up and discontinuation by age

140
number of respondents taking up or

120 Started
Stopped
discontinuing tuition

100

80

60

40

20

0
Age 3 age 4 age 5 age 6 age 7 age 8 age 9 age age age age
10 11 12 13
age

Figure 1. Frequencies of instruments started and discontinued by age.

44 J. Driscoll

consistent with the advice of the County Music Service. Possibly children starting
very young may make such slow progress initially as to be demotivated, whilst
children starting somewhat older are frustrated by the limitations imposed by the
complexity of learning notation and technical mastery in the early stages.

Gender
A higher proportion of girls (62.1%) than boys (50.8%) took up lessons. This ratio is
much smaller than that reported by Ofsted (2004b) of three to two, but close to that
found by Hallam, Rogers, and Creech (2005, 2008) in a study of all 150 Music
Services of 60%. Studies from around the world consistently report lower
engagement in instrumental tuition by boys than girls (Green 1997). However,
45% of girls who had started lessons were no longer playing any instruments,
compared with 37% of boys, and at the time of the survey, 36% of girls and 33%
of boys were playing at least one instrument. Girls in this sample therefore appear
to be more likely to take up tuition, but less likely to continue, consistent with
findings by Lamont et al. (2003), that enjoyment of school music and participation
in formal instrumental tuition decreased more sharply for girls than boys at Key
Stage 3 (age 11
14).
There were marked differences between types of school. The take up rate among
the mixed schools was 47.6% (n 550): for the girls’ schools it was 77.6% (n 116),
for the specialist schools 75.2% (n 129) and for the boys’ school 72% (n 25). Since
only one boys’ school participated, it is not possible to ascertain whether this finding
applies more generally. That school had a discontinuation rate of only 28% of all
students who had taken up music tuition. For the four girls’ schools, and for the
mixed schools, the overall discontinuation rate was 42%. The five specialist schools
had a discontinuation rate of 37%.

Instruments played
There was a dearth of some key orchestral instruments, including the trombone,
oboe, double bass, viola and French horn, confirming Ofsted’s (2004b) findings
related to poor instrument balance for ensemble purposes. Instruments associated
with the pop music, namely the voice, guitar and drums, were popular. The only non-
western instruments were the veena, an Indian classical music instrument rather like
the zither, and the saz, a Turkish stringed instrument. Consistent with the findings of
Ofsted (2004b) and Hallam, Rogers, and Creech (2005, 2008), there was a significant
and strong gender bias in instruments played: 80% of guitar pupils, 91% of
saxophonists and 79% of drummers were male, whilst 76% of violinists, 70% of
singers, and 90% of flautists were female. A similar pattern can be observed around
much of the world (e.g. Sheldon and Price 2005).
There was a strong correlation between discontinuation and instrument played.
String players were most likely to give up, consistent with the study by Rife (2001).
This may be because stringed instruments are technically difficult to learn, but may
also have to do with their association with classical music. ‘Popular’ music
instruments
voice, drums and guitar
were the least likely to be discontinued,
and by age 13
14, these, together with the keyboard/piano, were the most popular
instruments. However, there was a significant association between the type of
 Music Education Research 45

instrument started and the age at which it was taken up (p B0.001). Singing, guitar
and drums were all more likely to be started when respondents were over 11. No
conclusions can properly be drawn therefore without considering discontinuation
when older.

School comparisons
There was a wide variation in take up rates between schools, from 13.6 to 96.0%.
Analysis was undertaken to ascertain whether this was related to affluence, in view of
Ofsted’s (2004b) findings, and the policy of the county (local authority area) studied
for limited remission of fees for families receiving social security benefits. The
percentage of pupils entitled to free school meals was used as a robust proxy
indicator of social deprivation because it relates directly to pupils’ families, rather
than to the demographic area in which the school is situated, and is conventionally
used in educational research (including Ofsted 2004b), enabling comparison with
other data. The median percentage of children entitled to free school meals in all
state secondary schools in the county is 6%. For the respondent schools it was 5%,
for the specialist schools 3.4%, and for the single sex schools 3%.
Linear regression (Table 2) demonstrates that (considered in isolation from other
factors), 51% of the variance in take up of musical instrument tuition in a school can
be explained by the variance in the percentage of pupils entitled to free school meals.
For every percentage increase in children entitled to free school meals there is a 3.7%
reduction in children taking up lessons. This should be of concern to policy-makers
who wish to promote equality of opportunity, although caution should be exercised
as the Anova output suggests the model is not a particularly good fit.
Regression of the percentage of respondents in a school wanting to have lessons
(of those who have not) with the percentage of pupils who play or have played was
also undertaken. Table 3 shows that for every 1% increase in the percentage of
children who have had tuition, there is a 0.5% increase in those who wish to do so.
There are two possible reasons for this. The respondents were aged 13
14 and peer
influence is likely to be a strong factor in decision making. Alternatively, it may be
that some schools have achieved an ethos in which music is able to flourish. This
issue could not be pursued further through the data from the study.

Table 2. Regression table showing relationship between the percentage of pupils entitled to
free school meals and percentage of children taking up music tuition.

Unstandardised Standardised
coefficients coefficients

Model B Standard error Beta t Significance

1
Constant 83.068 4.855 17.109 0.000
Percentage of pupils 3.689 0.667 0.716 5.531 0.000
entitled to free school meals
Note: Dependent variable: percentage of pupils who have ever had lessons.
46 J. Driscoll
Table 3. Regression table showing the relationship between the percentage of children who
have had instrumental lessons and the percentage of those who would like to.

Unstandardised Standardised
coefficients coefficients

Model B Standard error Beta t Significance

1
Constant 6.348 11.307 0.561 0.579
Percentage of pupils who 0.531 0.184 0.478 2.882 0.008
have ever had lessons
Note: Dependent variable: Percentage of pupils wanting lessons, of those who have not had lessons.

Young people’s perception of music tuition

The reasons most commonly cited for not wanting instrumental tuition (of those
supplied) were ‘I think it would be boring’ (n 108) and ‘I’m just not interested in
music’ (n 73), together accounting for over half of all responses (Figure 2). Ten
percent of respondents (n32) had tried instruments and did not enjoy tuition, and
4% (n12) taught themselves at home. Respondents were able to tick more than one
reason if applicable.
Qualitative comments added by young people mostly fell into three broad
categories. The first related to those who ‘couldn’t be bothered’, such as ‘I’m lazy and
wouldnt (sic) keep up with it’. The second comprised young people who appeared to
regard themselves as insufficiently talented to undertake lessons, including ‘I can’t
sing and am not a musical person’. The final category related to young people
all
boys
who did not see any point in learning, and/or had other interests, and
included: ‘You forget when older so what’s the point in learning: it’s true you learn
something but wouldn’t the money be better spent doing something else?’ and ‘I feel
music is pointless and is the reason our society is in the ruin [?] it is today and that it

Reasons young people have never wanted lessons

33%
0.35
Frequency reason cited

0.3
0.25 22%
0.2 17%
0.15 10%
0.1 8%
6%
4%
0.05
0
g

ic

it

ay

e
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us

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at
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/fa
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Reasons cited

Figure 2. Percentage response frequencies for ‘Why have you never wanted to have
instrumental or singing lessons?’ (n325).
 Music Education Research 47

turns us into mindless clones that copy what we see music stars doing on TV and in
videos’. The last comment appears to indicate an association of music at school with
popular music culture, rather than the western classical or world music traditions
that are also taught. This is in keeping with the types of instruments taken up by
older children.

Respondents who would have liked lessons

Figure 3 illustrates that expense was the most frequently reported reason for
respondents not taking up tuition, accounting for 39% of all responses.
Pressure of time due to participation in other activities was the second most
frequently cited reason. The relatively low response (12%) for ‘I don’t have time to
fit it in with all the school work I have’ was considered surprising, but was
consistent with reasons cited for discontinuation, and is doubtless more pertinent
for older children preparing for public examinations. ‘My parents won’t let me’ was
cited by one in 10 respondents, and, commendably, ‘My school didn’t offer lessons
in the instrument I wanted’ was rarely cited (9%), despite being used to
accommodate similar ‘other’ explanations, such as lengthy waiting lists (three
years in one case) for lessons at school. There was only one instance of a
respondent who stated that she wished to have Indian singing lessons, which were
not offered at school.

Reasons for discontinuation

Figure 4 shows the frequency of reasons given for giving up tuition.
The reason most commonly cited for giving up lessons was that they were boring
(19% of all responses, n 114); this was also the most frequently cited reason for not
starting. Youth Music (2006) reported that 40% of respondents to their survey of
7
19-year-olds who stopped playing said that they ‘got bored’. The quality of
teaching may be a pertinent issue. Ofsted (2004b) invited local education authorities

Reasons cited for not having lessons by respondents who

would have liked to learn
0.45
39%
0.4
Frequency reason cited

0.35
30%
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15 12%
10% 9%
0.1
0.05
0
Too expensive Other activities Too much school Parents would Lessons
work not allow unavailable at
school
Reason

Figure 3. Response rates for ‘If you wanted to have instrumental or singing lessons, why
don’t you have lessons?’ (n 146).
48 J. Driscoll

Frequency of reasons cited by respondents for

giving up lessons
Financial
difficulties
No group playing
No friends
played
Left school

Dislike exams
Reason

Too much
school work
Didn't get on
with teacher
Other activities

Dislike practice
Not much
progress
Lessons boring

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Number of times reason cited

Figure 4. Frequency of reasons cited for giving up music tuition.

to provide examples of good practice, and expressed disappointment that 31% of

lessons observed were only satisfactory, and 5% were unsatisfactory. Many lessons
observed by Ofsted were only 20 minutes long, and the deciphering of notation and
development of technique was found to dominate at the expense of opportunities to
improvise, compose, and develop aural skills and musicianship, or improve ensemble
skills. In the current study, 11% of respondents cited not getting on with their teacher
as one reason for giving up. Internal monitoring by local authority music services
(Hallam et al. 2007) judged 63% of sessions observed to be satisfactory in 2007; for
schools this figure was only 55%.
Too much school work accounted for 8% of responses (n59), whilst the
competing demands of other activities was cited in 12% of responses (n 8). This
compares with figures of 14% for school work and 8% for other activities found by
Hallam, Rogers, and Creech in their Survey of Local Authority Music Services (2005).
However, that survey covered a wide range of ages and data was collected from local
authorities rather than directly from young people, whilst in the current survey
respondents were able to identify a number of reasons for discontinuation, not just
the principal factor in their decision.
Expense as a reason for discontinuation accounted for only 1% of responses (n 
12), but this was clearly unfortunate for some individuals, as the following qualitative
comments illustrate: ‘Gave up piano at 13 at grade 6 as could no longer afford the
lessons’; ‘Will start singing lessons at GCSE again
gave up because too expensive’; ‘I
could not afford both ‘cello and singing’.
Several young people indicated regret or mixed feelings about giving up, and
others indicated unintended discontinuation had occurred upon their changing
schools (n39, comprising 5% of responses). Other miscellaneous responses
included embarrassment, a sense of ‘being pushed’, or forced by parents, and a
sense of social isolation (‘I didn’t feel comfortable there
the people were snobs’).
 Music Education Research 49

Young people’s experience of tuition

Respondents answered questions about their experience of tuition in the form of a
Likert scale. There were five response options from ‘true all the time’ (score 1) to
‘untrue all the time’ (score 5). Figure 5 shows that family support was high;
respondents agreed that their family were ‘supportive or impressed’ with their
musical activities in 85% of cases, whilst the same applied to friends in only 44% of
cases. Five percent of respondents indicated that they were teased or bullied because
they played an instrument or sung, whilst 86% disagreed with this statement all or
most of the time. Over half (58%) of respondents ‘hated missing break or other
activities’ for music lessons, and 53% ‘hated having to make up lessons I miss at
school’. Although 49% hated taking music exams, only 28% hated practising. Fifteen
percent felt that it was untrue to say that their teacher made lessons fun or
interesting all or most of the time. Sixty-eight percent found the progress they made
satisfying, 76% enjoyed playing in groups and 67% felt that there were lots of
opportunities to play or sing at their school.
All these variables were found to have a significant association with discontinua-
tion except for bullying and opportunities to play in groups. A binary logistic model
was fitted to assess the relative effect of the significant variables on discontinuation.
It was considered that the best-fitting model included only the variables relating to
enjoyment of lessons, support of friends and finding progress satisfying. Table 4
shows that for every unit increase in the score for enjoyment of lessons, the odds of
giving up increase 2.4 times, holding the other variables constant (high scores
indicate poor enjoyment). For every unit increase in score for support of friends, the

Experience of music lessons

"I hate having to make up lessons I miss at
school"
"I hate missing breaks/activities for music
lessons"

"I find the progress I make really satisfying"

"There are lots of opportunities to play/sing at

school"
"My family are really impressed/supportive of
my music"
Statement

"My friends are really impressed/supportive of

my music"
"People at school bully/tease me because I
play an instrument/sing"

"I hate practising"

"I hate taking music exams"

"I enjoy playing in groups/with other people"

"My teacher makes lessons really

fun/interesting"
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Percentage response

True all or most of the time Not sure/doesn't apply Untrue most or all of the time

Figure 5. Response rates for questions about respondents’ experience of music tuition.
50 J. Driscoll
Table 4. Binary logistic regression model predicting discontinuation from three variables.

B Standard error Wald Df Significance Exp(B)

Step 1(a)
lessfun 0.884 0.145 37.170 1 0.000 2.420
frsupp 0.460 0.125 13.492 1 0.000 1.584
progsat 0.349 0.150 5.422 1 0.020 1.418
Constant 4.689 0.540 75.505 1 0.000 0.009

odds of discontinuation increase by 58%, and for every unit increase in score for
finding progress made satisfying, the odds of discontinuation increase by 42%.
This analysis is consistent with the most common reasons for discontinuation
cited by respondents, save for the additional influence of peer support, which was not
included in the discontinuation response options.

What young people enjoyed most

Respondents were asked to number from one to three what they thought were the
best things about music tuition from a list of eight options. A points score was
calculated, with three points for the ‘best thing’, two for the next ‘best thing’ and one
point for the third-numbered item. Figure 6 shows the responses for each item and
the total points score.
It was considered somewhat surprising that ‘playing alone for pleasure’ was cited
the most number of times overall and scored highest in the points score in this age
group. It is consistent with Duke, Flowers, and Wolfe’s (1997) findings in respect of
piano students, but given the age of respondents, the proportion of instruments
designed to be played in a band or orchestra, and Ofsted’s (2004b) emphasis on

Best things about learning to play an instrument or

to sing
Number of times response

450
400
cited/points score

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
e

es

lo

s
am

on
ur

ou

ou

in

so
un

is
as

ss
gr

gr

ex

ov

g
tt
le

Le
in
a

al
ou

pr
g
rp

rm
rm
in

in

/im
ng
fo

ss

fo
g

fo
in

ng

r
ki
e

Pa
In

Pe
rm
on

or

si
W

po
al

rfo
g

om
Pe
in
ay

C
Pl

Response

best thing second best third best points score

Figure 6. What respondents liked most about music tuition?

 Music Education Research 51

ensemble playing, it was anticipated that group playing would have been the most
popular activity. Performing in a group was the second favourite activity, with
informal group-playing less popular than working out familiar tunes. In keeping
with findings from other parts of the questionnaire, lessons were the least enjoyable
aspect of playing. Passing graded examinations was perhaps surprisingly popular,
probably because it provides a clear marker of progress and achievement.
The satisfaction, confidence and sense of achievement derived from learning to
play an instrument were well-expressed by a number of female respondents, as
demonstrated by the following comments in the ‘other’ category of ‘best things about
learning to play an instrument’: ‘Feeling as if I have achieved something, mastering
new things and learning to control and harness my talent’; ‘Having courage to perform
and gaining more confidence’; ‘It is good to play an instrement (sic) because most
people don’t and when you can play an instrement really well, people are amazed that
you can do it and it feels good’.
Other ‘best things’ included ‘being able to play music I like’; ‘gigging/recording’;
‘Playing for my family’; and ‘if I play my sax my parents are nice to me’.

Concluding thoughts
Equal opportunity
Although the Music Service for the county surveyed appears highly successful in
encouraging participation in music tuition in general terms, over a third of
respondents who had not had lessons indicated that they would have liked to, and
the most commonly cited reason for not having lessons was that they were too
expensive. The primacy effect is not responsible for this result as the option was
fourth in a list of seven. This finding is reinforced by a negative linear relationship at
school level between take up of tuition and the percentage of pupils entitled to free
school meals, confirming the findings of Ofsted (2004b). A recent survey of local
authority music services provision for Key Stages 1 and 2 (Hallam et al. 2007) found
that the percentage of children eligible for free school meals who were accessing
music services remains lower than the national proportion. Similarly, Youth Music
(2006), in a survey of 7
19-year-olds, found that children from the most wealthy
backgrounds were approximately twice as likely to play an instrument as those from
the poorest families, and of children who wanted to play an instrument but did not,
about three times as many came from the lowest than the highest social grades.
School-level analysis from the current study suggests that free lessons for poorer
pupils may boost take up in a school generally. Responses from young people who
have not had instrumental or singing lessons raise some key issues relating to gender,
identity and self-perception.
Whilst the government’s commitment of £332 million over the next three years, to
allow free musical instrument tuition for every primary school child for a year and
encourage singing in schools through the national Sing Up campaign, is extremely
welcome, it is a pity that this commitment is focussed on younger children. Music is
an important part of the lives of most young people (North, Hargreaves, and O’Neill
2000), and Lamont et al. (2003, 230), whilst describing Key Stage 3 as ‘the most
problematic stage of music education in England’ concluded that attitudes of young
52 J. Driscoll

people in this age group to music both in and out of school are more positive than
previously thought.

Motivation
The study confirms the importance of intrinsic pleasure in music tuition, consistent
with Hallam’s (2001) assertion that intrinsic motivation is a key to sustaining
motivation over time, and attested to by the comments of respondents. This may be
worth remembering in the context of recent initiatives focussing on informal or non-
formal learning, primarily in large groups. ‘Performing in groups’, however, came a
close second to ‘playing alone for my own pleasure’ in the aspects of music tuition
respondents liked best, with working out familiar tunes and playing informally in a
group rated third and fourth. These findings confirm the significance of social
aspects of music tuition for young people.
Boring lessons and a sense of lack of progress were the most commonly cited
reasons for discontinuation. The importance of these factors in decisions to give up
was confirmed by regression using a different set of variables relating to young
people’s experience of tuition. Lessons were also least commonly cited as one of the
most enjoyable aspects of music tuition. Although family support was perceived by
respondents to be almost twice as high as that of friends, the latter is more significant
in predicting discontinuation.
Young peoples’ responses underline the importance of the pupil
teacher relation-
ship in tuition that often takes place on a one-to-one basis. Inter-personal relations
are of particular significance in adolescence, and the findings are consistent with
qualitative research raising concerns about the appropriateness of pupil
teacher
interaction and standards of musical instrumental tuition in Sweden (Rostvall and
West 2003).With regard to the UK, it is suggested that Ofsted’s (2004b) findings that
only about a third of instrumental teachers have a recognised teaching qualification,
and that few music services provide opportunities for the further professional
development of tutors, may be significant.
Negative peer pressure, cited as a reason for discontinuation by Ofsted (2004b),
was found not to be a significant factor in terms of bullying or teasing, but the level
of peer support was a significant factor in predicting discontinuation among this age
group. Although family support may be important for take up, and was high among
those who had tuition, the level of family support was not found to be a significant
predictor of discontinuation.
The study confirms that there is a sharp rise in discontinuation from the age at
which children start secondary school. Strategies to address this, including close
liaison between schools, as recommended by Tuning In (Ofsted 2004a), should be
considered.

Implications for further research

Key questions arise from the data in relation to equal opportunity, gender differences
in take up and discontinuation, and disparities in school take up rates in relation to
social deprivation indicators. It is of particular concern that over a third of children
who did not have lessons stated that they would have liked to.
 Music Education Research 53

There is considerably more work to be done in this area. In particular, this study
was not able to address the reasons for the wide differences in take up between
schools, and why tuition is less attractive to pupils in schools where there is an
existing low take up of tuition. A comparative qualitative study of secondary schools
in different circumstances, with different levels of take up of tuition and varied
opportunities to play or sing in ensembles, with input from pupils and staff, might
shed further light on school-level issues of involvement in music tuition, and explore
in more depth the reasons for the sharp rise in discontinuation at secondary school.
In addition, it will shortly be possible to assess the effect of the introduction of whole
class tuition at Key Stage 2 (age 7
11) on pupils’ perceptions of music tuition and
their motivation to continue through to secondary school. However, the key themes
of informalisation and personalisation of learning emerging from innovative projects
such as Musical Futures might usefully be applied in relation to individual tuition, in
which arena conventional formal and exam-focussed teaching has tended to
predominate.

Acknowledgement
This research was carried out as part of an MSc in Social Research Methods at the University
of Surrey.

Notes
1. Organisations, usually attached to local authorities, that provide instrumental and vocal
tuition for young people through the school system.
2. Around 21% of children in England are entitled to free school meals. Local authorities are
legally obliged to offer free school meals to children whose parents receive income support
or income-based Jobseekers’ Allowance, and to the children of asylum-seekers.
3. www.musicalfutures.co.uk

Notes on contributor
Jennifer Driscoll graduated in Music from the University of Cambridge before embarking on a
career at the Bar, in which she specialised in child law. She is currently programme director of
the Child Studies Unit at King’s College, London, where she runs a multi-disciplinary
postgraduate programme for professionals involved in children’s rights, child development and
safeguarding.

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