University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods

College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji

Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

First lecture

Petroleum Geology
1. INTRODUCTION
Petroleum engineers are responsible for planning and executing the
development and production of petroleum reserves. In most cases,
however, they are usually not heavily involved with the discovery,
delineation, and evaluation of new oil and gas fields. Those tasks are
normally carried out by the geologists, geophysicists, and petrophysicists
of an ―Operating Company‖ in its Exploration and/or Development
Department.
In this courses, we provide a brief overview of petroleum geology. We
begin with the formation of organic matter and the origin of petroleum.
We then discuss occurrence of petroleum systems, comprised of Source
Rock, Burial Depth and Temperature, Reservoir Rock, Migration
Pathways, Reservoir Seals, and Traps. Figure 1 depicts a petroleum
system with its different components. We elaborate on different types of
petroleum traps such as structural, salt related, and stratigraphic traps. We
then discuss various types of reservoir rocks such as clastic (sandstone
and shale) and carbonate rocks.
We conclude with geology, geophysics, and petrophysics, in connection
with reservoir geometry, volume, and assessment of reserves. In this
section, we discuss how geology combined with geophysical techniques
defines the geometry of a petroleum reservoir and how petrophysics is
utilized to quantify the reservoir quality and petroleum reserves.

Figure 1: APETROLEUM SYSTEM

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University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods
College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji
Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. FORMATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

With the notable exceptions of certain astronomers, most scientists, in the
petroleum industry, contend that petroleum resources are primarily
organic, in origin. Certain types of organic matter formed at the Earth’s
surface eventually produce hydrocarbons. The process starts with
photosynthesis in which plants convert water and carbon dioxide to
complex sugars (glucose) using the energy of the sun. Glucose is the
starting material for the synthesis of more complex organic compounds
either in plants or the animals that eat them.
Generally, most of the organic matter produced by photosynthesis is
eventually returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Only about one
CO2, molecule in every million taken up by photosynthesis is converted
to hydrocarbons. This recycling of CO2 is achieved by plant and animal
respiration and through oxidation and bacterial decay when organisms
die. However, the recycling of carbon as CO2 is not totally efficient in
that a very small amount (about 0.0001%) escapes and is buried.
Sediments, laden with dead (plant and animal) lake, or sea organisms are
heavier than water, and naturally deposit in the lower areas or basins
under the sea. These basins are originated by tectonic action and sea level
changes. When the sea level rises (relative to the base of a depositional
basin), the sediments are buried deeper. As ocean basins gradually fill
with layers of sediments, the weight of the newer layers increases the
pressure on the layers below. This weight, or pressure at depth, along
with heat, converts the organic material to oil and gas.
The primary source of the organic matter that is ultimately transformed
into oil and gas are the remains of phytoplankton; microscopic floating
plants such as diatoms. The best environment for the accumulation of this
organic matter is in quiet waters such as a swamp, lake, or deep ocean
basin. Here, the organic matter can lie buried without being disturbed.
However, to ensure its preservation and to prevent rapid decay, the water
conditions need to be stagnant and reducing (oxygen deficient or
anaerobic) thus eliminating the possibility of aerobic bacterial decay or
scavenging by fish, etc. Along with the organics, muddy sediment also
accumulates. Source rock starts life as an organic-rich mud, subsequently
to be converted to a claystone, shale, or marl.

3. ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
Petroleum hydrocarbons are complex substances formed from hydrogen
and carbon molecules and sometimes containing other impurities such as
oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. They come in many combinations and

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University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods
College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji
Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

types, from the petroleum products used in cars and other internal
combustion engines to natural gas used for heating and cooking. There
are ―light oils‖ and ―heavy oils,‖ wet gas and dry gas. However, what
they all have in common is an origin from organic matter; that is plants
and small animals that were once alive that have created the ―source
rock.‖ ―Source rocks,‖ the rocks that produce hydrocarbons, are rich in
particular types of organic matter. Chemical changes after burial convert
plant and animal tissue to the complex molecules that eventually produce
oil or natural gas by the effects of heat and pressure on sediments trapped
beneath the Earth’s surface over millions of years. The ancient societies
in Babylon, Egypt, China, and India made limited use of petroleum
mainly as fuel for lamps, medicine, and as caulking for boats, roads,
building and canoes. The modern petroleum age began a century and a
half ago. Advances in technology have steadily improved our ability to
find and extract oil and gas and to convert them to efficient fuels,
lubricants, and other useful consumer products.

4. OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM SYSTEMS

Petroleum systems occur in reservoirs within sedimentary basins—those
areas of the world where subsidence of the Earth’s crust has allowed the
accumulation of thick sequences of sedimentary rocks. Petroleum is
composed of compressed hydrocarbons and was formed millions of years
ago in a process that began when aquatic plant and animal remains were
covered by layers of sediments (particles of rock and mineral). As
bacteria and chemicals broke down the organic plants and animal
material, increasing layers of sediment settled on top. Heat and pressure
transformed the layers of sediment into sandstone, limestone and other
types of sedimentary rock, and transformed the organic matter into
petroleum. Tiny pores in the rock allow the petroleum to seep in. These
reservoir rocks hold the oil like a sponge, confined by other, low
permeability layers that form traps.

4.1 SEDIMENTATION AND DEFORMATION PROCESS

Before we get into petroleum reservoirs, it is important to discuss the

sedimentation process with which much of the oil and gas reservoirs are
associated. We also want to briefly discuss different geologic time
periods, how different geologic structures are formed and how such
structures have evolved over millions of years. Figure 2 shows a picture
of a geologic formation that is visible to us (outcrop). A typical outcrop,

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University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods
College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji
Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

such as the one depicted in Fig. 2, contains a vast amount of information

about many different tectonic movements, sedimentation processes,
uplifting, subsidence, deformation, and other evolutionary natural events
that geologists can uncover such historical events through various types
of modeling and testing of the hypothesis.
Subsequent chapters show how geophysical data can help geologists with
their analysis in building more reliable models. The evolution of
formation of geologic structures is accomplished through careful analysis
of natural processes, modeling, and various hypotheses.

FIGURE 2 A typical outcrop demonstrating different rock formations and

starta. Black Dragon Canyon

For example, Fig. 3 shows different time frames in which a

―disconformity‖ is formed. At the top of the figure, going back several
million years, the sediments characterized by ABCD were deposited
under the sea bed. Then (the second model from the top), the uplift of the
beds above the sea level, caused by tectonic forces, expose them to
erosion. Note the erosion has stripped away sediment package D and part
of C, creating an irregular collection of hills and valleys (model 3 from
above). Finally, at the bottom model, we note creation of a new package
of sediments marked as E created from subsidence below the sea that is
deposited on top of C.
The irregularity of C package is preserved as an unconformity. Later on,
we will see (e.g., when we discuss seismic attributes) how seismic data
and petrophysical information can help resolve different sediment
packages (chronostratigraphic units) and the corresponding
unconformities.

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University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods
College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji
Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

FIGURE 3 A Schematic view of the deformation, uplift and subsidence process.

From Levin (2013).

Similarly, different stages in the process of formation of the angular

conformity are demonstrated in Fig. 4. Figure 5 shows another outcrop
based on which geologists would interpret and come up with a plausible
assessment of how sedimentary breaks, or ―disconformities,‖ have
evolved. Here, we can see the flat layers of rock that at first glance look
like continuous layering of sediment. The two formations highlighted are
associated with the 20 million year gap between the ―Redwall‖ and the
―Supai‖ and the 150 million year gap between the ―Muav‖ and the
―Redwall.‖ This can further be confirmed by looking at the associated
fossils that allow us to determine the ages of the rocks and determine the
large gaps in the geologic times between the corresponding layers.
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University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods
College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji
Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

FIGURE 4: Formation of Angular conformity. From Levin (2013).

FIGURE 5 :A picture of Grand Canyon depicting the unconformities and the

associated geologic time.

4.2 GEOLOGIC TIMES

It is important to recognize that geologic times are associated with
different sedimentation processes over millions of years, corresponding to
different ―strata.‖ While due to the development of new dating methods
and refinement of previous ones, geologic time scales have gone through

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University of Kerbala Geophysics Methods
College of Engineering Assist. Prof. Dr. Ammar J. Al-Khafaji
Department of Petroleum Eng. Third Class
Petroleum geology
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

constant revisions, the main geologic times are somewhat well

established. Figure 6 shows a typical geologic timetable: the
approximately 4.6 billion years of the Earth’s life span are divided into
major intervals or geologic periods. For example, much older formations
(e.g., pre-Cambrian) are at the bottom of the geologic time with an age
range starting from 550 million years. The ―younger‖ sediments (e.g.,
those from Cretaceous period, belonging to the Mesozoic era) with an age
range of 65–144 million years (aka Myrs) are near the top of the geologic
age range.

FIGURE 6 :A schematic view of geologic times.