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Potwar Plateau, tableland in Rāwalpindi, Attock, and Jhelum districts, Punjab

Province, Pakistan. Lying between the Indus and Jhelum rivers and bounded on the north by the
Hazāra Hills and on the south by the Salt Range, its varied landscape is constantly affected by
erosion. Its elevation varies from 1,000 to 2,000 ft (300 to 600 m) in a system of residual hills
and hillocks formed from glacial debris as remnants of the Ice Age. The Kāla Chitta Range
thrusts eastward across the plateau toward Rāwalpindi; the valleys of the Haro and Soān rivers
cross the plateau from the eastern foothills to the Indus. Most of the hills and rivers are bordered
by dissected ravine belts. The streams, due to constant rejuvenation, are deep set and of little use
for irrigation. Agriculture is dependent largely on rainfall, which averages 15 to 20 in. (380 to
510 mm) annually; rainfall is greatest in the northwest and declines to arid conditions in the
southwest. The chief crops are wheat, barley, sorghum, and legumes; onions, melons, and
tobacco are grown in the more fertile areas near the Indus. The Potwar Plateau is one of the most
densely populated areas of Pakistan. It contains the ancient city of Rāwalpindi and the new
national capital, Islāmābād, built since 1961. The plateau is the location of Pakistan’s
major oil fields, the first of which were discovered at Khaur (1915) and Dhuliān (1935); the Tut
field was discovered in 1968, and exploration continued in the area in the 1970s. The oil fields
are connected by pipeline to the refinery at Rāwalpindi. Southern Balochistan is a vast
wilderness of mountain ranges, of which the Central Brahui Range is the backbone. The
easternmost Kirthar Range is backed by the Pab Range in the west. Other important ranges of
southern Balochistan are the Central Makran Range and the Makran Coast Range, whose steep
face to the south divides the coastal plain from the rest of the plateau. The Makran coastal track
mostly comprises level mud flats surrounded by sandstone ridges. The isolation of the arid plain
has been broken by an ongoing development project at Gwadar, which is linked with Karachi via
an improved road transport system. The Trans-Indus plains, west of the Indus
River, comprise the hill-girt plateaus of the Vale of Peshawar and of Kohat and Bannu, all of
which are oases in the arid, scrub-covered landscape of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Of these, the Vale
of Peshawar is the most fertile. Gravel or clay alluvial detritus covers much of the area and is
formed from loose particles or fragments separated from masses of rock by erosion and other
forces. Annual precipitation is generally limited to between 10 and 15 inches (250 and 380 mm),
and most of the cultivated area in the Vale of Peshawar is irrigated from canals.

Kohat is less developed than the Vale of Peshawar. Precipitation is about 16 inches (400 mm).
Only a small percentage of the cultivated area is canal-irrigated, and its groundwater is not
adequately exploited, although the water table is generally high. Much of the area consists of
scrub and poor grazing land. The region is much broken by limestone ridges, and the uneven
limestone floor is variously filled with lacustrine clays, gravel, or boulders.
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In Bannu, about one-fourth of the cultivated area is irrigated. Annual precipitation is low,
amounting to about 11 inches (275 mm). Fat-tailed sheep, camels, and donkeys are raised in
Kohat and Bannu; wool is an important cash crop.

The Potwar Plateau covers an area of about 5,000 square miles (13,000 square km) and lies at an
elevation of some 1,200 to 1,900 feet (350 to 575 metres). It is bounded on the east by
the Jhelum River and on the west by the Indus River. On the north, the Kala Chitta Range and
Margala Hills (at about 3,000 to 5,000 feet [900 to 1,500 metres]) form its boundary. Toward the
south it gradually slopes into the Salt Range, which presents a steep face rising to about 2,000
feet (600 metres) even farther south. The middle of the Potwar Plateau is occupied by the
structurally downwarped basin of the Soan River. The general terrain of the basin consists of
interlaced ravines, which are locally known as khaderas and are set deep in the soft Shiwalik
beds of which the whole area is composed. The surface layer of the area is formed of windblown
loessic silt, deteriorating into sand and gravel toward the hill slopes. The small Rawalpindi plain
in the north is the location of the twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

The Potwar Plateau receives modest annual precipitation, averaging between 15 and 20 inches
(380 to 510 mm). Though precipitation is somewhat higher in the northwest, the southwest is
very arid. The landscape is dissected and eroded by streams that, during the rains, cut into the
land and wash away the soil. The streams are generally deep set and are of little or no use for
irrigation. It is generally a poor agricultural area, and its population puts excessive pressure on its
resources.

The Salt Range is an extremely arid territory that marks the boundary between the submontane
region and the Indus River plain to the south. The highest point of the Salt Range, Mount
Sakesar, lies at 4,992 feet (1,522 metres). The Salt Range is of interest to geologists because it
contains the most complete geologic sequence in the world, in which rocks from early Cambrian
times (about 540 million years ago) to the Pleistocene Epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years
ago) are exposed in an unbroken sequence.
The Sialkot region is a narrow submontane area in the northeast. Unlike the Potwar Plateau, it is
a rich agricultural region. Precipitation varies from 25 to 35 inches (650 to 900 mm) per year,
and the water table is high, facilitating well (and tube-well) irrigation; the soil is heavy and
highly fertile. The population distribution is dense, and the land is divided into small farms on
which intensive cultivation is practiced.
References:
https://www.britannica.com/science/plateau-landform

Scientists divide the Earth’s land into what are called vegetation regions. These areas
have distinct types of plants, soil, and weather patterns. Vegetation regions can be divided into
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five major types: forest, grassland, tundra, desert, and ice sheet. Climate, soil, the ability of soil
to hold water, and the slope, or angle, of the land all determine what types of plants will grow in
a particular region.
Forest
Forests are areas with trees grouped in a way so their leaves, or foliage, shade the ground.
Forests can be found just about anywhere trees can grow, from below sea level to high in the
mountains. From tropical rain forests near the Equator to boreal forests in cold climates close to
the Arctic Circle, different types of forests can be found all over the world.
One way to classify different types of forests is by the type of trees a forest
has. Deciduous forests have trees with green leaves that change color in the fall and drop
altogether in the winter. Trees that are common in deciduous forests are oak and maple. The
northeastern United States is covered in deciduous forest, and tourists flock to the area
every autumn to experience the orange, yellow, and red leaves blanketing the region.
Evergreen forests have trees with leaves that stay green all year long. One of the places
evergreen forests can be found is on the opposite side of the North American continent—in
the Pacific Northwest, which includes the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S.
states of Washington and Oregon. The Pacific Northwest is full of evergreen trees like fir.
Sometimes forests are classified by the type of leaves on their trees. Trees in broad-leaved forests
have wide, flat leaves. Tropical rain forests are a type of broad-leaved forest. Tropical rain
forests, such as Brazil’s Amazon Basin rain forest, are found near the Equator. They contain
more than half of the world’s biodiversity, or variety of plant and animal species.
Coniferous forests have trees with cones and needles instead of leaves. Coniferous forests have
the tallest (coast redwood), largest (giant sequoia), and oldest (bristlecone pine) trees in the
world.
Many forests are mixed, meaning they have both broadleaf and coniferous trees.
The eucalyptus forests of Australia are mixed forests, for instance. The evergreen eucalyptus
trees are mixed with deciduous trees like beech.
Grassland
Grasslands are, as their name suggests, flat and open areas where grasses are the dominant type
of vegetation. Grasslands can be found on every continent except Antarctica.
Climate plays a role in the type of grassland you get. In cool, mild climates, like northwest
Europe, grasslands are dominated by tough vegetation, such as oats, that thrives all year. Some
of these grasses are so tough and hardy that they are considered weeds.
In warmer climates, seasonal vegetation survives better. Temperate grasslands exist where there
are seasonal variations in temperature over the course of the year: hot summers and cold winters.
Different grasses thrive in different temperatures here. Temperate grasslands exist from the
prairies of North America to the veld, or rural grassland, of South Africa.
Tropical grasslands are called savannas. They do well in weather that is warm year-round and
usually pretty dry. The most famous savannas are in Africa. Serengeti National Park, in
Tanzania, has three distinct types of savanna grassland: long grass, intermediate grass, and short
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grass. This part of the Serengeti is known as the Serengeti Plains, and it supports wildlife from
aardvarks to zebras.
Grasslands are important for milk and dairy production; dairy cows are happiest, and most
productive, in areas in which they can munch on grass all day.
Tundra
Tundra is an area where tree growth is difficult because of cold temperatures and short seasons.
Vegetation in tundra is limited to a few shrubs, grasses, and mosses. Scientists estimate roughly
1,700 different species live in the tundra, which isn’t much compared to forests and grasslands.
The ground is often too cold for plants to set down roots, and without plants, few animal species
can survive.
There are two types of tundra: alpine tundra and arctic tundra. Alpine tundra is separated from a
forest vegetation region by the tree line, the area beyond which conditions are too harsh or cold
for tree growth. The weather in alpine tundras is cold, snowy, and windy. Most of the Tibetan
Plateau, the so-called “roof of the world” located in Tibet, China, and India, is alpine tundra.
Animals like mountain goats live in this vegetation region.
Arctic tundra occurs in the far-northern hemisphere of the Earth. It has a bare landscape and is
frozen for much of the year. Here, the tundra can include permafrost, or soil that is permanently
frozen. Russia and Canada have huge areas of arctic tundra. During the summer, the permafrost
thaws just a bit, allowing some plants to grow in the wet, marshy ground. You won’t find many
mammals in the arctic tundra, but thousands of insects and birds show up every year and enjoy
the marshes before they freeze. Among the few mammals that actually thrive in the arctic tundra
are caribou and polar bears.
Desert
Deserts have almost no precipitation, or rainfall. In fact, deserts are specifically defined as areas
with an average annual precipitation of less than 10 inches per year. Deserts usually have really
high daytime temperatures, low nighttime temperatures, and very low humidity.
Desert soil is often sandy, rocky, or gravely. Plant life is highly specialized to adapt to these
coarse, dry conditions, with long roots, small leaves, stems that store water, and prickly spines
that discourage animals from touching or eating them. Cactuses, which are native to deserts in
North and South America, are an example of this kind of plant. Despite the barren look of hot
deserts, they are full of animal life. Most desert animals, such as lizards or snakes, are nocturnal,
meaning they are active at night. Nocturnal animals take advantage of the cooler nighttime
temperatures of the hot desert.
Not all deserts are hot and sandy, however. The largest desert in the world is the Antarctic
Desert, which takes up most of the continent of Antarctica. In the Antarctic Desert, ice sheets
cover barren rock. Few animals can live in the Antarctic Desert. Those that do are
often microscopic, such as lice.
Ice Sheet
The interesting thing about the ice sheet “vegetation region” is that there really isn’t any
vegetation there at all! An ice sheet is a large stretch of glacier ice that covers the land all around
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it for more than 50,000 square kilometers (20,000 square miles). Currently, the only ice sheets
are in Antarctica and Greenland. Don’t confuse the ice sheets, called polar ice caps, with other
ice shelves or glaciers; an ice sheet is much, much bigger.
Ice sheets are important research sites for scientists. The Antarctic ice sheet is a record of
Earth’s atmospheric changes. By looking at layers in the ice, scientists can keep track of different
levels of pollution or volcanic gases in the atmosphere. The 1883 eruption of the
Indonesian island volcano of Krakatoa can be located and dated by the distinct air bubbles in the
Antarctic ice sheet, for instance.
Scientists are also studying ice sheets to measure the rate of melting ice. Parts of the Greenland
ice sheet were once thought to be permanent, but they are now melting at a fast pace.
References:
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/vegetation-region/

The primary methods used to extract minerals from the ground are:

1. Underground mining
2. Surface (open pit) mining
3. Placer mining
The location and shape of the deposit, strength of the rock, ore grade, mining costs, and current
market price of the commodity are some of the determining factors for selecting which mining
method to use.
Higher-grade metallic ores found in veins deep under the Earth’s surface can be profitably mined
using underground methods, which tend to be more expensive. Large tabular-shaped ore
bodies or ore bodies lying more than 1,000 feet (300 m) below the surface are generally mined
underground as well. The rock is drilled and blasted, then moved to the surface by truck,
belt conveyor, or elevator. Once at the surface, the material is sent to a mill to separate the ore
from the waste rock.
Lower grade metal ores found closer to the surface can be profitably mined using surface mining
methods, which generally cost less than underground methods. Many industrial minerals are also
mined this way, as these ores are usually low in value and were deposited at or near the Earth’s
surface. In a surface mine, hard rock must be drilled and blasted, although some minerals are soft
enough to mine without blasting.
Placer mining is used to recover valuable minerals from sediments in present-day river channels,
beach sands, or ancient stream deposits. More than half of the world’s titanium comes from
placer mining of beach dunes and sands. In placer operations, the mined material is washed and
sluiced to concentrate the heavier minerals.
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Underlying physical and chemical processes of formation are common to many metallic
and nonmetallic ore deposits. A good deal of data is lacking about the processes of ore
formation, ranging from how metals are released from source rocks through transport to
deposition and post-deposition alteration. Modeling of these processes has been limited by
significant gaps in thermodynamic and kinetic data on ore and gangue (waste) minerals,
wall-rock minerals, and alteration products. With the exception of proprietary data held by
companies, detailed geologic maps and geochronological and petrogenetic data for
interpreting geologic structures in and around mining districts and in frontier areas that
might have significant mineral deposits are not available. These data are critical to an
understanding of the geological history of ore formation. A geologic database would be
beneficial not only to the mining industry but also to land-use planners and environmental
scientists. In many instances, particularly in arid environments where rocks are exposed,
detailed geologic and alteration mapping has been the key factor in the discovery of major
copper and gold deposits. Finding and Mining Minerals

Geologic processes create and concentrate minerals that are valuable natural resources.
Geologists study geological formations and then test the physical and chemical properties of soil
and rocks to locate possible ores and determine their size and concentration.

A mineral deposit will only be mined if it is profitable. A concentration of minerals is only called
an ore deposit if it is profitable to mine. There are many ways to mine ores.

Surface Mining

Surface mining allows extraction of ores that are close to Earth’s surface. Overlying rock is
blasted and the rock that contains the valuable minerals is placed in a truck and taken to a
refinery. As pictured in Figure below, surface mining includes open-pit mining and
mountaintop removal. Other methods of surface mining include strip mining, placer mining, and
dredging. Strip mining is like open pit mining but with material removed along a strip.

ove, below, or sideways – depends on the placement of the ore body, its depth, concentration of
ore, and the strength of the surrounding rock.

Underground mining is very expensive and dangerous. Fresh air and lights must also be brought
into the tunnels for the miners, and accidents are far too common.

Ore Extraction

The ore’s journey to becoming a useable material is only just beginning when the ore leaves the
mine (Figure below). Rocks are crushed so that the valuable minerals can be separated from the
waste rock. Then the minerals are separated out of the ore. A few methods for extracting ore are:
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 heap leaching: the addition of chemicals, such as cyanide or acid, to remove ore.
 flotation: the addition of a compound that attaches to the valuable mineral and floats.
 smelting: roasting rock, causing it to segregate into layers so the mineral can be extracted.

Mining and the Environment

Although mining provides people with many needed resources, the environmental costs can be
high. Surface mining clears the landscape of trees and soil, and nearby streams and lakes are
inundated with sediment. Pollutants from the mined rock, such as heavy metals, enter the
sediment and water system. Acids flow from some mine sites, changing the composition of
nearby waterways.

Valuable Minerals

Some minerals are valuable because they are beautiful. Jade has been used for thousands of years
in China. Diamonds sparkle on many engagement rings. Minerals like jade, turquoise, diamonds,
and emeralds are gemstones. A gemstone, or gem, is a material that is cut and polished for
jewelry.

References:
https://www.nap.edu/read/10318/chapter/5

The livestock sector plays a vital role in the economies of many developing countries.It provides
food or more specifically animal protein in human diets, income,employment and possibly
foreign exchange. For low-income producers, livestock alsoserves as a store of wealth; provide
draught power, and organic fertilizer for cropproduction as well as means of transport.Milk
provides relatively quick returns for small-scale livestock keepers. It is abalanced nutritious food
and is a key element in household food security.Smallholders produce the vast majority of milk
in developing countries where demandis expected to increase by 25% by 2025. Dairy imports to
developing countries haveincreased in value by 43% between 1998 and 2001. Informal market
traders handleover 80% of milk consumed in developing countries. Two thirds of total world
milk isproduced by Brazil, India, Pakistan, Poland, Russian Federation, USA, and 15 EUmember
states. Developing countries produced one third of total world milkproduction in 2000 (216
million metric tones) and it is increasing. Various animalsincluding buffalos, cows, sheep and
goats produce milk. Total world milk productionis dominated by cow‟s milk followed by
buffalo, goat and sheep.There is a dearth of research and documentation regarding the dairy
sector in Pakistan.No serious effort has been made to understand dynamics of this important
sector. Itsimportance could be judged from the fact that in terms of market value, itscontribution
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to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) surpasses all the major crops.Pakistan is the fourth largest
milk producer in the world. About a third of the totalmilk produced by the rural families flows
out to urban consumers and processingindustries. In urban areas milk is available to common
consumers in two ways: loose unprocessed milk and packed/ processed milk. The livestock
sector plays a vital role in the economies of many developing countries.It provides food or more
specifically animal protein in human diets, income,employment and possibly foreign exchange.
For low-income producers, livestock alsoserves as a store of wealth, provide draught power, and
organic fertilizer for cropproduction as well as means of transport.Milk provides relatively quick
returns for small-scale livestock keepers. It is abalanced nutritious food and is a key element in
household food security.Smallholders produce the vast majority of milk in developing countries
where demandis expected to increase by 25% by 2025. Dairy imports to developing countries
haveincreased in value by 43% between 1998 and 2001. Informal market traders handleover 80%
of milk consumed in developing countries. Two thirds of total world milk isproduced by Brazil,
India, Pakistan, Poland, Russian Federation, USA, and 15 EUmember states. Developing
countries produced one third of total world milkproduction in 2000 (216 million metric tones)
and it is increasing. Various animalsincluding buffalos, cows, sheep and goats produce milk.
Total world milk productionis dominated by cow‟s milk followed by buffalo, goat and
sheep.There is a dearth of research and documentation regarding the dairy sector in Pakistan.No
serious effort has been made to understand dynamics of this important sector. Itsimportance
could be judged from the fact that in terms of market value, Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
surpasses all the major crops.Pakistan is the fourth largest milk producer in the world. About a
third of the totalmilk produced by the rural families flows out to urban consumers and
processingindustries. In urban areas milk is available to common consumers in two ways: loose
/unprocessed milk and packed/ processed milk.History:Livestock sector in Pakistan contributes
almost 50 percent to the value addition in theagriculture sector, and almost 11 percent to GDP,
which is higher than thecontribution made by the crop sector (47.4% in agriculture and 10.3% in
GDP). Therole of livestock sector in the rural economy is very crucial as 30-35 million
ruralpopulation of the country is engaged in this sector for its livelihood. Within thelivestock
sector, milk is the largest and the single most important commodity.Pakistan also has an
industrial production capacity of approximately 47.5 million litersper year of ice cream.Pakistans
dairy industry is plagued by a number of problems which include lack ofcommercial dairy farms,
low productivity due to poor nutrition, a weak infrastructure,lack of financial facilities, and the
ready availability of raw milk to a poor anduneducated population. Although Pakistan was
ranked fourth among the five leadingmilk producing countries in the world, with an estimated 24
million animals havingproduced closely to 28 million tons of milk in year 2003 and over 31
million tonsduring 2005-06 as the 5th largest producer of milk in the world, its yield per animal
isonly one-fifth of that of Western Europe.Government, after ignoring the dairy sector has taken
cognizance if the importance ofthe dairy sector and embarked upon a number of initiatives to
boost the dairy sector.Under the new programmes, Pakistan government has created National
DairyDevelopment Board (NDDB) and Livestock & Dairy Development Board
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(LDDB).Following are some of such initiatives.During the years 2002-2005 milk and milk
products worth US $ 10.167 million wereexported from Pakistan. Pakistan imports dry/powered
milk from Eastern Europe, andCentrally Independent States (CIS).
Meat (le-viande)
Meat is probably the most important ford obtained from flesh of beef, veal, mutton, lamb and
pork. They are domesticated primarily to be slaughtered and eaten. It is a good source of protein,
which we need for out body growth and repair.

The animals for meat are slaughtered as per the butchery steps. For that, they are inspected and
selected to disinfected and quality meat. At the first step, they are given rest (20-24 hours) and
plenty of water without feeding any thing. It helps in easy bleeding and retards bacterial
infection. The second step is stunning (unconscious) the animal by electric shocks or putting
them in a carbon dioxide chamber of be easily killed. And the third step is flaying
and cleaning the killed animal.

After slaughtering it is generally hung of between 3-10 days depending on the type and quality of
the carcass. This allows natural enzymes to tenderize the flesh. The carcass of beef is split into
two sides and those of lamb, sheep, pigs and calves are left whole. Then the carcass if kept in
cool room before being sent to market.

Meat cuts are composed of muscled, tissues, fat and bones. The proportion of composition
depends on:

-Type of animal
-The age of animals
-The type of food on which the animal lived and lastly, the part of the carcass from which the cut
is taken.

By their nature and composition, certain cuts of meat are most appropriate for certain methods of
preparation. It is very essential for the catering personnel to know how to choose correct meat
cuts and the recommended temperature for their preparation.
References:
https://veteriankey.com/the-importance-of-livestock/