You are on page 1of 3

The

 Intelligent  Investor  
Chapter  4:  General  Portfolio  Policy:  The  Defensive  Investor  
• The  characteristics  of  an  investment  portfolio  are  determined  by  the  financial  position  and  
individual  characteristics  of  the  owner  
• Conventional  wisdom  says  that  the  rate  of  return  an  investor  should  aim  for  is  proportionate  
to  the  amount  of  risk  he  is  willing  to  take  on  
• Graham  disagrees  with  this  notion  and  believes  that  expected  rate  of  return  is  dependent  on  
the  amount  of  intelligent  effort  the  investor  is  willing  to  apply    
• The  passive,  or  defensive,  investor  should  expect  the  smallest  rate  of  return  due  to  his  
preference  for  safety  and  freedom  from  concern  
• The  enterprising  investor  who  maximizes  skill  and  intelligence  should  expect  to  achieve  the  
largest  rate  of  return  
• A  common  stock  issuance  purchased  at  a  bargain  price  can  offer  less  real  risk  than  a  high  
grade  bond  purchased  at  full  price  
• As  established  in  previous  chapters  it  is  a  fundamental  rule  that  the  investor  should  never  
have  less  than  25%  or  more  than  75%  of  his  portfolio  in  common  stocks  
• In  times  of  uncertainty  a  default  50%  allocation  to  each  asset  class  is  recommended  
• If  the  investor  has  conviction  that  stocks  are  trading  at  bargain  levels  he  would  then  increase  
his  allocation    
• Conversely,  if  the  investor  believes  stocks  are  overvalued  he  would  reduce  his  allocation  to  
equities  and  favor  bonds  
• This  is  a  difficult  task  because  it  requires  the  investor  to  increase  his  stock  allocation  after  a  
market  decline  and  reduce  his  stock  allocation  after  a  market  rally  
• In  addition  to  conviction  the  investor  must  also  make  sure  that  he  has  the  correct  emotional  
composure  to  deal  with  large  market  declines  before  he  increases  his  common  stock  
allocation  
• The  investor  must  also  rebalance  his  portfolio  to  keep  the  desired  allocation  intact    
• Graham  uses  the  ratio  of  dividend  yield  on  common  stock  to  coupon  rate  of  high  quality  
taxable  bonds  as  a  valuation  measure  
• To  keep  his  portfolio  in  50%  equilibrium  he  wants  the  dividend  yield  on  a  common  
stock  to  be  at  two  thirds  of  the  coupon  rate  of  a  high  quality  taxable  bond  
• When  choosing  bonds  the  investor  should  have  two  main  questions  
• Should  he  buy  taxable  or  tax-­‐free  bonds?  
• Should  he  consider  shorter  or  longer  term  maturities?  
• If  the  investor  is  in  a  high  tax  bracket  that  will  make  his  after  tax  yield  lower  than  tax  free  
bonds  he  should  stick  with  tax  free  bonds  
• When  deciding  on  the  correct  maturity  length  of  his  bonds  the  investor  should  decide  
between  the  loss  of  appreciable  value  and  a  lower  annual  yield  
• A  shorter  term  maturity  bond  will  yield  less,  but  be  less  prone  to  swings  in  valuation  
• A  longer  term  maturity  bond  will  yield  more,  but  be  susceptible  to  more  volatile  
price  movements  
• Types  of  bonds  (as  of  1972)  
• U.S.  Savings  Bond  Series  E  and  H  
§ Series  H  Bonds  pay  interest  semi-­‐annually  
§ Series  E  Bonds  are  purchased  at  75%  of  face  value  and  mature  at  100%  of  
face  value  
• Interest  is  not  paid  out  until  maturity  
• Other  United  States  Bonds  
§ Indirect  obligations  of  the  U.S.  government  offer  more  yield  than  direct  
obligations  
§ These  indirect  obligations  are  issued  by  departments  of  the  government,  
like  the  Security  of  Transportation,  but  are  backed  by  the  full  faith  and  
credit  of  the  U.S.  government    
§ This  allows  Congress  to  stay  under  their  debt  limits  because  guarantees  are  
not  considered  the  same  as  debts    
• State  and  Municipal  Bonds  
§ These  bonds  are  free  of  Federal  income  tax  and  income  tax  in  the  state  
which  they  are  issued  
§ They  are  either  direct  obligation  bonds  or  revenue  bonds  
• Revenue  bonds  are  backed  by  a  particular  project  such  as  a  toll  
road  or  a  bridge  
§ Not  all  of  these  issues  are  suitable  for  the  defensive  investor  
• Corporation  Bonds  
§ These  bonds  are  subject  to  Federal  and  State  tax  
§ They  are  issued  by  corporations  and  have  a  higher  claim  on  assets  in  
bankruptcy  than  common  stock  
§ Graham  recommends  that  the  defensive  investor  avoid  high  yield  bonds  
• Savings  Deposits  in  Lieu  of  Bonds  
§ Depending  on  the  interest  rate  environment  savings  deposits  may  yield  
more  than  first-­‐grade  bonds  of  short  maturity  
• Graham  also  warns  the  investor  against  call  provisions  which  give  the  issuer  the  right  to  buy  
back  the  bond  slightly  above  maturity  if  prices  rise  and  yields  decline    
• This  is  unfavorable  to  the  investor  because  during  times  of  price  declines  the  
investor  bears  the  losses,  but  during  times  of  price  gains  the  investor  is  not  able  to  
achieve  the  upside  
• Investors  should  sacrifice  small  amounts  of  yield  in  order  to  avoid  call  provisions  for  
at  least  20  years  
• Preferred  stocks  according  to  Graham  are  an  inherently  bad  investment  form  
• The  preferred  holder’s  dividend  is  dependent  on  the  company’s  ability  to  pay  a  
dividend  on  its  common  stock  
• The  preferred  stock  holder  is  entitled  to  nothing  above  his  fixed  dividend  rate  
• Therefore  he  lacks  the  legal  claim  of  the  bondholder  and  the  profit  possibilities  of  
the  common  stock  owner  
• They  also  suffer  from  a  disadvantageous  tax  treatment  for  individual  investors  
• A  preferred  stock  also  has  no  fixed  maturity  date  at  which  the  principal  must  be  
returned    
• Bondholders  should  demand  the  following  two  features  
• Unconditional  right  to  receive  interest  when  it  is  earned  by  the  company  
• Rights  to  other  forms  of  protection  than  bankruptcy  proceedings  if  interest  is  not  
paid    
• Commentary  on  Chapter  4  
• “When  you  leave  it  to  chance,  then  all  of  a  sudden  you  don’t  have  any  more  luck.”  –  Pat  
Riley  
• There  are  two  methods  to  being  an  intelligent  investor  
§ by  continually  researching,  selecting  and  monitoring  a  mix  of  stocks  and  
bonds  
§ or  by  creating  a  permanent  portfolio  that  runs  on  autopilot  and  requires  no  
further  effort  
• The  first  approach  is  active  or  enterprising  investing    
§ This  method  requires  an  abundance  of  effort  and  energy  
• The  second  approach  is  passive  or  defensive  investing    
§ This  method  requires  little  time  and  effort,  but  demands  emotional  
detachment  and  discipline  from  the  swings  of  the  market  
• Graham’s  distinction  between  active  and  passive  investing  is  a  reminder  that  
financial  risk  lies  primarily  with  the  investor  himself  
• When  Graham  discusses  portfolio  allocation  between  stocks  and  bonds  notice  that  
he  never  mentions  the  investors  age  
§ Conventional  wisdom  is  that  the  younger  the  investor  the  greater  the  
portion  of  their  portfolio  that  should  be  in  stocks  
§ Conversely,  older  investors  should  be  more  heavily  weighted  toward  bonds  
• Because  unexpected  circumstances  can  occur  at  any  time  it  is  advisable  for  the  
investor  to  have  some  portion  of  their  portfolio  in  cash  
• One  of  the  greatest  challenges  investors  face  is  having  the  emotional  fortitude  to  
stay  with  their  investment  allocation  in  the  face  of  market  declines  
• Graham’s  approach  is  based  on  replacing  guesswork  with  discipline  
• Rebalancing  your  portfolio  should  be  done  on  a  predictable  and  patient  schedule  
§ The  author  recommends  every  six  months  
• Unless  an  investor  is  in  the  lowest  tax  bracket  they  should  hold  tax  free  municipal  
bonds  
§ The  exception  is  in  a  401(k)  which  is  sheltered  from  taxes  
• Bonds  with  intermediate  maturities,  five  to  ten  years,  are  a  nice  way  to  balance  yield  
with  price  volatility    
• Bond  funds  offer  investors  with  smaller  sums  of  investable  assets  the  opportunity  to  
diversify  their  holdings  
§ This  is  often  not  possible  with  individual  bonds  because  they  are  sold  in  
$10,000  lots  
• Cash  is  not  trash  and  should  make  up  a  portion  of  every  investors  portfolio  
• Types  of  bonds  
§ Treasury  securities  are  obligations  of  the  U.S.  government  and  carry  very  
little  credit  risk  
• The  government  can  raise  taxes  or  print  more  money  in  order  to  
meet  its  obligations  
• These  bonds  are  taxed  at  the  federal,  but  not  state  level  
§ Savings  bonds  are  similar  to  Treasuries,  but  they  can’t  be  sold  to  other  
investors  making  them  suitable  only  for  money  that  does  not  need  to  be  
liquidated  in  the  near  future  
§ Mortgage  securities  are  thousands  of  individual  home  loans  that  are  pooled  
together  by  agencies  like  Fannie  Mae  and  Ginnie  Mae  
• They  aren’t  backed  by  the  U.S.  government  so  they  carry  higher  
yields  
• Other  yield  alternatives  
§ Preferred  shares,  which  are  less  secure  than  bonds  and  offer  less  profit  
potential  than  common  stocks  
§ Common  stocks  with  dividend  yields  can  provide  more  yield  than  Treasury  
bonds  in  a  low  interest  rate  environment  

You might also like