UNIT 3 URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS

The previous unit focused on the transport planning process and identified the
various steps involved in the process. It also looked at the role public participation
plays in the process as well as its importance.

Unit 3 will now look at the development of cities and more specifically identify the
transport problems that can occur in an urban area. As cities develop due to an
increase in population, more people need to move around and this can cause
various problems. One big problem that many cities around the world face is
congestion and in this unit the reasons for congestion will also be addressed as well
as the importance of integrated transport planning.

The following topics will be addressed in this unit:

Topic 3.1: Development of cities

Topic 3.2: Identification of urban transport problems
Topic 3.3: Reasons for congestion
Topic 3.4: Lack of integrated urban transport planning and the effects
Topic 3.5: Summary

Outcomes that will be covered in this unit

 At the end of this unit the student is expected to:
 Describe the development of cities
 Identify and explain the various types of urban transport problems
 Explain the reasons for congestions in urban areas
 Evaluate the effect of a lack of / inadequate integrated transport planning

Introduction:
In the previous unit it became clear that proper transport planning can result in
implementing transport systems and services to ensure the efficient movement of
people in cities. It is however also necessary to understand how cities develop and
what role transport plays at each stage of development.

Topic 3.1 Development of cities

In order to explain the development of cities, a conceptual analysis of an urban area

of changing population and size will be used. It is illustrated by a residential area that
grows from a small settlement to a larger metropolitan area. As the area develop,
requirements for transport change from low volume, dispersed travel to high volume,
heavily concentrated travel along major arterials. This analysis encompasses four
growth periods, which include small settlements, towns, medium-sized cities and
large cities. For clarification it is important to understand that these four areas are not
precisely defined, nor are different modes employed strictly by area population.

Before describing the optimal sequence of modes, it is important to first understand

the “categories of separation” between public transport and regular street traffic. This
is important because the capacity of and average speed of a mode is greatly
influenced by the separation. Three categories of separation can be observed:

3.1.1 Right-of-Way Category A

This category accommodates the ultimate in systems, both in terms of carrying

capacity and safety, in that an exclusive right-of-way is given along its total length
with no pedestrian or vehicle conflict. It may be either elevated, at surface level, or
underground, depending on availability of space and land values.

3.1.2 Right-of-Way Category B

By longitudinally separating the right-of-way from other traffic by devices such as

kerbs, barriers and fences, the capacity of the system can be dramatically increased
and pedestrian vehicle conflict limited to intersections where it can be minimised by
orderly control of using traffic signal systems. Far higher average and overall
operating speeds can be maintained and a clear advantage in terms of travel time is
achieved, especially in congested city town streets.

3.1.3 Right-of-Way Category C

Systems that fall into this category are predominantly at-grade with sections of the
right-of-way shared with other users. The operational safety of the system is entirely
the responsibility of the driver; consequently vehicles must have braking
characteristics similar to those of ordinary road vehicles. Nevertheless, some degree
of priority can be given at traffic signal controlled intersections to give preference
over normal vehicular traffic.

A version of category B in Croydon, London, where trams run along a partially reserved right
of way
 An example of category C in Melbourne, Australia
This photo serves to illustrate that even rail transport can operate in category C conditions

3.1.4 Transport System Evolution

Now that the difference between the categories of separation is clear, the analysis of
the development of an urban area can be described in more detail. As mentioned
before a settlement usually develop along the following 4 stages and this will now be
analysed in more detail:

i. Small settlement

Step 1: Walking
Starting from the very beginning, the model represents a small settlement consisting
of a few residences, factories, and other buildings, connected by a network of paths.
The small number of short trips among different buildings in this settlement can best
be performed by walking.

Step 2: Private Cars

As the settlement grows in size, walking takes too long and is uncomfortable. A new
mode of transportation is needed for the longer trips. The few dispersed trips would
be best served by private motor vehicles which individual persons own and use for
travel to any place at any time they desire. These vehicles are able to use the
existing network of narrow paths without too much disruption to pedestrians or to
each other. The vehicles satisfy the transportation needs of small settlements
extremely well: they provide flexible, comfortable, and economical transportation at
all times. Their limitations are that they are available only to the persons who firstly,
can afford to own or rent such a vehicle, and secondly are able to drive a vehicle.

Step 3: Common Carriers (Taxis)

A further improvement in the transportation system would be to provide some kind of
motorised travel for people who do not meet the foregoing two conditions. This is
achieved most efficiently by the introduction of a common carrier service. In a small
settlement the best solution for this would be to introduce vehicles operated by
professional drivers, e.g. taxi (in this example it is assumed that it has the same
capacity as a private motor vehicle) who would drive anybody for a price, determined
either by a public authority or by negotiation between the passenger and the driver.
Private cars and taxis comprise an ideal transportation system for small, low-density
settlements.

ii. Towns

Step 4: Wider Roads and Streets

As the small settlement grows into a town, the travel of vehicles intensifies and the
narrow paths become frequently congested. The capacity of the transport system
must be increased. Two measures are most logical: widening of the paths, and
introduction of larger vehicles.

Constructing higher capacity paths have various advantages:

 Higher level of service
 Lower unit transportation costs
 Stimulus to economic growth

Some disadvantages can also be observed:

 High investment requirements
 Negative environmental impact

Step 5: Larger Vehicles and Formal Public Transport

Capacity increase through the introduction of larger vehicles can be achieved only
with common carrier (public transport) service, since it is impossible either to induce
private owners to buy larger vehicles than they need for themselves, or to force them
to accept strangers as passengers to increase car loads.

For low passenger volumes, medium-capacity vehicles (e.g. midi-buses) that stop
wherever passengers want would represent the best solution, since they offer
service somewhat adjusted to passengers' desires, with reasonable frequency and at
moderate costs. As the volume increases, it becomes necessary to introduce large-
capacity vehicles, typically a bus.

With the introduction of large instead of small vehicles, public transport changes its
operation. Instead of serving a small number of persons by irregular routing typical
for small- and medium-capacity vehicles, large public transport vehicles travel along
fixed routes, stop at predetermined locations, and serve large numbers of persons.
Schedules are fixed and regular frequencies provide more reliable service and
shorter average waiting times. Fares are somewhat lower.

As in the previous stage, introduction of formal public transport services (midi bus)
result in positive changes, such as:
 Lower-cost transport available to people in the area it serves
 Conveniently scheduled service is provided throughout the public transport
network
 Increased street capacity which means a higher level of service for all
vehicles
 Less congestion and negative impacts
On the negative side, public transport must often be subsidised to attract potential
passengers.

When larger vehicles such as buses are used, it results in:

 Higher transport capacity
 Lower cost per unit capacity
 Greater riding comfort

As a negative, introducing larger vehicles can lead to lower service frequency for the
given demand.

From this it is observed that optimal vehicle size increases with passenger volume
and service with adjustable routing and schedules should be replaced (or
complemented) by fixed routes and schedules as passenger volumes increase.

iii. Medium-sized city

Step 6: Separation of public transport on its own right-of-way

Further growth of the model town into a medium-size city again leads to congestion
and a lower levels of service. Up to this stage the "model town" has operated all of
its transport on a Right-of-Way Category C basis. The next logical step is to create
separate rights-of-way for different types of vehicles, so that a smooth flow, with no
friction from other vehicles, pedestrians, and so on, is obtained. Longitudinal
separation (Right-of-Way Category B) is the first important step for reduction of
interferences, because conflicts at intersections of paths can be regulated through
traffic control devices. As the large vehicles carry 5 to 50 times more persons than
do the small vehicle, it is logical that public, rather than private modes be given
separate rights-of-way first.

Longitudinal separation of public transport vehicles (Right-of-Way Category B) result

in the following positive effects:

 Higher level of service and system performance

 Stronger system image and identity
 Higher passenger attraction
 Lower unit operating cost
 Stronger impact on land use and urban form due to the fact that it is more
permanent

Unfortunately additional land is also required and a substantial investment and

construction is needed.

Step 7: Introduction of Guided Public Transport

When a set of public transport vehicles operate on paths separated from other traffic,
such as public transport vehicles on partially separated Right-of Ways, the
advantages of using guided vehicle technology (rail) begin to outweigh its
disadvantages, as the following advantages indicate:

 Higher capacity and productivity due to operation of trains

  Lower operating cost per unit of available capacity
 Greater reliability and safety
 Operation is possible without significant damage to the environment

However, there are some drawbacks:

 Less compatible with other traffic in street operation
 Limited to a guided network only (so not economical for low-density areas)
 Lower operational flexibility
 Requires significant investment

Guided technology is usually in the form of light rail mode but bus transport could
also make use of guided technology in the form of trolley buses.

iv. Large city

Step 8: Construction of freeways

Finally, the model urban area grows into a large city. With its heavy travel volumes
in many corridors and large spatial size, the large city requires higher performance
transportation than the vehicles on arterials and common carriers on longitudinally
separated ways can provide. The only way to achieve the speed, capacity, and
reliability of travel required in cities with multimillion populations is through provision
of fully controlled rights-of-way (that is category A) for major routes of both private
and public modes. This is in the form of freeways and the following advantages can
be observed:

 Higher performance in terms of capacity, speed and reliability

 Higher level of service
 Lower operating costs
 Greater permanence influence land uses

Constructing freeways also have various disadvantages:

 Considerable larger areas of land are required

 Higher investment cost
 Disruption of traffic during construction

Step 9: Fully Controlled Right of Way for Public Transport

Common carriers (i.e. public transport) also need fully controlled Right-of-Way
(category A), e.g. rapid public transport (mostly rail transport), to achieve the
performance required for large cities with the following positive impacts:

 Higher performance (capacity – use long trains, speed and reliability)

 Higher level of service
 Lower operating costs per unit capacity
 Stronger image and identity
 Higher passenger attraction
 Stronger land use impacts
 Possibility of automation
As with the previous step, negative impacts are present and include higher
investment requirements, disruption during construction and a less extensive
network.

Step 10: Full Automation

The preceding steps show that rapid public transport, combining the characteristics
of guided technology, electric traction, and category A Right-of-Way, represents a
mode with the highest performance and level of service, but also with the highest
investment requirements of all existing public transport modes. There is only one
additional major improvement that can be made: full automation of trains (i.e. trains
without crews). Full automation requires two features:

 Right-of-Way Category A, and

 Guided technology.

It does not depend on features such as vehicle size, off-line stations, or

unconventional technology: rail systems are actually the best candidates for full
automation because of their simplicity and reliability. Fully automated systems have
various benefits:

 Increased frequency of service without additional cost.

 Lower energy consumption and vehicle wear due to preprogrammed driving.
 Easier recovery of service disturbances.
 Lower operating cost (if labour savings outweigh the cost of increased system
complexity).
 Higher operating safety (human error eliminated).

On the negative side fully automated systems:

 Has very high capital cost

 Lower reliability due to greater technical complexity
 Requires track supervision and communication with passengers, especially in
terms of emergencies and safety

3.1.5 Review of transport system evolution

There is a strong interdependence between the volume of travel and the

characteristics of modes optimal for a given application. The evolutionary process of
transportation mode change that has been described is not absolute, because of
many influencing factors. In some cases the sequence of steps may be changed
without any significant inefficiencies. For example, the introduction of guided modes
(step 7) may come before provision of Right-of-Way Category B (step 6) or after
freeways have been built (step 8).

This has happened in South Africa (and various other countries) where rail transport
(step 7) was used to transport passengers long before the provision of wider roads
(step 4) or formal public transport (step 5) had been undertaken. Buses may also be
introduced (step 5) before arterials are built (step 4). Steps 8 and 9 can also be
reversed. Yet, the general sequence of the development steps is valid for most
urban areas, and a significant deviation from them usually reflects planning errors
and results in major deficiencies.
Serious transportation problems in many cities have been created, for example,
when extensive freeway networks were built to accommodate and stimulate motor
car travel, while public transport consists only of buses in mixed traffic (step 8
preceded steps 6 and 7). This is the case in many urban areas in South Africa where
step 8 was introduced not only before steps 6 and 7 but also before step 5.
(Examples: Sandton, Midrand).

Step 1, walking, remains essential for cities of all sizes (actually, it is often more
important in large cities than in small settlements), yet many cities have neglected it
while they worked on accommodating motorised traffic through steps 2, 4, and 8.
Low travel volumes are best served by low-investment/low-capacity modes; with
increasing volumes higher-investment/higher-capacity modes become superior in
terms of both performance and operating costs.

Because of their high level of service, simplicity of network, and recognition, high
performance modes tend to attract not only higher regular ridership, but also more
trips in directions opposite to commuter flows, more school excursions, tourists and
so on, than street public transport services on similar alignments.

Topic 3.2 Identification of urban transport problems

As seen in the preceding section, urban areas develop along certain lines and
transport is introduced to the area in different stages. As transport in an urban area
increase various problems can arise. The purpose of this section is to identify the
transport problems that can be experienced in urban areas.

Despite the importance of efficient urban transport in cities, there are a number of
factors which prevent it from playing an optimal role. These problems affect both
public transport (in all its forms) as well as private cars, neither of which is able to
fulfil their proper function in the overall transport situation. As a result, city efficiency
is undermined. Since efficient cities are vital for economic progress, the problems of
urban transport can be said to have far-reaching national implications, the true extent
of which is not yet fully understood.

3.2.1 Manifestation of problems

The manifestation of urban transport problems tend to be common to urban areas

throughout the world, but may present themselves in more severe forms in
developing cities. A number of these problems are inter-related.

a) Low perception of car costs

Ever since the motor car was “invented” in the late 1800s it has been one of the
human race’s most sought after possessions. One of the consequences is that car
users tend to take only petrol and maintenance costs into account when comparing
transport costs.
This phenomenon is exacerbated by direct and indirect subsidies to car users, such
as car allowances, “free” parking, and a low rate of tax fuel and so on. This has
contributed to the growth of private motor car usage.

Through under-taxation on fuel and various other allowances, private cars have been
subsidised in the same sense that buses and trains are subsidised.

b) Vested interest

The desire of the public to own and use cars has led to the development of powerful
industrial interests, which include the following sectors:

 motor car manufacturers

 component manufacturers
 oil companies
 tyre makers
 insurance companies
 parking companies
 vehicle finance companies (including banks)
 collision repair companies
 construction companies
 transport consultants and “planners”

These interests exercise their influence in various ways, but the ultimate effect of
their activities, whether direct or indirect, has been to strengthen the position of the
motor and related industries and to weaken the position of public transport.
Although the above is a world-wide phenomenon, South Africa seems to be more
deeply affected than many other countries.

c) Transport planning and transport consultants

Most urban transport planning is carried out by transportation consultants whose

primary motivation seems to be to serve the interests of the motor car user and not
the public transport user. These consultants can be associated with the road
construction sector referred to in the previous paragraph. Although transportation
consultants have produced numbers of transportation plans, comparatively little has
been done to achieve actual improvements in public transport services.

d) Rapid traffic growth

Rapid traffic growth has been largely stimulated both by increased incomes and an
overall expansion in related urban economic activities. Many countries have
furthermore generated additional use of transport by virtue of their physical growth
which has encouraged longer trip distances. In South Africa the apartheid policy and
the subsidisation of motor cars have played a major role in raising journey distances,
thereby increasing costs and placing pressure on available infrastructure.

It is suggested that the high rate of growth in car usage in South Africa may be partly
due to the high levels of dissatisfaction of commuters with all forms of public
transport – rail, bus and minibus-taxi. This has led (or is quickly leading to) South
Africa becoming a car dependent society - a situation which has significant
implications for the economy as a whole.

An underlying feature of the South African situation is that car ownership rates
among the higher income groups match that of the richest countries in the world.
This results in high levels of congestion in many urban areas and a low rate of public
transport use.

e) Under supply (and oversupply) of transport facilities

In recent years, car sales (and usage) in South Africa has been growing at a pace far
in excess of the rate of investment in suitably constructed and maintained urban
transport infrastructure. In many areas such as informal settlements and rural areas,
infrastructure is either inadequate, non-existent or in poor condition. Circumstances
of this kind are typically a result of insufficient funds allocated to the rural transport
sector and the absence of appropriate fund-raising mechanisms by which public
authorities are able to raise adequate finance.

Other areas in South Africa are well-served by a comprehensive network of roads

and freeways, but the high number of cars using them has contributed to both
widespread and location-specific congestion problems.

f) Ineffective traffic management and enforcement

The rapid growth of traffic has been aggravated by factors such as widespread poor
driver behaviour, inadequately maintained vehicles and infrastructure and the
general lack of regard for traffic regulations. This manifests itself in speeding,
missing number plates, dark windows, going through red lights, drunk driving, talking
on cell phones, and following too closely. This has placed a greater burden on
enforcement agencies today, sometimes in excess of the resources they have at
their disposal.

g) High road collision rates

High road collision rate, together with a number of other factors such as increased
numbers of pedestrians, mixed traffic conditions, inadequate vehicle maintenance,
poor road conditions and insufficient road markings have all contributed significantly
to the rise in collisions in developing countries.

Pedestrians are known to be especially vulnerable to collisions, constituting

approximately 50% of road deaths in South Africa.

Measurable costs of traffic collisions have been estimated by the World Bank at
about 1 per cent of GNP for developing countries. Since South Africa's cost of
collisions are estimated at approximately R40 billion (which represents almost 3% of
GNP) it is clear that this is a problem requiring serious attention (DoT 2004).

In addition to the collision problem in South Africa, many commuters have

experienced crime and violence on the various modes of public transport. The
problems are multi-faceted and have been the subject of intense debate and
research. The effect, however, has been to undermine the cause of public transport
in general by placing pressure on commuters to turn to private cars, which are
perceived by many as a "safer" form of transport. Not only does this result in lower
passenger levels on public transport but also contributes to congestion on the roads.
h) Resistance to change

Although now well over a decade old, Shaw (1998:101) arrived at the pessimistic
conclusion that:

"change towards some generic integrated public transport network will not occur
within urban areas without concerted intervention. Rather, the pressures of
entrenched interests, both in terms of the use of land and the operation of public
transport, will tend to focus on the entrenchment of the present system and provide
resistance to any fundamental change to the current network of operations."

Shaw identified six groups of stakeholders namely, users of public transport,

operators of public transport, car users, property developers, central government and
local government and pointed out that not one of these groups is likely to promote
change.

"Creating an improved and integrated system of high visibility services, with an

obvious government commitment to funding and regulation, will tend to provide the
political legitimacy necessary to promote public support, both by existing public
transport users as well as by private car users who may now be offered an
acceptable alternative. It will tend to alter the position of each of the
aforementioned resistors to change, with a negative stakeholder response initially,
but followed by greater support as the system becomes operational." (Shaw, 1998).

3.2.2 Seven problems of urban transport

Urban transportation has had a remarkable liberating influence in urban areas but
unfortunately with the growth in transport and the increased demand for transport,
serious problems came about.

Raghav (2016), identified seven problems of urban transport that are interrelated:

 Traffic movement and congestion

Congestion in urban areas occur when urban transport networks are not sufficient to
accommodate the volume of movements taking place. The location of congestion
depend on the transport network and the patterns of urban land use and trips
generated. Levels of congestion will vary in time and are more prevalent during
certain times of the day, e.g. morning peak times and afternoon peak times. The
reason for this is that most people travel to work in the morning and back home
again in the afternoon.

 Public transport crowding

Public transport crowding is also referred to as “person congestion” (Raghav, 2016)
and usually happen inside public transport vehicles such as buses and trains. Again,
people travel to and from work during peak times and this almost always result in
lengthy queues, crowding at terminals, stairs, and ticket offices.

 Off-Peak inadequacy of public transport

Providing a sufficient number of public transport vehicles (e.g. buses) remain a

challenge for public transport operators. If an operator provide enough vehicles to
meet the peak-hour travel demand, there will probably not be enough users in the
off-peak hours to economically employ the vehicles. The alternative is to have a fleet
of vehicles that cater for the off-peak hour travel demand. This is also not advisable
as the vehicles will be overworked and most likely break down, leading to poor
service delivery.

 Difficulties for pedestrians

In urban areas, there is a tendency to not provide proper facilities for pedestrians.
This leads to accidents as they do not cross roads safely which is the reason most
often a great number of pedestrians are killed on the roads every year.

 Parking difficulties

Congestion within city centres are most often caused by car drivers looking for
parking or trying to park their vehicle. The lack of parking or the difficulty of parking is
a transport problem to them. They earn enough money to buy the car and now using
it is a frustration to them. It is just not possible to supply parking spaces to all in a city
because other land uses (e.g. office blocks and shops) should also be
accommodated.

 Environmental impact

Operating a motor vehicle is not environmentally friendly. It pollutes the air and
makes a noise. The environmental impact focuses on traffic noise in this case.
Traffic noise is a problem in the central areas of cities. High noise levels from traffic
can distract office workers due to the fact that it is a continuous sound.

 Atmospheric pollution

Exhaust fumes from cars are unpleasant and continued exposure can constitute a
threat to an individual’s health. As traffic volumes increase, so will atmospheric
pollution unless drivers employ alternative methods of powering their vehicles, e.g.
electric vehicles.

Topic 3.3 Reasons for congestion

Congestion is one of the most dominant transport problem in large urban areas. And
occurs when the demand for transport exceeds the supply. It is predominantly linked
with the high level of motor vehicle ownership which increases the demand for
transport infrastructures (Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack, 2009). In an urban area,
congestion is applicable to two aspects of movement often sharing the same
infrastructure:

 Passengers

In many countries across the world household incomes have increase which has led
to a situation where more than one motor vehicle per household is not unusual.
Using a motor vehicle is favored at the expense of public transport modes.

 Freight

Various organisations have started to move their freight with trucks, therefore in an
increase in the use of road infrastructure and because cities are the main destination
for the flow of freight, the movement of trucks on the roads adds to congestion in
urban areas.

In many cases the provision of infrastructure is not able to keep up with the growing
number of vehicles as well as the total number of vehicle-kilometers. Travel delays
(congestion) occurs when the capacity limit is reached or exceeded. Large cities are
congested most of the day and congestion is actually becoming more severe
(Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack, 2009).

It is important to remember, according to Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack (2009) that

daily trips can be “mandatory” (something you do every day, e.g. travel between
home and workplace) or “voluntary” (something you choose to do, e.g. travel for
holiday, shopping and social visits). Mandatory or compulsory travel usually takes
place within a fixed schedule and voluntary travel happens at the traveler’s own
discretion.

Furthermore it is necessary to note that congestion comes in two forms according to

Rodrigue, Comtois & Slack (2009):

 Recurrent congestion

Mandatory travel are mostly the cause of peaks in traffic flows, therefore most of the
congestion in urban areas are recurring at a specific time of the day and on specific
sections of the road network.

 Non-recurrent congestion

On the other hand, congestion can also be caused by random events, e.g. accidents
and unusual weather conditions. These events are unplanned and unexpected and
therefore the presence and effectiveness of incident response strategies are
important.
Various measures are available to transport planners to alleviate congestion to some
extent. Some of these measures will be discussed later on in the module. However,
these measures only address the issue of congestion to some extent as it only
alleviates congestion and does not solve the problem. It only address the symptom
of a bigger problem which is the inability to reconcile mobility demands with supply
constraints.

Topic 3.4 Lack of integrated urban transport planning

The previous two sections identified the manifestation of urban transport problems
and discussed the main reasons for congestion, particularly in urban areas. The final
topic in this unit will briefly address the lack of integrated urban transport planning.

A long-term problem facing the major cities in South Africa has been a lack of
integration between the various modes of public transport. Traditionally the train and
bus modes competed with each other to satisfy the demand of long distance
commuters. When the mini-bus taxi industry expanded in the 1980s and 1990s, they
also competed with the trains and busses. Later on the taxis organised themselves
into various associations for the purpose of allocating routes. This actually caused
conflict instead of solutions. The new Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system is now also
competing for users on the same routes as the train, buses and mini-bus taxis
(Pojani & Stead, 2017).

The potential role of the rail system is being ignored and the BRT is establishing
routes that compete directly with the rail system instead of being there to the fill the
gaps in the rail system and to complement mobility.

An integrated transport system requires an interdependent system where each

different mode of transport play the role best suited to it. The modes should
complement each other and not compete with each other in the same routes for the
same users. Unfortunately this is not the case and at the heart of this lies the fact
that decision making is fragmented within the transport sector (Pojani & Stead,
2017).

In other words there is a lack of coordinated, integrated decision-making structures

with regard to transportation planning which means that the various public transport
modes (trains, busses, mini-bus taxis and BRT) do not operate to its full potential
and do not provide an integrated solution to meet the demands of the users.

Topic 3.5 Summary

In this unit the development of cities was described and it was linked to the evolution
of a transport system. Furthermore the manifestation of urban transport problems
were identified and there was a focus on congestion specifically. The reason for
congestion as well the various types of congestion were also explained. The unit
concluded with a brief discussion on the lack of integrated transport planning. The
unit that follows will seek to identify a possible solution to urban transport problems.
REFERENCES

 University of Johannesburg Urban Passenger Transport Reader Chapter 2

 University of Johannesburg Urban Passenger Transport Reader Chapter 3
 The Geography of Transport Systems (2nd edition) by J Rodrigue, C Comtois and
B Slack (2009)
 The Urban Transport Crisis in Emerging Economies by D Pojani and D Stead
(2017)
 7 Problems of Urban Transport by Raghav (2016)