Running head: REVIEW OF THE MISMEASURE OF MAN

Review of The Mismeasure of Man

Emily J. Krousey

University of Wisconsin-River Falls

Abstract

The Mismeasure of Man, by Stephen Jay Gould (1996), is a meticulous look at the history of biological

determinism through the assumption of intelligence as a single, measurable entity. The common themes

from the book are reviewed including the reactions and reflections of the author of this paper. The

relevance this book has on school psychology preparation programs is discussed as well as the implications

for the professional development of the author of this paper. Finally the concepts explored in this text are

compared to the content of the rest of the course and other courses as well as course materials.
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Review of The Mismeasure of Man

Stephen Jay Gould’s The Mismeasure of Man was originally written in 1981 and more recently

revised in 1996. It follows the vast history of utilizing assumed intelligence to rank individuals and races on

a linear scale. Gould follows the history of intelligence, discussing craniometry, the measuring of bodies

for recapitulation and neoteny, and the more modern use of intelligence tests. He discusses these methods

in detail, describing specific scenarios and the many outcomes and consequences of their use. He discredits

successfully each of these practices as well as the implications that arose from their interpretations.

Examination of Common Themes, Topics and Ideas

The Mismeasure of Man discusses three major themes: the effect of bias and a priori assumptions

in the interpretation of one’s intelligence; the discrediting of biological determinism (i.e., the assumption a

person’s worth and place in society is innately determined); and discrediting the reification of intelligence,

or the assumption that intelligence is a single, measurable entity. When these three concepts are combined

the result was a ranking of individuals, often determining that people of certain races and nationalities were

inferior. The assumption of certain groups being inferior led to discrimination in a vast number of ways.

Gould posits many theories and methods were used to support the a priori prejudice that certain

groups of people had a greater inherited worth than others. The support of biological determinism included

polygeny, which aimed to prove people of different races were descendents of different lines of species

entirely. Craniometry was used to prove the brains of certain groups of people were inferior to the brains of

others. Different methods were used, such as measuring the cranial capacity to determine the size of the

brain, weighing the brain after autopsy, and measuring specific parts of the brain, which were assumed to

be more essential to intelligence. Through a priori assumptions and biases, biological determinism was

defended with these interpretations indicating that whites had the most superior brains.

The concept of measuring bodies was also used to legitimatize biological determinism.

Historically, experts used both recapitulation, the concept that “inferior races are like children of superior

races,” and neoteny, the concept that it was “superior to retain the traits of childhood” (p. 149), to defend

the placement of black persons and persons of other races as inferior to white people. They also determined

that “inferior” races and people held characteristics, such as apishness, that were characteristic of criminals,

creating the assumption that these “inferior” groups were more likely to tend towards criminality. As is the

common theme throughout this book, the a priori assumptions of these experts influenced their

interpretations of the data.

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The use of IQ tests has also had a negative effect on groups of people. Although the original

purpose of IQ testing, according to Binet, was to identify and help children, it was soon used for the

opposite of what he desired: ranking and discriminating against certain groups of people. The ranking of

groups through the use of biased tests, manipulation of data, and misinterpretations led to circumstances,

such as eugenics, the ranking of children, the defense of segregation, and restrictions on immigration.

Each of the methods used to measure intelligence as a single entity has had detrimental effects on

society. The concept of biological determinism has led to tremendous discrimination against groups of

people determined to be inferior. The problems that occurred were all results of a priori assumptions and

biases, the concept of biological determinism, and the assumption that intelligence is a single, measurable

entity.

Reactions and Reflections

While reading this text, I had a number of reactions to the information Gould discussed. Some of

the major points I have been reflecting on are: the idea of science as a social construct, the detrimental

effects the measurement of intelligence has had, the implications biological determinism has on education,

and the changes that have occurred in the recent history of intelligence theory.

Gould states, “science must be understood as a social phenomenon” (p. 53). I had always been

aware that research done in the social sciences was often subjective and based on interpretation, rather than

on raw data; however, I had not thought of the “hard” sciences as being subject to the bias and

interpretation of the researchers. It seems obvious now that if data collected for psychology were

vulnerable to manipulation, than data for any science would also be subject to the same challenges. The

evidence behind any science may be manipulated and altered due to bias, whether consciously or

unconsciously. The situations discussed in Gould’s text verify the need for blind and double-blind

experiments. I have always looked at research with speculation, trying to find limitations and potential

biases, but the Gould text has given me further encouragement to look objectively at all data.

Many of the implications of biological determinism were areas I had already learned about

through other courses and readings. I had a strong background in eugenics, and a good understanding of the

use of intelligence tests to rank students worth and place them in situations that would determine their

placement in society. However, I was unaware that the Army Alpha and Beta tests were used to determine

which individuals would be allowed to immigrate into the United States. I was also unaware of the use of

looking at physical characteristics, such as apishness, to conclude that these groups of people were inferior.
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Gould expanded on my knowledge regarding what implications the theory of intelligence has had on our

society throughout history.

Gould states, “few tragedies can be more extensive than the stunting of life, few injustices deeper

than the denial of an opportunity to strive or even to hope, by a limit imposed from without, but falsely

identified as lying within” (pp. 60-61). This statement pinpoints the issue of assigning a construct defined

by society to a person’s innate ability. There is no solid evidence that any measurement system accurately

captures a person’s true intellectual ability. It is unfortunate how decisively experts in history determined

that intelligence was a single, measurable entity. Many decisions were made that had extremely negative

implications on a vast number people. Intelligence is still looked at as a single entity, defined as a number,

to most people. Many are still unaware of the complexity of intelligence and the fact that no test or method

is capable of determining a person’s true ability.

It amazes me how strong of an effect biological determinism has had on education throughout

history. From the measuring of heads to determine students potential to intelligence testing for determining

education placements, the concept of intelligence has had a strong effect on the education of many

individuals. In history, African Americans were denied higher education, and often any type of education,

because of racism, which was supported by the purported evidence that African Americans were not as

intelligent as White people. Gould states the theory of some that “black inferiority is purely cultural and …

it can be completely eradicated by education to a Caucasian standard” (p. 64). Even now we see the lower

achievement of not only African Americans, but also other minority groups as cultural and due to

environmental factors versus the result of our societal institutions and the deep history of racism embedded

in them. We also see the solution as education to a certain standard, a standard determined by the white,

middle class. It still seems discriminatory to me to say that in order to improve the outcomes of these

individuals they must be educated to our standards.

Despite the awful implications the reification of intelligence and biological determinism have had

throughout history, I do find it notable how far we have come in the recent past. To come from a time when

perceived intelligence was used to demonstrate the inferiority of certain groups to a time where intelligence

testing is used to determine educational placements so children can receive the assistance they need to

succeed is a notable improvement. I will admit, however, that we do have a long ways to go in order to

further eliminate bias in intelligence testing and to ensure children are receiving the best, most appropriate

education possible.
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Relevance to School Psychology Preparation Programs

In order to ensure history is not repeated, it is essential for individuals to have a thorough

knowledge of the history of intelligence. School psychology candidates must be aware of the past methods

for determining intelligence, and the outcomes of those methods. They must have the opportunity to study

the history of intelligence, taking an in depth look at the implications of measuring intelligence. Knowing

the levels of discrimination that have occurred because of the assumptions made about intelligence can help

stress the importance of integrity when utilizing cognitive ability tests in schools.

Because school psychology preparation programs place a large emphasis on administering,

scoring, and interpreting standardized cognitive ability tests, it is essential for programs to focus on the

interpretation portion of the process. As Gould discussed, implications and consequences arise from the

interpretation of the results, not the results or data themselves. Programs must teach candidates to look

objectively at each testing situation to determine if test results are an accurate demonstration of an

individual’s ability. Candidates must also learn alternative methods for assessing an individual’s cognitive

and academic abilities. They must also learn techniques and systems for reducing bias in testing. It is also

essential for candidates to have a thorough understanding of the detrimental effects that can occur when

students are inaccurately assessed and inappropriate educational decisions are made and implemented with

students. Without an understanding of the consequences that can occur, the information presented to

candidates will not be as effective.

In terms of my own graduate education in school psychology, the Gould text has a strong

relationship to the assessment course I am currently taking, as well as many of the previous courses I have

taken both in my graduate and undergraduate career. The Mismeasure of Man has expanded on many topics

discussed in previous and current courses as well as providing an alternate way of looking at intelligence.

The text has expanded on the topics we have been discussing all semester in this course. We have

discussed the limitations and inaccuracy of looking at intelligence as a single, measurable entity. We have

reviewed in this course, as well as previous courses, the many aspects intelligence incorporates and the

inability for tests to measure all aspects of this intelligence. The book, when incorporated with the other

course topics and materials, has helped me take an even more objective look at the use of intelligence and

intelligence testing in our society.

The book demonstrated the indirect ways bias could appear in any assessment situation

no matter how strongly professionals try to eliminate it. Although we have learned and will be learning
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about assessment systems that help to eliminate bias, such as curriculum-based measurements and

nonverbal intelligence tests, we must be aware that these systems are still not free of bias. We have been

continuously strengthening our abilities to detect bias in testing situations as we also began working on last

semester. In order for appropriate decisions to be made on the behalf of students it is essential for us to

learn how to eliminate bias in assessment situations to the best of our abilities.

Implications on Professional Development

In regards to Binet’s intelligence tests Gould states, “whatever the cause of poor performance in

school, the aim of his scale was to identify in order to help and improve, not label in order to limit” (p.

182). Although it may seem as though we currently use cognitive ability tests to help students, we must

question whether placing students in special education settings may be limiting them rather than helping

them. This is not to say special education is incapable of helping students, but it may not be the answer as

often as we determine it is.

In order to make the most appropriate decisions for students it is essential that multiple forms of

assessment are used. When multiple team members are collecting data on a student, it can help reduce bias

that may be more apparent if only one professional determined results on the student. It is essential to use

assessment tools, such as observations, record reviews, interviews, and standardized tests to determine if

the majority of the evidence points to the same conclusion. Standardized cognitive ability tests may not be

an accurate display of a student’s abilities, especially if the test is culturally or linguistically loaded. It

should also be noted that few changes have been made to the content and structure of cognitive ability tests

from the time of their induction. Although not free of bias, alternative forms of assessment, such as

nonverbal tests, may be appropriate. These tests are still not a thorough demonstration of student abilities,

but may be more suitable.

It will also be appropriate to make decisions before and after testing to reduce bias. This may

include utilizing tests that are less culturally loaded and looking for potential points of bias when

interpreting test results. It will be relevant to gain experience with testing students from culturally and

linguistically diverse backgrounds to determine when a student’s performance is influenced by his or her

culture. It will also be relevant to learn and use techniques when interpreting tests to determine how

strongly culture affected a student’s performance. I also believe it is important to observe and assess

students without a priori assumptions. Despite strong attempts to eliminate bias, it will be easier to

eliminate bias if a professional goes into an assessment process unaware.

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It is my belief that environmental considerations are the most important aspect of any student’s education.

A student’s home life, educational setting, teacher compatibility, and physiological factors can have

extreme effects on a student’s education. Many environmental factors can be altered and improved so a

student’s educational performance is also improved. In my opinion, consideration of environmental factors

can give professionals some of the greatest insight into a child’s circumstances and can lead to the most

effective interventions and changes in a child’s situation.

There are many techniques and skills I need to learn before I am able to make effective

educational decisions while eliminating as much bias as possible. I will need to work on making

appropriate educational decisions for students through studying alternative forms of assessment, practicing

collecting student data without a priori assumptions, determining the level of bias in data collected for

students, and working on collaboration with other educational professionals.

Conclusion

Gould’s historical account of the utilization of intelligence has helped increase my awareness of

(a) a priori assumptions and bias in analyzing individuals, (b) the effects of biological determinism, and (c)

the downfalls of viewing intelligence as a single, measurable entity. The text has helped me reflect on my

own beliefs about intelligence and its applicability in educational settings and find ways of counteracting

these negative effects through professional development. I believe Gould’s book is of great relevance and

import to all school psychologists.

Reference

Gould, S. J. (1996). The mismeasure of man (Rev. ed.). New York: W. W. Norton &

Company.

Author Note

Emily J. Krousey is currently a second-year candidate in the NASP-approved Ed.S. program in school

psychology at the University of Wisconsin-River Falls.

All correspondence concerning this manuscript should be directed to Ms. Emily Krousey c/o the

UWRF School Psychology Program, 410 South Third Street, River Falls, Wisconsin 54022. E-mail:

emily.krousey@uwrf.edu.