Effects of Cryogenic Cooling of Shell Eggs on Egg Quality1
D. R. Jones,*,2,3 J. B. Tharrington,† P. A. Curtis,†,4 K. E. Anderson,* K. M. Keener,† and F. T. Jones‡
Departments of *Poultry Science and †Food Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27695; and
‡Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 72701
ABSTRACT This study was conducted to investigate
the effects of cryogenic cooling on shell egg quality. Gas-
eous nitrogen (GN), liquid nitrogen (LN), and gaseous
carbon dioxide (GC) were utilized to rapidly cool eggs
in a commercial egg processing facility and were com-
pared to traditional cooling (TC). A modified food freezer
was attached to existing egg processing equipment in
order to expose eggs to the selected cryogen.
In Experiment 1, eggs were treated with GN, LN, and
TC then stored and tested over 10 wk. Experiment 2 eggs
were treated (GC and TC) and evaluated for 12 wk. Qual-
ity factors that were measured included Haugh units,
vitelline membrane strength and deformation at rupture,
and USDA shell egg grades for quality defects.
Haugh unit values were greater for cryogenically
treated eggs as compared to traditionally cooled eggs
(Key words: cryogenic cooling, Haugh unit, egg grade, vitelline membrane)
INTRODUCTION
Food safety and quality are major concerns of the
consumer with eggs being of interest since they have
been linked to a number of foodborne illness outbreaks.
The United States produced 5.98 billion dozen eggs in
2000. Of those eggs, 3.3 billion dozen were marketed as
shell eggs, which resulted in a per capita egg consump-
tion of 258 eggs. Although egg processors are held liable
for food safety incidences, ensuring the quality and
safety of shell eggs is the responsibility of everyone in
the distribution chain.
Previous research has demonstrated that time and
temperature are important factors that need to be con-
2002 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
Received for publication September 20, 2001.
Accepted for publication November 27, 2001.
1
Mention of trade mark, proprietary product, or specific equipment
does not constitute a warranty by North Carolina State University and
does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products that may
be suitable.
2
Current address: USDA-ARS, Russell Research Center, Athens,
GA 30604.
3
To whom correspondence should be addressed: drjones@saa.
ars.usda.gov.
4
Current address: Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL 36849.
727
(Experiment 1: 73.27, GN; 72.03, LN; and 71.4, TC and
Experiment 2: 74.42, GC and 70.18, TC). The percentage
of loss eggs in the GN treatment was significantly (P <
0.01) greater than those of the LN and TC treatments.
Vitelline membrane strength was greater for the cryogeni-
cally cooled eggs versus traditional processing. Vitelline
membrane breaking strength decreased over storage
time. Vitelline membrane deformation at rupture was
significantly (P < 0.05) greater for the cryogenically cooled
eggs compared to the traditional eggs in each experiment.
Use of the technology could allow for egg quality to
be maintained for a longer time, which could increase
international markets and potentially lead to extended
shelf lives.
2002 Poultry Science 81:727–733
trolled to achieve safe, high-quality shell eggs. Funk
(1935) reported that individual eggs held at 10 C (50 F)
cooled at a rate of 22 C (40 F)/h. When eggs were placed
in wire baskets, the cooling rate decreased to 3.6 C (6.5
F)/h. When stored in wood cases, the cooling rate was
decreased to 0.72 C (1.3 F)/h. Damron et al. (1994) found
that shell eggs do not continue to cool during transporta-
tion. Refrigerated trucks were able only to maintain the
temperature of the eggs. Therefore, eggs must be cooled
before shipping.
Previous work conducted by Curtis et al. (1995) found
higher Haugh unit scores (HU) for eggs cryogenically
cooled with carbon dioxide gas, as compared to those
eggs traditionally cooled, after 30 d of storage. Kahra-
man-Dogan et al. (1994) reported that HU values de-
crease over storage time. Moats (1978) and Rhorer (1991)
found temperature to be the most important factor for
interior quality deterioration of shell eggs. Williams
(1992) has reported that elevated temperatures and de-
lays in cooling led to lower HU values. He also stated
that maintaining albumen quality required quick cool-
ing to 0 C.
Abbreviation Key: GC = gaseous carbon dioxide; GN = gaseous
nitrogen; HU = Haugh unit; LN = liquid nitrogen; SE = Salmonella
enteritidis; TC = traditionally cooled.
728
TABLE 1. Effect of cryogenic treatment on cooling curve intercept and slope in Experiments 1 and 2
Treatment
Experiment 1
Gaseous nitrogen
Liquid nitrogen
Traditional
Experiment 2
Carbon dioxide
Traditional
X–Z
Means within a column for each experiment with the same letter are similar (P < 0.001).
D’Aoust et al. (1980) found that eggs, stored at room
temperature, with low numbers of Salmonella enteritidis
(SE) contamination had increased SE growth after 2 d.
In 1994, Humphrey reported that the time before an
egg can support salmonella growth is dependent on the
storage temperature. In addition, Miyamoto et al. (1998)
found that cooling suppressed salmonellae penetration
through the egg shell, whereas Catalano and Knabel
(1994) have stated that slowly chilled eggs were more
prone to SE penetration than are rapidly cooled eggs.
Gast and Beard (1990) and Humphrey et al. (1991)
have stated that intraovarian salmonellae contamination
occurs in the albumen or outside the vitelline membrane.
Humphrey (1994) has further reported that bacterial
growth occurs when storage related changes allow pene-
tration of the organism into the yolk. He also stated
that the rate of change in membrane permeability is
temperature-dependent.
Water movement has also been identified as an im-
portant link for microbial invasion of the yolk. Romanoff
and Romanoff (1949) stated that osmotic movement of
water across the vitelline membrane (from the albumen)
leads to enlargement and flattening of the yolk. Heath
(1976) reported that vitelline membrane weight in-
creased at refrigerated temperature and with this in-
creased weight there was a decrease in the rate of water
movement. Furthermore, Smolinska and Trziszka (1982)
have stated that selective properties of the vitelline
membrane depend on the conditions and period of stor-
age. Therefore, the rate of cooling could play an im-
portant role in the microbial integrity of the egg by
changing the physical properties of the vitelline
membrane.
Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the
effects of in-line commercial cryogenic cooling on shell
eggs. Physical qualities of eggs were monitored to quan-
tify the effects of this process.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The current study was conducted in a commercial egg
processing facility during July, August, and September
5
Diamond Systems, Farmington, MI.
6
Praxair, Inc., Burr Ridge, IL.
7
Cox Recorder, Belmont, NC.
8
Technical Services and Supplies, Dunnington, York, England.
JONES ET AL.
Intercept Slope
3.703Z ± 0.030 −0.0001Z ± 0.0001
3.985Y ± 0.036 −0.0015Y ± 0.0002
4.186X ± 0.036 −0.0026X ± 0.0002
3.789Z ± 0.019 −0.0018Z ± 0.0002
4.217Y ± 0.027 −0.0048Y ± 0.0003
of 1997. This time frame was chosen because it has been
identified as having the highest temperatures during the
year. Each experiment consisted of two separate testing
periods with two replicates of each treatment being pro-
cessed. The first experiment used liquid (LN) and gas-
eous (GN) nitrogen as the cryogenic cooling medium
compared to traditional cooling (TC). The second experi-
ment used gaseous carbon dioxide (GC) as the cryogenic
coolant and compared those eggs with TC eggs. In each
experiment, large-size, nest run eggs were processed
using a Diamond 8200 washer/grader.5 Eggs were
washed, candled, and placed in foam cartons. Rapidly
cooled eggs came from two designated packer heads
and were passed through a cooling tunnel where they
were exposed to the cryogen with the lids of the foam
cartons open. Immediately after, the lids were closed
and the cartons were placed in cardboard cases (30
dozen per case). TC eggs came from two additional
packer heads and were placed directly into cardboard
cases without exposure to the cooling tunnel. Separate
TC eggs were used as a control for each period of Experi-
ments 1 and 2.
The cooling tunnel, a modified 18-ft JE-U4 freezer,6
used for this study was not specifically designed for
cooling shell eggs. Average tunnel temperatures were
−110 ± 3 C and −51 ± 3 C for the GN and GC, respectively,
at the shell surface. The LN was applied directly to the
eggs in the carton, and due to the gaseous interface, the
shell temperature was −120 C.
A 30-case pallet was formed for each treatment repli-
cate and stored in a commercial cooler at 7 C. The cooling
curve data for each treatment were collected with a pal-
let simulator as described by Curtis et al. (1995). A tem-
perature probe connected to a Cox Tracer7 data logger
was placed in the yolk of the centermost egg of a case
from each treatment during a replicate (n = 2). The data
logger recorded temperatures every 13 min for 14 d.
The eggs were tested during 10 wk of storage for the
first experiment and 12 wk of storage for the second
experiment. Tests were conducted Monday through
Thursday each week. Eggs were tested for interior qual-
ity (HU), USDA grade, and vitelline membrane breaking
strength and deformation at rupture. HU measurements
were conducted with the procedure outlined by Haugh
(1937) with the aid of a QCD instrument range.8 A 15-egg
sample was tested daily from each treatment replicate (n
= 60 eggs/wk) with cracked eggs being excluded. Eggs
were stored at 4 C until analysis.
 EFFECTS OF CRYOGENIC COOLING OF SHELL EGGS ON EGG QUALITY 729
Egg grading was conducted by USDA egg graders.
During the week of processing, a sample of 100 eggs
from each treatment replicate was graded daily (n =
400 eggs/wk). A sample of 50 eggs of each treatment
replicate was graded daily (n = 200 eggs/wk) for the
remaining storage time. The graders assessed the per-
centages of loss and cracked eggs as described by the
USDA Egg Grading Manual (USDA, 1990).
Vitelline membrane breaking strength was measured
daily on a sample of 10 eggs from each treatment repli-
cate (n = 40 eggs/wk). Nine weeks of storage was used
for this measurement in the first experiment due to dif-
ficulty in achieving consistently measurable results after
9 wk of storage. Eggs were broken into a shallow dish
FIGURE 1. Average cooling curves for each treatment in Experiment
to allow orientation of the yolk for penetration along 1. ▲ Gaseous nitrogen; 䊉 Liquid nitrogen; 䊐 traditional.
the equatorial region. It was previously reported (Lyon
et al., 1972) that the strongest section of the vitelline
membrane is near the chalazae. Therefore, care was that reached 8.3 C within the first hour of being placed in
taken to prevent contact of the probe with the germinal the pallet simulator. The LN and TC treatments required
disc and the chalazae. The albumen was not separated more than 5 d to reach an equivalent temperature. Czar-
from the egg to prevent drying of the vitelline membrane ick and Savage (1992) and Anderson et al. (1992) have
during testing. The compression measurements were also reported a minimum of a 5-d interval for the cen-
made using a TA.XT2i texture analyzer9 with a test speed termost egg in a pallet of traditionally processed eggs
of 3.2 mm/s set at 10 g full scale. A 1-mm rounded end, to reach 7 C.
stainless steel probe was used to apply direct pressure The GN eggs maintained the highest (P < 0.01) average
on the vitelline membrane until the membrane ruptured. HU score (73.27), and the LN and TC treatments were
Cracked eggs were also excluded from vitelline mem- 72.03 and 71.40, respectively (Table 2). The gradual de-
brane measurements. Eggs were stored at 4 C until cline of HU values over time is illustrated in Figure 2.
analysis. In this figure, the LN and TC eggs declined to A grades
Data were analyzed by general linear models proce- (HU ≤ 72) approximately 1 wk before those in the GN
dure of SAS software (1996). Means were separated by treatment.
the least-squares method. A regression analysis was con- The percentage of cracked eggs was significantly
ducted on log transformations of each cooling curve. greater (P < 0.001) in the GN eggs (10.49%) than the
Slopes and intercepts were determined for the rate of LN and TC treatments, which were similar (6.02% and
temperature decline and were then analyzed by general 5.77%, respectively) (Table 2). Two factors are thought
linear models procedure from SAS software to establish to be the cause of the increased cracking. First, eggs
significant differences between the curves. were frozen in the tunnel by direct contact between the
eggshell and gaseous nitrogen. Second, the force used
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION to deliver the gaseous nitrogen was approximately 320
psi, which resulted in eggs being blown from the cartons
Experiment 1 with a high amount of egg-to-egg contact. The cracked
Analyses of the intercepts and slopes of the cooling
curves are shown in Table 1. The GN eggs had the lowest
(P < 0.001) intercept value indicating the greatest heat
loss prior to palletizing. The GN slope indicates that the
cooling process was complete within the first hour post-
processing. These results illustrate a greater rate of ini-
tial cooling for the GN eggs. The LN eggs cooled with
a moderate rate of heat loss, whereas TC eggs had the
least heat loss prior to packaging in the cases. The aver-
age cooling curves for the treatments in this experiment
are illustrated in Figure 1. These curves were con-
structed by combining both replicates of each treatment.
All curves illustrate the 14-d post-processing and graph-
ically illustrate the effectiveness of the GN treatment

FIGURE 2. Storage time and treatment effects on Haugh unit values

9
Texture Technologies, Scarsdale, NY. in Experiment 1. ▲ Gaseous nitrogen; 䊉 liquid nitrogen; 䊐 traditional.
730 JONES ET AL.
TABLE 2. Effect of treatment on Haugh units, percentages of cracked and loss eggs, and vitelline
membrane strength and deformation at rupture in Experiment 1

Vitelline
Vitelline membrane
membrane deformation
breaking at rupture
Treatment Haugh Unit Cracked (%) Loss (%) strength (g) (mm)
Gaseous nitrogen 73.27 ± 0.14
A
10.49 ± 0.34
Z
5.57A ± 0.22 1.91a ± 0.01 2.00a ± 0.03
Liquid nitrogen 72.03B ± 0.16 6.02Y ± 0.39 1.03C ± 0.26 1.90ab ± 0.01 1.94a ± 0.03
Traditional 71.40C ± 0.16 5.77Y ± 0.39 2.01B ± 0.26 1.86b ± 0.03 1.87b ± 0.03
A,B
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.01).
Y,Z
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.001).
a,b
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.05).

eggs were not equally distributed throughout a repli-
cate, which suggests that the GN was not delivered at
a consistent pressure. Redesign of the cooling tunnel
specifically for shell eggs could reduce the percentage
of cracked eggs seen in the GN treatment.
The number of loss eggs was greatest (P < 0.01) in the
GN treatment, and the LN treatment maintained the
lowest (1.03%) overall percentage (Table 2). The higher
percentage of loss eggs in the GN treatment was due to
the higher percentage of stuck yolks. This finding might
have been related to the cold temperature of GN and
the small contact area for cooling at the large end of the
egg, which may have caused the migration of the yolk
away from the extreme temperature. This migration led
to a high percentage of yolks sticking to the shell mem-
brane. In contrast, the LN was dripped on top of the
eggs, which led to pooling in the bottom of the carton
and enhanced heat transfer around the entire egg
surface.
The GN treatment required the greatest (P < 0.05)
overall force (1.91 g) to rupture the vitelline membrane
with the LN eggs being intermediate and the TC eggs
having the lowest vitelline membrane strength (Table
2). The force needed to rupture the vitelline membrane
decreased (P < 0.01) over the 9-wk storage (Table 3) with
the maximum force required being 2.17 g during Week
1. After 9 wk of storage, the membranes began to deterio-
rate beyond the lower limits (< 1.0 g) of the instrument,
which could not consistently detect a measurable force.
For this reason, the results for 9 wk only are presented.
The deformation of the vitelline membrane at rupture
(Table 2) was greater (P < 0.05) for the cryogenically
cooled treatments than the TC eggs. The increased defor-
mation of the vitelline membrane indicates an increase
in elasticity in the vitelline membrane, which could con-
tribute to fewer broken yolks when cracked out by con-
sumers or egg-breaking plants.
Experiment 2
The GC eggs had a significantly (P < 0.001) lower
intercept value and steeper slope in the average cooling
curves as compared to the TC eggs (Table 1). The average
egg cooling curves for the two treatments are illustrated
in Figure 3. The GC eggs initially dropped to an average
temperature of 12.8 C within the first hour after leaving
the cooling tunnel. The TC eggs had an average tempera-
ture of 33 C within 1 h of being packaged into cases.
The GC eggs therefore had a greater loss of heat post-
processing compared to TC eggs.
For this experiment, the HU values were analyzed
by periods. The two periods were analyzed separately
because of the differences in the source of eggs used for
each period. The eggs used in the first period were from
older hens (70 wk of age, premolt), which produced
eggs of poorer quality, including decreased HU scores
(Curtis et al., 1985). This lower initial quality can be
observed (Figure 4) with the HU values of the TC eggs
from the first period, which were in the A grade range
(HU ≤ 72) throughout storage. The initial values for the
GC eggs, from the same flock, were 80.70 (grade AA).
This trend of higher HU values for the GC treatment

TABLE 3. Storage time effect on vitelline membrane breaking strength in both experiments

Storage time (wk) Experiment 1 (g) Experiment 2 (g)

1 2.17A
± 0.02 2.14A ± 0.04
2 2.02B ± 0.02 1.96BC ± 0.04
3 1.98BC ± 0.02 1.98B ± 0.04
4 1.93CD ± 0.02 1.87BCD ± 0.04
5 1.89DE ± 0.02 1.89BCD ± 0.04
6 1.83EF ± 0.02 1.86BCD ± 0.04
7 1.75F ± 0.02 1.85CDE ± 0.04
8 1.78F ± 0.02 1.76DEF ± 0.04
9 1.67G ± 0.02 1.73EF ± 0.03
10 1.68F ± 0.02
A–C
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.01).
 EFFECTS OF CRYOGENIC COOLING OF SHELL EGGS ON EGG QUALITY 731
TABLE 4. Effect of processing period on Haugh unit values for Experiment 2

Treatment Period 1 Period 2

Carbon dioxide 74.01Z ± 0.22 74.82A ± 0.22
Traditional 66.71Y ± 0.30 73.64B ± 0.30
A,B
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.01).
Y,Z
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.001).

TABLE 5. Effect of treatment on percentage of cracked and loss eggs and vitelline membrane
breaking strength and deformation at rupture in Experiment 2

Vitelline Vitelline
membrane membrane
breaking strength deformation at
Treatment Cracked (%) Loss (%) (g) rupture (mm)
Carbon dioxide 6.81 ± 0.30
a
2.17 ± 0.27 1.90a ± 0.01 1.97a ± 0.02
Traditional 5.52b ± 0.42 1.84 ± 0.38 1.85b ± 0.01 1.87b ± 0.03
Means within a column with the same letter are similar (P < 0.05).
a,b

continued for the 12 wk of storage. The GC eggs had a
greater (P < 0.001) average HU value compared to the
TC eggs (Table 4). The increased HU value might have
been due to carbon dioxide entering the eggs during the
cooling process and remaining in the albumen, which
could slow chemical degradation.
The eggs used during the second period were from
younger hens (30 wk of age), which produce eggs of
higher quality. A significant (P < 0.01) difference is seen
(Table 4) between the GC and TC eggs for this period.
The GC eggs had an average HU value (74.82) that was
greater than the TC eggs (73.64), but the difference be-
tween these averages was much smaller than those pro-
duced by the older flock. These data suggest that carbon
dioxide cryogenic cooling enhances the interior quality
of the egg, but the greater enhancement was observed
for eggs with poorer initial quality.
Both processing periods were combined before analy-
sis of egg grade data. The overall percentage of loss eggs
was not significantly different between the treatments,
as shown in Table 5. The percentage of cracked eggs
was greater (P < 0.05) for the GC eggs (Table 5), but this
value was not above the allowable level (7% per grade
lot at retail) defined by the USDA. The allowable retail
percentage was used because a transportation process
was involved to move the eggs to the laboratory from
the processing facility. The approximate 1% increase in
cracked eggs was due to cooling tunnel design. Redesign
of the cooling tunnel could significantly reduce cracked
eggs. Curtis et al. (1995) also reported an increase in
cracked eggs when subjected to carbon dioxide cooling.
They found that once the carbon dioxide snow was pre-
vented from coming in direct contact with the shell sur-
face, cracks decreased. Fajardo et al. (1996) also found
an increased incidence of cracks in shell eggs subjected
to forced-air rapid cooling that were produced by 72-
wk-old hens compared to those from 31-wk-old hens.
The vitelline membrane of GC eggs had significantly
higher breaking strengths (P < 0.05) than traditionally
cooled eggs (1.90 g and 1.85 g, respectively), as shown
in Table 5. This increased strength was more prominent
for the poorer quality eggs (first period) than with the
higher quality eggs (second period). The vitelline mem-
brane strength decreased (P < 0.01) with egg age (Table

FIGURE 3. Average cooling curves for each treatment in Experiment FIGURE 4. Treatment and storage time effects on Haugh unit values
2. ◆ Carbon dioxide; 䊐 traditional. for Period 1 in Experiment 2. ◆ Carbon dioxide; 䊐 traditional.
732 JONES ET AL.
FIGURE 5. Average cooling curve for prototype commercial egg
cooling tunnel utilizing carbon dioxide.
3). The GC eggs also had significantly higher (P < 0.05)
membrane relative deformation at rupture than tradi-
tionally cooled eggs (Table 5). Therefore, GC treated
eggs had vitelline membranes that were stronger and
more elastic than their TC counterparts. In consumer
terms, the yolks from the GC eggs would be less likely
to rupture during cooking or while separating egg
contents.
In conclusion, the use of cryogenic cooling increased
the overall HU values and resulted in the cryogenically
gas cooled eggs maintaining AA quality at least 1 wk
longer than their traditionally cooled counterparts. The
additional period of higher quality can be beneficial to
producers competing in foreign markets or those who
want to market AA grade eggs.
Cryogenic cooling with GC had the most pronounced
effect on eggs with poorer initial quality produced by
older flocks. HU values were significantly increased and
maintained during storage in lower quality eggs. Cryo-
genic cooling with GC could allow flocks to lay for a
longer period of time, thereby decreasing the number of
flocks needed each year. The same quality improvement
was not observed with the nitrogen-cooled eggs.
The use of carbon dioxide to cool shell eggs also re-
sulted in an increased percentage of cracked eggs. The
increase was extremely low and below the allowable
level outlined by the USDA at the point of retail sale.
Redesign of the cooling tunnel could improve the cool-
ing rate and reduce the percentage of cracked eggs. Mod-
ifications could also help eliminate a portion of the loss
eggs associated with the GN treatment and improve-
ments in the efficiency of the LN process.
Vitelline membrane strength was increased when eggs
were exposed to a cryogenic cooling medium. This in-
crease in strength could help to prevent water migration
and possible microbial penetration of the yolk. Vitelline
membrane strength decreased with extended egg stor-
age. Trziszka and Smolinska (1982) found that the nitro-
gen content of the vitelline membrane continually de-
grades during cold storage. They therefore suggest that
the proteins associated with the membrane also change,
which could explain the decrease in vitelline membrane
strength during storage seen in this study.
A new prototype commercial shell egg-cooling tunnel
that uses GC has been designed. The new cooling tunnel
exposes the individual eggs to the cryogen before pack-
aging into the carton. A faster rate of cooling can be
achieved with the new design (Figure 5). Product testing
indicates that fewer cracks are produced compared to
the prototype tunnel. These results show that cooler
redesign eliminated many of the problems associated
with the JE-U4 cooler.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the following contributors
to this study: Praxair, Inc., Chicago, IL; US Poultry and
Egg Association, Tucker, Georgia; Simpson Eggs, Mon-
roe, North Carolina; and the North Carolina Department
of Agriculture, Raleigh, North Carolina.
REFERENCES
Anderson, K. E., P. A. Curtis, and F. T. Jones. 1992. Legislation
ignores technology: heat loss from commercially packed
eggs in post processing coolers. Egg Ind. 98:11.
Catalano, C. R., and S. J. Knabel. 1994. Destruction of Salmonella
enteritidis by high pH and rapid chilling during simulated
commercial egg processing. J. Food Prot. 57:592–595.
Curtis, P. A., F. A. Gardner, and D. B. Mellor. 1985. A compari-
son of selected quality and compositional characteristics of
brown and white shell eggs. II. Interior quality. Poult. Sci.
64:302–306.
Curtis, P. A., K. E. Anderson, and F. T. Jones. 1995. Cryogenic
gas for rapid cooling of commercially processed shell eggs
before packaging. J. Food Prot. 58:389–394.
Czarick, M., and S. Savage. 1992. Egg cooling characteristics
in commercial egg coolers. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 1:258–270.
D’Aoust, J. Y., P. Stotland, and C. J. Randall. 1980. Salmonella
in “grade cracks” shell eggs. Can. Instit. Food Sci. Technol.
13:184–187.
Damron, B. L., C. R. Douglas, and R. D. Jacobs. 1994. Tempera-
ture patterns in commercial egg transport vehicles. J. Appl.
Poult. Res. 3:193–198.
Fajardo, T. A., R. C. Anantheswaran, and V. M. Puri. 1996.
Effect of cooling on crack development and mechanical
behavior of eggshells. Appl. Eng. Agric. 12:49–55.
Funk, E. M. 1935. The cooling of eggs. Missouri Agric. Exp.
Sta. Bull. No. 350. Missouri Department of Agriculture, St.
Louis, MO.
Gast, R. K., and C. W. Beard. 1990. Production of Salmonella
enteritidis-contaminated eggs by experimentally infected
hens. Avian Diseases 34:438–446.
Haugh, R. R. 1937. The Haugh unit for measuring egg quality.
U.S. Egg Poult. Mag. 43:552–555, 572–573.
Heath, J. L. 1976. Factors affecting the vitelline membrane of
the hen’s egg. Poult. Sci. 55:936–942.
Humphrey, T. J. 1994. Contamination of egg shell and contents
with Salmonella enteritidis: a review. Int. J. Food Microbiol.
21:31–40.
Humphrey, T. J., A. Whitehead, A. H. L. Gawler, A. Henley,
and B. Rowe. 1991. Numbers of Salmonella enteritidis in the
contents of naturally contaminated hens’ eggs. Epidemiol.
Infect. 106:489–496.
Kahraman-Dogan, H., L. Bayindirli, and M. Ozilgen. 1994.
Quality control charts for storage of eggs. J. Food Quality
17:495–501.
 EFFECTS OF CRYOGENIC COOLING OF SHELL EGGS ON EGG QUALITY
Lyon, C. E., G. W. Newell, and R. D. Morrison. 1972. Vitelline
membrane strength and egg yolk mottling. Poult. Sci.
51:480–487.
Miyamoto, T., T. Horie, E. Baba, K. Sasai, T. Fukata, and A.
Arakawa. 1998. Salmonella penetration through eggshell as-
sociated with freshness of laid eggs and refrigeration. J.
Food Prot. 61:350–353.
Moats, W. A. 1978. Egg washing—a review. J. Food Prot.
41:919–925.
Rhorer, A .R. 1991. What every producer should know about
refrigeration. Egg Ind. 97:16–25.
Romanoff, A. L., and A. J. Romanoff. 1949. The avian egg, p
672. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
733
SAS Institute. 1996. A User’s Guide to SAS. Sparks Press, Inc.,
Cary, NC.
Smolinska, T., and T. Trziszka. 1982. The vitelline membrane:
dynamics of cholesterol metabolism in hens’ eggs. Food
Chem. 8:215–223.
Trziszka, T., and T. Smolinska. 1982. Chemical characterisation
of the vitelline membrane of hens’ eggs. Food Chem.
8:61–70.
United States Department of Agriculture. 1990. Egg-Grade
Manual. Agricultural Marketing Division. Agriculture
Handbook No. 75. USDA, Washington, DC.
Williams, K. C. 1992. Some factors affecting albumen quality
with particular reference to Haugh unit score. World’s
Poult. Sci. J. 48:5–16.