THE MODAL DEFECTIVE VERBS

1. They do not have their proper meaning, but show a certain modality the action/state of the notional verbs
they are always used with develops/takes place or not. So, they cannot be used as the predicate of a
sentence. They can be used in a sentence without any notional verb, but only when they refer to a
notional verb previously used/announced.
2. They are called defective because they lack one or more of the inflected forms proper to most words of
the same class in the language, as English must, which occurs only in the present tense.
3. They do not have TO infinitive (to can, to may, to must, to shall, etc.)
N.B.:
a.) TO CAN (canned, canning) is a notional verb meaning: 1. to preserve by sealing in a can, jar, etc.
2. Slang. to dismiss; fire.
3. Slang. to throw (something) away.
4. Slang. to put a stop to: Can that noise!
5. to record, as on film or tape.
b.) TO WILL (willed, willing)
(transitive verb)
1. to decide, bring about, or attempt to effect or bring about by an act of the will: He can walk if he wills it.
2. to purpose, determine on, or elect, by an act of will: If he wills success, he can find it.
3. to give or dispose of (property) by a will or testament; bequeath (a lăsa moştenire) or devise (a transmite prin
act).
4. to influence by exerting will power: She was willed to walk the tightrope by the hypnotist.
(intransitive verb)
1. to exercise the will: To will is not enough, one must do.
2. to decide or determine: Others debate, but the king wills.

4. They never get TO infinitive after them. Tom can speak English. He must not enter the school now.

N.B.: OUGHT is the only modal verb which is used with long infinitive after. You ought to take all the
medicines if you like to recover soon. You ought not to worry about it.

5. The negative form is built up by adding NOT (and never with an auxiliary). He must not do that. They may
not read that book.

6. The negative is built up by inversion (and never with an auxiliary). Can you swim? May I speak now?
7. For the tenses they do not have any proper form, the modality they suggest is suggested by their
equivalents.
They had to leave earlier lest they should miss the plane.
Jim was not able to swim in the rush flood.

CAN
1. mental or physical ability (natural or learned); to be able to; have the ability, power, or skill to:
She can solve the problem easily, I'm sure. I am told you can tame bears.
Tom can be a good sport. (about a person – to be a good sport= a fi amabil, cumsecade, de treabă; can is
stressed: „Tom este cu adevărat/într-adevăr un om amabil.)
Tom is only 9 months and he can already stand up.
Can you drive a car? (Have you learned how to …?)
“What can I do for you? (in a shop: Doriţi ceva? Cu ce vă pot servi?)
2. to know how to: He can play chess, although he's not particularly good at it. He cannot change the fuse.
3. to have the power or means to: A dictator can impose his will on the people.
4. to have the right or qualifications to: He can change whatever he wishes in the script.
5. may; have permission to in a less formal language: Can I speak to you for a moment?
6. permission:
a.) especially when you ask for permission to use something belonging to the interlocutor; Can I drive
your car? Can I use your phone?
 b.) when you suggest the permission by showing the object or through a gesture; Can I … (smoke)?
(showing a cigarette or the gesture)
7. to have the possibility:
A coin can land on either side.
The negative form shows impossibility. He cannot be here since he called me up from London few minutes ago.
8. supposition, deduction: He can come with you on the trip. She can’t be married. She had no wedding ring on
her finger yesterday. We can’t give up, whatever the cost.

COULD
1. the past or conditional of can
‘Could’ can describe natural and learned ability in the past, not related to any specific event.
Bob could run very fast when he was a boy. (now he is not able to do it in the same way any longer)
Tom couldn’t/ was unable to run very fast when a child.
He tried again and found he was able to/could swim.
She could come to your wedding, but I’m sure she will not do it.
She could have come to your wedding, but she had to leave for New York a day before.
2. used to express possibility: I wonder who that could be at the door. That couldn't be true.
3. used to express conditional possibility or ability: You could do it if you tried. You could if you would.
4. used in making polite requests: Could you open the door for me, please?
5. used in asking for permission in a more polite way: Could I borrow your pen?
6. used in offering suggestions or advice: You could write and ask for more information. You could at least
have called me.

The equivalent of CAN

to be able to/to be unable to/to manage to/to succeed in + –ing
She will be able to lift it if she practises more.
Bob had been able to mend a watch, but later he turned shortsighted and had to change his work.
I shall be able to see you on Friday.

TO BE ABLE TO can also be used in the present or past tense. This time it shows more than
CAN/COULD (the ability, the fact that the subject is able) but the fact that, under certain difficult/not
proper conditions, the subject was/is able or not to develop that activity.
Though they arrived at home very late and tired, they were able to/managed to do their homework.
He is able to swim to the other bank of the river.
It was sleeting, but I was able to reach my office in time by running most of the way.
She could speak English and so was able to direct the stranger to his hotel.
From the window of his room he could see as far as the lake. (possibility)
He went up on the roof of the hotel and was able to see the lake in the distance.

MAY
1. used to show possibility:
It may rain.
That may (not) be true
Who may you be?
The weather forecast says it may snow tomorrow
Where may I find him?
I’m told he may be here any time now.
2. used to show opportunity or permission:
You may enter.
He may go in: the principle has asked after you
If I may say so, you are rather rash!
May I use your phone? (more formal than can, but the answer is: “Of course you can! (rarely may) or “Sorry!
You cannot/may not. I’m expecting an urgent call.)
3. used to show contingency (Rom: eventualitate, întâmplare neprevăzută), especially in clauses indicating
condition, concession:
 I may be wrong but I think you would be wise to go.
Times may change but human nature stays the same.
4. used to show wish or prayer, hope, purpose, curse:
May you live to an old age. (wish)
We all wish our school may have a school bus of its own. (hope)
Hurry up that you may be in time! (purpose)
May the best man win! (desire)
May you live to repent your attitude! (curse)
May you live to regret the day you were born. (very severe curse)
5. used to show a very formal, impersonal official announcement. No one may cross here. No one may
sit/walk on the grass. Dogs may be taken into the park only on leash.

MIGHT
1. past or conditional of may.
No one might smoke while Grannie was there.
He might go on the trip if you insist.
How old might she be?(improbability)
2. used to show possibility more doubtingly:
They might be at the station.
It might snow, but I don’t think it will.
3. used to show advisability: You might at least thank me.
4. used in polite requests for permission: Might I speak to you for a moment?
The equivalents of MAY/MIGHT
to be possible to
to be permitted to
to be allowed to

MUST
1. to be obliged or bound to by an imperative requirement:
I must keep my word.
2. to be under the necessity to; need to:
Animals must eat to live.
3. to be required or compelled to, as by the use or threat of force:
You must obey the law.
4. to be compelled to in order to fulfill some need or achieve an aim:
We must hurry if we're to arrive on time.
5. to be forced to, as by convention or the requirements of honesty:
I must say, that is a lovely hat.
6. to be or feel urged to; ought to:
I must buy that book.
7. to be reasonably expected to; is bound to:
It must have stopped raining by now. She must be at least 60.
8. to be inevitably certain to; be compelled by nature:
Everyone must die.
9. to be obliged; be compelled:
Do I have to go? I must, I suppose.
10. probability;
“Where is your father?” “He must be at his office.”
11. Archaic. (sometimes used with ellipsis of go, get, or some similar verb readily understood from the
context):
We must away.
12. (adj.) necessary; vital:
A raincoat is must clothing in this area.
13. (n.) something necessary, vital, or required:
This law is a must.
The equivalent of MUST
to have to
to be probable to

N.B.:
TO HAVE TO in the present tense shows an action/state that takes place under compulsion, constrain.
Compare:
He must send the letter.
He has to send the letter today if he likes to get the money in time.

SHALL
1. plan to, intend to, or expect to: I shall go later.
2. will have to, is determined to, or definitely will: You shall do it. He shall do it.
3. (in laws, directives, etc.) must; is or are obliged to: The meetings of the council shall be public. You shall
bring the book back in a week. (at a library).
4. (used interrogatively in questions, often in invitations): Shall we go?

SHOULD
1. past or conditional of shall.
2. used to show condition:
Were he to arrive, she should be pleased.
3. must; ought (used to indicate duty, propriety, or expediency):
You should not do that.
All is as it should be.
Should he go up to (the) university next semester? (Să se înscrie la universitate semestrul următor?)
4. would (used to make a statement less direct):
I should think you would apologize.
5. a recommendation regarding an unfulfilled fact;
You should have talked to her.
6. a supposition/probability;
Are you looking for your hat? It should be in the hall. (must)
They should be in by now. (must)
7. advice;
You should go there. (I say/think it is better for you to go.)
8. after ‘lest’ to show supposition;
There was danger lest the plan should become known.
9. to show happening in ‘if’ clause;
If he should come, tell him to call me up as soon as possible. (Dacă cumva/din întâmplare vine, … Dacă ar fi să
vină, …)
10. to omit ‘if’ in order to express regret, when ‘if’ clause gets the past tense for the conditional present;
Should she read more, she could speak more fluently. (instead of If she read more,…)
11. to ask whether it is necessary or whether you do not disturb doing sth.:
Should I open the window?
Shall I shut the door?

N.B.:
a) both SHALL and SHOULD can be used in ‘that’ subjunctive clause, after verbs such as: be anxious (a
dori foarte mult), demand, desire, expect, intend, like, order, command, etc.
I am anxious that the right man shall be selected for the job.
We demanded that our children should be well looked after.
It is intended that a new building shall be put up on the site.
The architects recommend that classrooms should be larger.
b) in AE these modals are usually omitted, but the subjunctive stays, what makes that the 3rd person
singular should get the short infinitive (getting no ending):
I likes that she come earlier.
Because the main function of SHOULD in modern American English is to express duty, necessity, etc. (You should get
your flu shot before winter comes), its use for other purposes, as to form a subjunctive, can produce ambiguity, at least
initially: I should get my flu shot if I were you. Furthermore, SHOULD seems an affectation to many Americans when
used in certain constructions quite common in British English: Had I been informed, I should (American would) have
called immediately. I should (American would) really prefer a different arrangement. As with shall and will, most
educated native speakers of American English do not follow the textbook rule in making a choice between SHOULD
and WOULD.

WILL
1. be about or going to:
I will be there tomorrow.
She will see you at dinner.
2. be disposed or willing to:
People will do right.
3. be expected or required to:
You will report to the principal at once.
4. may be expected or supposed to:
You will not have forgotten him.
This will be right.
5. be determined or sure to (used emphatically):
You would do it.
People will talk.
6. be accustomed to, or do usually or often:
You will often see her sitting there.
7. be habitually disposed or inclined to:
Children will be children.
Ice will float because it is lighter than water.
8. be capable of; can:
This tree will live without water for three months.
9. be going to:
I will bid you “Good night.”
10. (notional verb) to wish; desire; like:
Go where you will.
Ask, if you will, who the owner is.
11. with regards to the present time;
That will do. (Ajunge! Este de ajuns!)
That will be enough! (E de ajuns.

WOULD
1. past and conditional of will;
He said he would go tomorrow.
He would come but his mother does not agree with.
2. a more polite request than will;
Would you pass me the salt cellar?
3. to show repeated or habitual action in the past (frequentative WOULD):
We would visit Grandma every morning up at the farm.
4. to show an intention or inclination:
Nutritionists would have us all eat whole grains.
5. to show an uncertainty:
It would appear that he is guilty.
6. to show choice or possibility:
If the temperature were higher, the water would evaporate.
7. would have – used with a past participle to express unfulfilled intention or preference:
I would have saved you some but Jimmy took it all.
 8. would like – used to express desire:
I would like to go next year.
9. had or would rather, to prefer that or to:
I had much rather we not stay.
We would rather go for dinner after the show.
10. in ‘if’ clause to show willingness:
If you would coach me for my exam, I might get through this time. (Dacă ai vrea să mă meditezi pentru examen,
s-ar putea să-l iau de data aceasta.)
11. probability (must):
Mother went to work when I was a baby. I would be (must have been) three at that time. (… Să tot fi avut eu
vreo trei ani pe atunci.)

DARE
to have the necessary courage or boldness to (used chiefly in questions and negatives):
How dare you speak to me like that?
He dare not mention the subject again.
He dare not (daren’t) answer me.
He dare not go home now.
“He daren’t sent that wire, dare he?” “Oh, yes, he dare.”

N.B.: as a notional verb

1. to have the necessary courage or boldness for something; be bold enough:
You wouldn't dare!
She dares to walk in the woods by herself.
She wouldn’t dare not to keep her word.
2. to challenge or provoke (a person) into a demonstration of courage; defy: to dare a man to fight.
They dared me to repeat what I had said.
He was dared to drive in the storm.
3. dare say, daresay – as an adverb, meaning probably: to venture to say (something); assume (something) as
probable (used only in present sing. 1st pers.):
I daresay we will soon finish. (Probably we will soon finish.)
I daresay he is right. (He must be right.)

NEED
As a modal-defective verb, it is used especially in negative and interrogative sentences, showing the (lack
of) necessity, the fact that it is compelled.
I told him he need not fear a rebuff.
All that we need say was “yes” or “no”.
You needn’t go yet, need you?
Need you speak now?
Why need he stay at home for the holidays?
We needn’t pay for it.
The most frequent modality the modal ‘need’ shows is that it is/was/will be in vain/useless to do what the
notional verb says.
You needn’t go there since he came back home yesterday night.
I needn’t tell you how happy I felt over the result of my exam.
You needn’t have hurried so.
We needn’t translate the whole text, need we?
N.B.:
a) The negative answer to a question built with “need” is needn’t, but when it is affirmative, it is must.
“Need we leave for the country today?”
“No, I needn’t.”
“Yes, I must.”(never say: “Yes, I need!)
b) When need is synonym with must, the question is must and not “need”.
“You needn’t go to the library to read that book, must you?”
 “Oh yes, I must!”

USED TO[ju:st]
1. a past habitual action:
As a child I used to dream of far-off lands.
When in the country, you used to go to bed very early.
Mother used to tell me stories to put me to sleep.
2. a past state:
I used to know her. (Ne cunoşteam pe vremuri.)
Jane used to be a sweet child. (Jane era un copil încântător.)
3. something present in contrast to the same state in the past:
He feels better than he used to.
Things are what they used to be.
“They used to be great friends.” “Used?” („Erau foarte buni prieteni pe vremuri.” „Pe vremuri?”)

N.B.:
a) Both interrogative and negative forms can be with DO or as any other modal verb:
Used he to call there?
Did he use to call there?
Used there to be a tiny cottage here?
Did there use to be a cottage here?
He used not to call there.
He didn’t use to call there.
There used not to be tiny cottage here.
There didn’t use to be a tiny cottage here.
b) To express a present habitual state/action get used to or be used to is used:
I get used to go shopping on Fridays.
He gets/is used to have a coffee in the morning before going to his office.

BE TO
1. a fact previously established:
They are to work out a new scheme.
She was to meet them the following day. (She met them.)
There was to be a big party last night. (and it was)
N.B.:
When followed by the perfect infinitive it shows something that did not take place in the past or even in the future:
I was to have seen him last night. (but I didn’t see him)
I was to have seen him tomorrow. (but I have given up/renounced)
2. obligation, order:
They are to finish that at once. (Trebuie să termine aceasta imediat.)
She opened the letter because you said she was to. (A deschis scrisoarea deoarece i-ai spus că trebuia să o facă.)
You are not to come in here. (Nu ai voie să intri aici.)
3. possibility:
The house is to be reached from the road. (Se poate ajunge la casă din şosea.)
What am I to do if he doesn’t come? (Ce pot face dacă nu vine?)
Tickets are to be had at the entrance. (Biletele se pot obţine la intrare.)
Where is this book to be found? (Unde se poate găsi această carte?)
4. necessity:
You are to walk across the garden to reach the entrance. (Este necesar să traversezi grădina ca să ajungi la
intrare.)
She is to be praised for her achievement. (Trebuie/merită să fie lăudată pentru realizarea ei.)
5. inevitability:
We were never to meet again. (Nu ne-a mai fost dat să ne întâlnim.)
I was never to see the old house again: it was replaced by an up-to-date block of flats. (Nu aveam să mai văd
niciodată vechea casă: fusese înlocuită cu un bloc modern.)
N.B.:
Phrases with be:
husband to-be viitorul soţ
as it were ca să spun/zic aşa
there will be dancing se va dansa
Let me be! Lasă-mă în pace!
How is he? Ce mai face?
What is she like? Cum este?
What is to become of her? Ce se va întâmpla cu ea?
Where is he to go? Unde (trebuie) să meargă?
How is it that …? Cum se face că …?
Write this letter and don’t be all day about it! Scrie această scrisoare şi nu pierde toată ziua cu ea!
What’s up? Ce se întâmplă?
What have you been up to? Ce poznă ai mai făcut?