LECTURE 1
Psychology is derived from the Greek word
“psyche” meaning soul and “logos” which
means study. Literally, it means the study of
the soul. Eventually, psyche came to mean
“the mind”, which transformed the
psychology into the “study of the mind.”
Objectives of Psychology:
1.To describe the behavior. What is the
nature of this behavior?
2.To understand. Why does it occur?
3.To predict human behavior. When will it
occur?
4.To influence or alter behavior in order to
achieve an intended goal. What conditions
affect it?
Methods of Psychological Research:
1.Introspection Method. The individual
studies himself, records his own feelings
and experiences and later interprets them.
2.Observation Method. This involves
describing and interpreting the reactions of
individuals in the laboratory or in their
natural setting.
3.Experimental Method. This makes use of
controlled situations and the manipulation of
variables then collecting the resulting data in
order to prove tentative explanatory
theories.
4.Survey Method. Data are obtained through
written questionnaires or interviews from a
sample of a larger group. The conclusion
drawn about the sample is extended to the
larger group.
5.Empiricism. Information is gained through
direct observation and measurement.
The Schools of Thought in Psychology
The difference lies in the assumptions and
focus of each school as well as what
research methods to use.
Structuralism
Proponent: Wilhelm Wundt
Assumption: All complex substances can be
analyzed through their component elements.
The human conscious experience can be
broken into elements such as images, awareness.
physical sensation or feelings.  Method of research: Free association
Focus: Psychology should focus on
identifying and studying these component LECTURE 2
elements that form the consciousness.
Branches of Psychology
Method of research: Introspection
1. Developmental Psychology. This is the
Functionalism
branch of psychology that studies intra-
Proponent: William James 
individual and inter-individual changes. It is
Focus: The study of behavior as an
concerned with all aspects of human growth
integrated process and the operations or
and development process (cognitive, motor,
functions of conscious activity and how we
emotional, and social) from prenatal to old
adapt to our environment through learning.
age.
This school of thought was influenced by
Charles Darwin’s principle of natural
2. Comparative Psychology. This is the
selection. Functionalism wants to find out
branch of psychology that studies and
how human behaviors such as thinking,
compares the behavior of different
perception, habits and emotions aid survival.
organisms, species and animals. It aims to
Method of research: Experimentation
discover the similarities and differences
between animal behavior and human
Gestalt
behavior. 
Proponents: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Koffka
3. Legal or Forensic Psychology. This is the
Assumption: The whole is more than the
branch of psychology that deals with the
sum of its parts.
application of the principles of human
Focus: Gestalt is a German word which
behavior to legal processes. In criminology,
means “the whole.” Psychology should study
it is concerned with the detection of guilt as
the whole pattern of behavior, experience
well as the reliability of testimony. It also
and perception. 
studies the psychology of delinquency and
Method of research: Introspection and
crime.
observation
4. Social Psychology. This is the branch of
Behaviorism psychology that studies the behavior of a
Proponent: Watson, Thorndike, B.F. Skinner group, its relationship with other groups and
Assumption: Conditional reflexes are the its social influences on the behavior of the
elements of behavior. Behavior is learned individual. It focuses on how the individual
through stimulus-response connections. behaves, thinks and feels in a group.
Focus: The importance of learning and the
influence of the environment on how an 5. Parapsychology. This is the branch of
organism responds or behaves. psychology that investigates all
Method of research: Experimentation and psychological phenomena that cannot be
observation explained using ordinary scientific principles.
Examples of such phenomena include extra-
Psychoanalysis sensory perception or E.S.P.
Proponent: Sigmund Freud
Assumption: The mind is like an iceberg. 6. Experimental Psychology. This is the
What is visible above the water is the branch of psychology concerned with the
consciousness. What is submerged study of behavior using experimentation. It is
underwater is the unconscious mind. The also concerned with the development of
unconscious is composed of thoughts, precise methods of measurement of
desires, sexual and aggressive impulses behavior. Experiments are conducted to find
that are hidden or repressed which are out how people are motivated, how they
sometimes revealed by dreams, emotions or perceive, think, feel and respond emotionally
slips of the tongue. to given situations. 
Focus: The study of the unconscious mind
and how it affects consciousness. The
unconscious lies outside personal
7. Abnormal Psychology. This is the branch
of psychology that studies deviant behavior
and the cause of personality defects.
8. Counseling Psychology. This is the
branch of psychology that deals with helping
people in educational, career or social
adjustments. It also deals with the
administration and interpretation of
psychological tests that measure
intelligence, aptitudes and personality.
9. Clinical Psychology. This is the branch of
psychology that deals with the diagnosis and
treatment of emotional and behavioral
disorders that are rooted in individual
motivation, emotion and personality.  connects with the dendrites of another
10. Educational Psychology. This is that
branch of psychology that focuses on the
practical application of psychological
principles to education. It studies how the
motivation and learning of students may be
enhanced through educational strategies
and techniques, taking into account their
individual differences. 
11. Industrial Psychology. This is that
branch of psychology that is concerned with
the selection, training, supervising and
counseling of personnel in business and
industry. It also deals with the evaluation of
internal organization, effective supervision
and communication and employee morale.
Physiological Bases of Behavior
The Nervous System
The human body is composed of a
number of systems of organs, such as the
cardiovascular system (the heart, arteries
and veins), the digestive system (stomach,
intestines, etc.), the respiratory system
(lungs, trachea, etc.) but the most complex
and elaborate of them all is the nervous
system. It is composed of interrelating units
that enable man to receive stimuli from the
environment and make the necessary
responses to such stimuli. The nervous
system regulates the behavior of the whole
individual in order to survive.
The Neuron
The neuron or nerve cell process and
carry information as well as activate muscles
and glands. Therefore, everything that we
do can be traced back to the neuron. The
brain is composed of a mass of neurons.  The brain is composed of over 100 billion
The Neuron has 3 parts:
1. Dendrites. They appear similar to the
roots of a tree. These specialize in receiving
signals from other neurons.
2. Cell Body. The cell body process the
signal received by the dendrites. It also
sends its own message to another neuron
using the axon.
3. Axon. The axon is the thin fiber that
carries signals away from the cell body and
neuron. Axons may be .1 millimeter to as
long as 1 meter.
The 3 Types of Neurons:
1. Sensory. These neurons carry messages
from the sense organs towards the central
nervous system.
2. Motor. These neurons carry messages
from the central nervous system to the
muscles and glands.
3. Associating. These connect neurons to
each other. 
The Nerve Impulse:
The nerve impulse is an electrical signal
from one neuron to another. The
microscopic space between two neurons
over which the nerve impulse travels is
called the synapse. The nerve impulse
traverses the synapse when the axon
terminals of the sending neuron release
neurotransmitters to the dendrites of the
receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters are
chemicals that affect the behavior of other
neurons. There are as many as 30 different
neurotransmitters. Some examples of
neurotransmitters are endorphin, dopamine
and serotonin.
The neuron cannot be replaced. Damage
to or destruction of neurons is permanent.
The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of
the brain and spinal cord.
The Brain
neurons. As we compare different animals
from lower forms to higher forms, an
increasing proportion of the brain is devoted
to the cerebrum. The cerebrum is the
highest brain area in humans. Its outer layer
is known as the cerebral cortex. The
cerebral cortex is the wrinkled gray matter
(mostly cell bodies of neurons) – the visible
outermost layer. 
The cortex is composed of two
hemispheres that are connected by a band
of fibers called the corpus callosum. These
two hemispheres control the opposite sides
of the body. The left hemisphere controls the
right side of the body. The right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body.
The functions of the left hemisphere:
1. It controls language
2. It processes information sequentially
The functions of the right hemisphere:
1. It is better at spatial skills, patterns,
music.
2. It processes information holistically.
The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
1. Occipital lobe. This is the primary visual
area.
2. Parietal lobe. This is responsible for
touch, temperature and pressure.
3. Temporal lobes. They are responsible for
auditory information.
4. Frontal lobe. This is associated with
higher mental function and control of
movement.
Subcortex of the Brain
The subcortex can be divided into 3
parts.
1. The Hindbrain (or brainstem). The
hindbrain consists of the medulla and the
cerebellum. The medulla has control over
vital life functions including heart rate,
breathing, swallowing and the like. The
cerebellum regulates posture, muscle tone
and muscular coordination.
2. The Midbrain. This is the information
switching center of the brain. It serves as the
link between the hindbrain and the forebrain.
3. The Forebrain. The forebrain contains the
thalamus and the hypothalamus. The
thalamus acts as a final switching station for
sensory messages. The hypothalamus is the
master control center for emotion and basic
motives. The hypothalamus affects
behaviors such as rage, sex, hormone
release, eating and drinking, sleep, walking
and emotion. The hypothalamus, parts of
the thalamus and other brain structures form
the limbic system. The limbic system has a
major role in producing emotion and
motivated behavior. The amygdala is
strongly related to fear. Phobias and anxiety
are connected with the function of the
amygdala.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system has two
subparts.
1. Somatic system. This carries messages
to and from the sense organs and skeletal
muscles. This system can make your hand
move but cannot change your heart rate.
2. Autonomic system. This serves the
internal organs and glands of the body. This
system can stimulate digestion but cannot
make you write a letter. The autonomic
system can be subdivided further into two.  When a person is frightened or angry, a
1) Sympathetic. This prepares the body for
“fight” or “flight” situations because of
danger or emotional arousal.  sugar is released for quick energy, the
2) Parasympathetic. This calms the body
after the danger or emotional arousal have
ceased.
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord acts as a cable
connecting the brain to the rest of the body.
The spinal cord is responsible for the reflex
arc. When a part of the body is accidentally
subjected to pain like when you touch a hot
surface, the body automatically pulls your
hand away from the source of the pain even
before you feel that you have been burned.
No brain activity is required for the reflex
arc.
LECTURE 3
The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System is made up of a
number of glands that release chemicals
known as hormones into the blood and
lymph systems. Hormones affect internal
activities and behavior and activate cells in
the body. 
The Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is located at the base
of the brain. It is called the master gland
because it secretes hormones that control
the other glands. It also regulates growth.
The Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is located in the neck
and it regulates metabolism by releasing the
hormone thyroxin. Metabolism is the rate at
which energy is produced and expended in
the body. If a person has an overactive
thyroid, he will suffer from hyperthyroidism
and will tend to be thin, tense, excitable and
nervous. A person with hypothyroidism has
an underactive thyroid and suffers from
inactivity, sleepiness, slowness and being
overweight.
The Adrenal Gland
number of important actions take place in
his body to prepare him for action: his heart
rate and blood pressure rise and stored
muscles tense and receive more blood. The
adrenaline hormone is released when a
person is in fear. The noradrenaline
hormone is secreted when the person is
angry.
The adrenal glands are located atop the
kidneys. The adrenal cortex release
corticoids, which are responsible for the
regulation of salt in the body. It also helps
the body adjust to stress.  Each chromosome is composed of long
The Parathyroid Gland
Located inside the thyroid gland are the
parathyroid glands. They release
parathormone that control the balance of
various minerals in the bloodstream,
especially calcium. A slight deficiency in this
hormone causes tension and irritability.
Islets of Langerhans
These are a group of cells located in the
pancreas. They secrete insulin which
regulate the metabolism of glucose or blood
sugar. Undersecretion of insulin causes
diabetes mellitus. An excess of insulin
makes the blood sugar drop so low that the
cells in the brain are affected which may
cause convulsion, unconsciousness and
death.
Gonads
The female ovaries produce estrogen
and progesterone. Estrogen causes the
development of the female secondary
characteristics. Progesterone is known as
the pregnancy hormone. For males,
testosterone is released by the testis and it
regulates the development of the male sex
organs.
The Nature of Development
Development is a progressive series of
changes that occur as a result of maturation
and experience. 
Development follows a definite,
predictable pattern. Each phase of
development has characteristic patterns of
behavior and its hazards. Development is
affected by cultural changes and social
expectations for every stage.
Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of traits from
parents to offspring through the genes.
Heredity brings about development through
the process of maturation.
A girl is born with all the ova she will ever
have. A boy begins producing sperm cells at
puberty. The ova and sperm cell carry 23
chromosomes each. When the sperm and
the ova unite, these chromosomes pair up.
threads of a molecule called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Your sex is
determined by your twenty-third pair of
chromosomes, the sex chromosomes. Your
mother provides the X chromosome, while
your father provides either an X or Y
chromosome.
The fertilized egg or zygote contains all
the hereditary potentials, which will later
develop into traits. Heredity is entirely a
matter of chance. Heredity places limits
beyond which individual s cannot go.
At any given time and age, the level of
development is the product of the interaction
between heredity and environment. These
two are interrelated and interdependent.
Hereditary potentials cannot develop in a
vacuum. Learning cannot occur if the
neuromuscular system is not ready.
The Four Principles of Development
1. Development is orderly and follows a
sequential pattern, which is predictable.
Sitting precedes standing, standing
precedes walking.
2. Development is a product of the
interaction between maturation and learning.
Maturation requires an adequate and
appropriate environment. Learning takes
place through the effort of the individual only
when he is biologically ready to learn.
3. There are individual differences in
development. Each child will go through
these stages at his own rate.
4. Development proceeds by stages. One
stage prepares the child for the next.
The Prenatal Period
As the zygote passes down the fallopian
tube into the uterus, the outer layer develops
into the placenta, the umbilical cord and the
amniotic sac. The inner layer develops into a
new human being. About ten days after
fertilization, the zygote becomes implanted
in the uterine wall.
Nerve cells appear during the third week
and increase rapidly during the 2nd, 3rd and
4th months as long as the mother is not
malnourished. Fetal heartbeat can be
detected by the fifteenth week. Fetal
movements appear between 18 and 22
weeks.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Age Range Description of Stage
Development Milestone
Sensorimotor Stage Anal Stage (age 2-3)
Birth to almost 2 years This stage focuses on the child’s toilet-
Experiencing the world through senses and training. The child needs to learn to inhibit
actions the impulse to defecate. The child learns
control over his anal area. Those who
• Object permanence  become fixated on this stage tend to
• Stranger anxiety  become obsessed with control over his
environment and himself i.e. everything has
Preoperational Stage  to be planned and neat.
2 to 6 years
Phallic Stage (age 4-5)
Representing things with words  A 4-year old boy develops a strong sexual
and images but lacking logical  attraction for his mother and begins to see
reasoning the father as his rival. This is called the
Oedipus Complex, taken from the story of
• Ability to pretend  Oedipus Rex. 
• Egocentrism
A 4-year old girl at the start is close to her
Concrete Operational Stage  mother. But when she discovers that her
7 to 11 years body lacks a certain organ, she blames her
mother and becomes attracted to her father
Thinking logically about concrete  who possesses the missing organ. This is
events; grasping concrete  called the Electra Complex.
analogies and performing arithmetic 
operations Latency Stage (age 6-11)
Sexual impulses are lessened and the child
• Conservation engages in other activities.
• Mathematical transformations
• Abstract logic Genital Stage (puberty onwards)
This stage is marked by the maturation of
Formal operational Stage the reproductive system for boys and girls.
12 through adulthood The libido (sex impulse) is now directed
towards activities such as forming
Abstract reasoning friendships, starting a career, courtship and
marriage.
• Potential for mature moral reasoning
Erik Erikson’s Psycho-social Stages of
LECTURE 4 Development
Sigmund Freud’s Psycho-sexual Stages of An individual develops a healthy personality
Development by mastering and overcoming the crisis of
each stage.
Each stage is dominated by the
development of a particular erogenous zone Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 1st year)
(pleasure-giving area of the body). Each
stage also poses a unique conflict that must Whether children come to trust or mistrust
be resolved before going to the next stage. themselves and other people. Infants whose
Otherwise, fixation (addiction to the needs are met and shown genuine affection
pleasure) on that stage occurs develop a sense that the world is safe and
dependable. But if the environment is
Oral Stage (age 0-1) chaotic, unpredictable and rejecting, fear
This is marked by gratification of the mouth and suspicion result in the child.
area by the infant through feeding sucking, Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (2nd to
biting. Those who become fixated on this 3rd years)
stage tend to put things in their mouth such
as pens and cigarettes. A child begins to explore the world. When
parents are patient and encouraging,
children acquire a sense of independence
and competence. If children are not allowed
or are overprotected, a sense of shame and
doubt develops.
Initiative versus Guilt (4th to 5th years)
A child’s motor and mental abilities expand.
Parents who give children freedom in
running, sliding, biking help them develop
initiative. Otherwise, children regard
themselves as nuisances in an adult world.
They become passive.
Industry versus Inferiority (6th to 11th years)
In elementary, children become concerned
with how things work and how they are
made. They develop a sense of industry by
receiving recognition for their achievements.
Parents and teachers who support, reward,
praise children encourage industry. Those
who ridicule or ignore children’s efforts make
them feel inferior.
Identity versus Role Confusion (12th to 18th
years)
Adolescence poses the question “Who am
I?” The individual tries many roles, romantic
involvement and vocational choice. An
integrated and coherent self must be
developed or role confusion occurs. This
may result in the “delinquent” or the
“hoodlum.”
Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood)
Intimacy is the capacity to reach out and
make contact with other people through
deep friendships. It is the ability to share
with and care about another without fear of
losing oneself. But the risk is rejection. So,
others choose shallow relationships and
tend to be withdrawn and isolated.
Generativity versus Stagnation (middle
adulthood)
Generativity is being able to embrace
society and future generations. It is marked
by selflessness. Stagnation is preoccupation
with material possessions and one’s own
physical well-being. A self-centered,
embittered individual characterizes
stagnation.
Integrity versus Despair (old age) involves a certain amount of difference
Integrity is a sense of satisfaction comes among stimuli before one stimulus can be
from one’s accomplishments. Despair is the distinguished from another.
feeling that the time is now too short to
attempt to start a new life. 3. Ability to adjust to a particular stimulus
(sensory adaptation).
LECTURE 5
I. Visual Sense
Sensation and Perception
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Sensation is the entire process of receiving
Longest wavelength Shortest wavelength
information about the world through the
Lowest frequency Highest frequency
mechanisms of the five senses.
Radio Microwave Infrared Visible light
Perception is the process by which the brain
Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma ray
interprets and organizes these sensations
into meaningful patterns.
The Eye
What is the absolute minimum amount of
1. Sclera (outer coat). A tough opaque layer
energy necessary for a sensation to occur?
of connective tissue to protect the eye’s
inner structures. In the front, it becomes the
Sense: Vision
cornea, which is thin and transparent
Stimulus: Electromagnetic waves
receiving light rays that will pass through the
Receptor Cells: Rods & cones
pupil.
Absolute Threshold: Candle flame seen 48
kilometers away
2. Chloroids (middle pigmented layer). In
front of the eye, it forms the iris. Its pigment
Sense: Hearing
is responsible for the color of the eye. The
Stimulus: Sound waves
iris is arrangement of muscles and expands
Receptor Cells: Organ of Corti
to change the size of the pupil depending
Absolute Threshold: Tick of a watch under
upon the amount or intensity of illumination
quiet conditions 20 feet away
called light or dark adaptation.
Sense: Taste
3. Retina (inner layer). The retina contains
Stimulus: Food
115 million rods and 6.5 million cones
Receptor Cells: Taste buds
evenly distributed in the eye. An area of the
Absolute Threshold: 1 teaspoon of sugar in
retina called the fovea contains only cones.
2 gallons of water
Rods. They are called rods because of their
Sense: Smell
cylindrical shape. These function under low
Stimulus: Scent
illumination and are sensitive to white, gray
Receptor Cells: Olfactory cells
and black colors. 
Absolute Threshold: 1 drop of perfume
diffused in a 3-room apartment
Cones. These are conical in shape. The
cones function in bright light. They are
Sense: Touch
sensitive to both black and white as well as
Stimulus: Pain, pressure, warmth, coldness
color and fine details.
Receptor Cells: Nerve endings
Absolute Threshold: A bee’s wing falling on
Note: The rods are insensitive to red light.
your cheek from 1 centimeter height
Submarines, airplane cockpits use red light
so that people can move quickly into the
General characteristics of sense receptors:
dark without having t adapt.
1. Before any sensory receptor can be
How light is processed
triggered, a minimum of sense receptor
stimulation is required.
Light strikes the cornea. Light is gathered
2. Sensitivity of sense receptors also
through the pupil. The crystalline lens
behind the pupil focuses the rays on the
retina. Once the receptors have been
activated, the neural message is transmitted
to the ganglion cells that form the optic
nerve and is carried finally to the occipital
lobe.
Visual Acuity
This is the sharpness of vision which can be
measured in terms of the smallest object
that can be seen at a standard distance or
the greatest distance at which a
standardized object can be seen. 20/20
vision: at 20 feet, you can distinguish what
an average person can distinguish at 20
feet. 20/40 vision: at 20 feet you can
distinguish what the average person can see
at 40 feet.
Accommodation of the Lens
This is the process in which the lens
become thinner to bring faraway objects into
focus and thickens to focus on nearby
objects.
Defects of Vision
1. Presbyopia. This is a special form of far-
sightedness that occurs with advancing of
age. The lens hardens so that it fails in
accommodation. A presbyopic person
cannot focus clearly on near objects and
must wear glasses to do so.
2. Hyperopia. This is also called
farsightedness caused by a shortened
eyeball making it hard for the lens to bulge
enough to focus on near objects. The
distance from the lens to the retina is too
long making the image focus behind the
retina. A farsighted person is able to see far
objects clearly but not near ones.
3. Myopia. This is called near-sightedness. If
the eyeball is elongated, the distance from
the lens to the retina is too short making the
image focus in front of the retina. The lens is
unable to thin out enough to focus on far
objects.
4. Astigmatism. This is a structural
irregularity in the shape of the cornea, which
bends incoming light in irregular ways
distorting the image on the retina.  called the taste buds. Much of the taste
5. Color blindness. This can be caused by
an inherited lack of one of the three types of
cones, abnormally functioning cones or by
deficiencies in the nerves that relay
messages to the brain. Total color blindness
(monochromatic) causes all colors to be in
different shades of black and white. Partial
color blindness, is caused by lost vision for
one or two of the three fundamental colors
(red, green or blue).
6. Tunnel vision. This is a condition caused
by a concentric narrowing of the field of
vision so that a person seems to be looking
through a tunnel or pipe.  3. The Inner Ear. This is also called the
7. Diplopia. Also called double vision, this is
caused by a muscular imbalance between
the two eyeballs, which permits light to fall
on non-corresponding retinas causing two
images to form in the brain.
8. Scotoma. This is a temporary or
permanent blind spot resulting from
excessive use of tobacco or alcohol or from
over exposure from light.
LECTURE 6
II. Auditory Sense (Hearing)
Sound waves are the rhythmic movement of
air molecules. Any vibrating object – a
tuning fork, the string of a musical
instrument or the vocal cords – will produce
sound waves.
The 3 Attributes of Sound:
1. Frequency. This refers to the number of
vibrations per second and determines the
pitch of the sound.
If the frequency is less than 20 hertz it is
infrasonic.
If the frequency is more than 20,000 hertz,
the sound is ultrasonic.
2. Intensity. This refers to the amplitude of
the sound wave or the height of its crests
and determines loudness. If the crests are
high, the sound is intense and vice versa.
Exposure to sound above 85 decibels for
prolonged periods may damage the inner
ear.
3. Timbre. This refers to the overtones
present in a sound which determines tonal
quality.
The 3 Parts of the Ear
1. The Outer Ear. This is composed of the
pinna, auditory canal and the tympanic
membrane (eardrum).
2. The Middle Ear. This is an air-filled
chamber that is connected to the pharynx by
the Eustachian Tube that serves to equalize
pressure on the two sides of the eardrum. It
is composed of three bones or ossicles
namely the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil)
and the stapes (stirrup).
cochlea where the sound receptors are
found. It is filled with fluid and shaped like a
small shell that has 3 canals: the cochlear
canal, tympanic canal, and the vestibular
canal.
The Process of Hearing
Sound waves enter the pinna. It causes
vibrations in the eardrum. These vibrations
pass through the middle ear where the three
ossicles amplify these vibrations into the
inner ear where it reaches the cochlea. It is
in the cochlea where the hair cells of the
Organ of Corti move and bend sending
neural impulses to the brain via the auditory
nerve.
Defects of Hearing
1. Conduction Deafness. This is deafness
due to the inability to transmit vibrations .
Hearing aids can help remedy this type of
deafness.
2. Nerve Deafness. This results from
damage to the nerves themselves or to the
delicate parts of the cochlea.
3. Total and Partial Deafness. This results
from otitis media – an infection of the middle
ear and damage to the cochlea.
4. Tone Deafness. This is the inability of the
person to differentiate tones although there
is nothing wrong with his hearing.
III. Gustatory Sense (Taste)
The taste of food is sensed by the receptor
cells on the upper surface of the tongue
sensation depends also on (1) warmth, (2)
mild irritation due to spices and (3) smell of
the food.
The 4 Basic Taste Senses
1. Sweet. This is on the tip of the tongue.
2. Sour. This is on the side of the tongue.
3. Salty. This is also on the tip and sides of
the tongue.
4. Bitter. This is at the base of the tongue.
Taste sensitivity depends on how many
taste buds you have on your tongue. It can
range from 500 taste buds to as many as
10,000 taste buds. Those who possess
10,000 are called the supertasters. Tobacco
smoke temporarily reduces the sensitivity to
taste. Smokers who give up smoking often
find that food tastes better.
IV. Olfactory Sense (Smell)
As air enters the nose, it passes over 5
million nerve fibers lining the upper nasa
passages, which trigger nerve signals that
are sent to the brain via the olfactory nerve.
The receptor cells are in the olfactory
epithelium. At least 1000 types of receptors
for smell exist.
The Lock and Key Theory of smell
The brain uses molecular fingerprints that
identify each particular scent. It is said that
there are different-shaped holes on the odor
receptors and when a part of the molecule
matches a hole of the same shape, the
scent is then identified.
Some Types of Odors:
1. Flowery: sampaguita
2. Fruity: orange
3. Spicy: pepper
4. Resinous: smell of oil
5. Burnt or smoky: smell of overcooked
barbeque
6. Foul or putrid: smell of bad eggs or
garbage.
V. Cutaneous Sense (Touch)
Thermal Experiences
A greater change in temperature is needed
to sense heat. Reaction to the sensation of
warmth is slower than sensing cold.
Anything that affects blood supply affects
sensitivity.
Kinesthetic Sensation (Sense of Active
Movement)
Receptor cells for this type of sensation are
in the muscles. When the muscles stretch
and in the tendons when the muscles
contract.
Equilibrium (Sense of Static or Passive
Movement)
Receptor cells give information about
movements of the head and a sense of
balance to the body.
The semicircular canals are filled with fluid
which resists movement by remaining
stationary and causes hair cells attached to
the moving walls to be stimulated.
Receptors in the vestibular canal make us
constantly aware of the position of our head.
It provides neural messages to keep us
oriented to gravity and allows reflex
muscular actions required to preserve our
equilibrium.
What causes motion sickness?
Dizziness and nausea occur when
sensations from the vestibular canal do not
match information received from the eyes of
the body.
Internal Bodily Movement (Organic
Sensation)
This is the sensitivity to the visceral and
other internal organs and the body.
Examples are the sensations of thirst,
hunger, nausea and bladder tensions.
Perception
This is the organization of sensory input into
meaningful experiences.
Organization in Perception
1. Figure and ground. One part usually
stands out while the rest remain in the
background.
2. Grouping. We tend to structure or
organize what we see. 
a. Principle of Similarity. Stimuli which are
similar tend to be perceived as forming a
group.
b. Principle of Proximity. The tendency to
perceive stimuli that are near one another as
belonging together.
c. Principle of Closure. When fragmentary
stimuli form enough of a familiar figure, we
tend to perceive the whole figure, ignoring
the missing part.
d. Principle of Continuity. Stimuli forming a
continuous irregular pattern are better
perceived than discontinuous irregular
stimuli.
Factors that Influence Perception
A. Stimulus Characteristics
1. Intensity. The more intense the stimulus,
the more likely it is to be attended to and
perceived.
2. Repetition. Advertisers use this very
effectively. One minute spot commercials
repeated every hour catches the attention of
the viewer more than a 10-minute
commercial once a day.
3. Contrast. Intensified difference from the
immediate surroundings. Example: the use
of uniforms.
4. Movement. Moving stimuli are more likely
to attract attention than stationary ones.
5. Change in Stimulus. Change in the
characteristics of the stimulus as a result of
lighting and movement may aid perception
of an object. Example: illumination on
billboards, change in packing, variations in
advertising jingles.
B. Characteristics of the Perceiver
1. Motivation. Perception s highly selective.
We tend to perceive more those objects or
stimuli that are consistent with our motives.
2. Experience. Experiences that are
rewarding and punishing tend to color our
perception.
3. Physical characteristics of the individual.
Frame of reference or the relationship
between the environment and qualities of
the perceiver.
4. Set. This is a temporary tendency to
respond in a certain way
5. Interests and Attitudes. People attend to
those aspects of the environment that they
are interested in.
6. Attention. Human beings can only be
aware of a very limited number of stimuli.
Depth Perception
This is our ability to see three-dimensional
space. The following are some principles:
1. Near things often appear in front of and
cover up more distant objects.
2. Objects appear smaller when farther
away than when near.
3. The lights and shadows upon parts of an
object give depth cues.
4. Lack of clarity or the presence of haze
also conveys depth.
5. Relative movement of near and far
objects when the observer is moving with
respect to the objects.
An illusion is an error in perception.
Extra-Sensory Perception:
1. Telepathy. This is mind-to-mind
communication.
2. Clairvoyance. The ability to see faraway
places with your mind
3. Precogition. The ability to perceive future
events.
4. Psychokinesis. The ability to move
inanimate objects with your mind.
LECTURE 7
The Nature of Consciousness
Consciousness is an active awareness of all
the many thoughts, images, perceptions and
emotions that occupy the mind at any given
time.
The Unity of Consciousness
Consciousness has a unity that integrates
our experience into a whole. 
The Selectivity of Consciousness
The selectivity of consciousness allows us to
focus on some single aspect of that whole.
For example, we can concentrate on an
object’s shape, color, size or any other
characteristic.
Consciousness and the Brain
Consciousness guides brain activity while
brain activity gives rise to consciousness.
The Modes of Consciousness
Consciousness has many modes. A
person’s states of consciousness vary from
highly focused, systematic, purposeful
thinking to loosely-focused, unstructured,
free-wandering images. They vary between
wakeful consciousness and altered states of
consciousness.
The Altered States of Consciousness
Two ways to induce altered states of
consciousness: (1) Drastically reduce
sensor input or create a sensory
environment that is highly repetitive and
boring (sensory deprivation); (2) Intensify
sensory input or overload the senses
(caused by traumatic experience or certain
drugs).  Fully awake
Characteristics of Altered States of
Consciousness:
1. Thought tends to be rather shallow.
Thought remains on the level of images and
sounds.
2. The self and external reality may seem to
blend.
3. Normal inhibitions may be lost during
altered states of consciousness.
4. Perceptual hallucinations may occur.
5. The contents of the consciousness may
become more vivid. Colors may e brighter,
sounds sharper and emotions more acutely
felt.  temperature and pulse rate.
The Continuum of Consciousness
1. Normal waking
2. Realistic fantasy : takes narrative form
and is often problem oriented
3. Autistic fantasy : lacks any orientation
toward reality
4. Reverie : has neither coherence nor
control by the fantasizer and consists of
unrelated scenes or memories
5. Hypnagogic : vivid sights or intense
sounds
6. Dreaming
Sleep and Dreaming 
Sleep occupies 1/3 of our lives. The brain’s
wake center is in the reticular formation. The
brain also contains sleep circuits that extend
from the lower hindbrain to the thalamus and
the cortex. The sleep-wake cycle is part of a
set of naturally occurring daily rhythms in the
body called circadian rhythms. (circa is Latin
for about and dies means day). The
circadian rhythm is on a 25-hour cycle. 
Sleep and the Electroencephalograph
The electroencephalograph is a device used
for recording the brain’s electrical activity.
The EEG measure the types of brain waves
that occur during the sleep-wake cycle.
These waves are compared according to
their frequencies. These frequencies
steadily drop as a person enters deeper
stages of sleep. 
Beta waves
14 cycles per second
Apha waves appear
8-12 cycles per second
Eyes closed and relaxed
Theta waves appear
3-7 cycles per second
Begins to fall asleep
Delta waves occur (This is called delta
sleep)
½ - 2 cycles per second
Sleep
Relaxation of the muscles, slow and regular
breathing, significant drop in body
The longer the preceding period of
wakefulness, the greater the number of delta
waves emitted and the greater their
amplitude or strength. 
People deprived of delta sleep report
physical discomfort, tenderness of the
muscles and joints and increased sensitivity
to pain.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
Sleep goes through these different stages
every 90 minutes. At the end of each cycle,
instead of waking up, the person repeats the
cycle. Near the end of each cycle, the
individual experiences rapid eye movements
or REM. REM sleep can occur 4-5 times a
night.
During REM sleep, dreams with vivid visual
imagery and active participation by the
dreamer occur 80% of the time. The
Scanning Hypothesis says that the eyes
move as the dreamer watches the activity
unfolding in the dream.  2. Selectivity. Concentrating on one stimulus
Dream Content
It has been found that personally significant
events and motives shape dreams.
Pregnant women dream about unborn
children. People under stress dream about
the stressor. Aggressive individuals dream
about fighting.
Dreams and Freud
has little will of his own, and acts according
to the suggestions of the person who
brought about the condition. Hypnosis
comes from a Greek word which means
sleep.
To induce a hypnotic state, a hypnotist uses
persuasive suggestions, a procedure called
hypnotic induction. The hypnotist suggests
that you are feeling detached from everyday
concerns. Among the hypnotic suggestions
are calmness, drowsiness, sleepiness and
comfort. Heightened suggestability is at the
heart of the hypnotic experience.
Hypnotic phenomena:
1. Loss of spontaneity. People stop planning
what to do and wait for suggestions.
blocking out all other awareness.
3. Reduced reality testing. A person may
hallucinate with his eyes open.
4. Enactment of unusual roles. 
5. Posthypnotic suggestability. Cues are
suggested that may cause particular
sensations of actions but without the subject
remembering the suggestion.
6. Posthypnotic amnesia. Temporarily
forgetting what happened during the
hypnotic trance.
daily life, enriches experiences and
enhances overall contentment. By
meditating, the body of the meditator may
undergo slowed metabolism. Oxygen
consumption may drop, breathing and heart
rate may slow down, skin resistance to
electrical conduction may rise and blood
pressure may drop. Meditation is often used
in many stress management programs.
Biofeedback
This is the ability of the meditator to control
certain body processes such as blood
pressure and heart rate. In the Himalayas,
some meditators are able to keep their body
temperature high enough to melt
surrounding ice.
LECTURE 8
Intelligence
Intelligence has been associated with what
the individual can do in a new situation of
ever-increasing difficulty within a minimum
amount of time. It measures actual of
potential ability to perform selected tasks by
complex learning and thinking. Intelligence
also refers to variations in the ability to learn.

David Wechsler's definition of intelligence: It

Freud concluded that dreams reflect
people’s unconscious impulses to gratify
drives or fulfill wishes that cannot be
satisfied in reality. The manifest content of
the dream disguises and dramatizes the
hidden drives and wishes, which form the
latent content or real meaning of the dream.
The bizarre features of the dream arises as
the mind attempts to conceal the truth.
Sleep Disorders
1. Disorders of initiating and maintaining
sleep
Insomnia  Meditation
2. Disorders of excessive sleep
Sleep apnea  common element is that the meditator
Hypersomnia and Narcolepsy
3. Disorders of the sleep-wake schedule
Jetlag and work-shift problems
4. Dysfunctions associated with sleep
stages
Nightmares, sleep-walking and sleep-related
bed-wetting
Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a condition in which a person
Conditions for Hypnosis to work:
is the global capacity to act purposefully, to
think rationally and to deal effectively with
1. The subject must be open to hypnosis
the environment.
2. There must be rapport between the
hypnotist and a desire to cooperate by the
We can define intelligence operationally by
subject
testing memory, reasoning and verbal
3. The more a subject engages in fantasy,
fluency.
imagery and imagination the more
susceptible he/she is to hypnosis.
The Intelligence Quotient
4. Subjects who fear the new and different,
find it hard to concentrate or are unwilling to
IQ is both a reflection of prior educational
accept authority and submit themselves, will
achievement and a predictor of subsequent
have less chance of being hypnotized.
educational performance. It is also an
effective predictor of performance in many
occupations and other activities of adult life.
There are varied forms of meditation but one
IQ can be expressed as a single score that
focuses on a single stimulus. 
indicates the individual's general intellectual
One form of meditation called Zazen
ability.
practiced by Japanese Zen Buddhists,
focuses on the normal flow of their breathing
IQ is not fixed and is susceptible to
without trying to control it. Other stimuli can
modification by environmental interventions.
be a candle flame or a part of one’s body.
Special training programs and
environmental changes affect IQ.
Some claimed benefits of meditation
IQ is an expression of an individual's ability
include: neutralization of the stresses of
level at a given point in time, in relation to
age norms.
Stanford-Binet IQ score: Scores on
intelligence are generally reported in terms
of mental age.
IQ = mental age (MA) / chronological age
(CA) x 100
IQ reflects education, maturity and
experience. IQ gradually increases until
about the age of 40. When IQ declines, the
possible causes are: chronic illnesses,
drinking problems or un-stimulating
lifestyles.
Testing Intelligence
A test has to be reliable and valid. A test is
reliable if when taken repeatedly, yields
approximately the same score each time a
person takes it. A test is valid when it
measures what it claims to measure.
Intelligence tests are useful in selecting
children for special learning institutions.
In many companies, intelligence tests are
used as a preliminary screening instrument
for prospective employees.
Intelligence tests are also used in clinical
testing to identify the mentally retarded.
An alternative to the Stanford-Binet test is
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS
III). Performance intelligence is measured by
solving puzzles, assembling objects,
completing pictures and other non-verbal
tasks. Verbal intelligence is measured by
asnwering questions involving vocabulary,
general information, arithmetic and other
language symbol oriented tasks.
Aptitudes
An aptitude is a capacity for learning certain
abilities. Persons with mechanical, artistic or
musical aptitudes are likely to do well in
those areas.
IQs are generally not good predictors of real
world success. However, when scores are in
the gifted range, the likelihood of
outstanding achievement does seem to be
higher.
Intelligence Levels:
IQ level
Severe mental retardation Below 25
Incapable of learning
Requires close supervision
(caregiver)
Moderate mental retardation 25-50
Incapable of school
learning
Mild mental retardation 50-70 Can complete
grade 3-4
Borderline defective 70-80
Low average 80-90
Normal or average 90-110
High average 110-120
Superior 120-130
Very superior 130-140
Genius 140 +
Causes of Mental Retardation
Familial retardation occurs mostly in poor
families where nutrition, intellectual
stimulation, medical care and emotional
support may be inadequate.
About 50% of mental retardation are related
to physical disorders including:
1. Phenylketonuria (caused by specific
genes)
2. Chromosomal aberration
2.1 Down symdrome: results from flaws in
the parent's egg or sperm cells (not usually
hereditary)
2.2 Fragile x syndrome: this is sex-linked in
which boys are affected 1 out of 1200.
3. Infection, raditaion or toxic substances
during the prenatal period
4. Prenatal factors such as head injury or
oxygen deprivation resulting in  disabilities are those who possess an
4.1 microcephaly (skull fails to grow and is
extremely small)
4.2 hydrocephaly (caused by a build up of
cerebrospinal fluid which damages the brain
and enlarges the head)
5. Poor nutrition, frequent pregnancies or
frequent absences of adult males in the
home.
Giftedness
Gifted children are those who possess an
untrained and spontaneously expressed
natural ability in at least one ability domain
significantly beyond that typically seen in
children of the same age.
"No one is paid to sit around being capable
of achievement. What you do is always
more important that what you should be able
to do." - Whimbey, 1980
Talents are most likely to blossom when
combined with support, encouragement,
education and support.
Signs of Giftedness:
1. A tendency to seek out and identify with
other children and adults
2. An ability to absorb information rapidly
3. An early fascination with explanations and
problem solving
4. Talking in complete sentences as early as
2-3 years of age
5. An unusually good memory
6. Precocious talent in art, music or number
skills
7. An early interest in books
8. Showing kindness, understanding and
cooperation toward others
Gifted and talented children can show
diversity of personalities. The role of the
child's motivation and environment such as
family, school and peers may hinder the
realization of the child's abilities. Not all
gifted children are achievers.
Gifted learners are those who have abilities
in one or more subjects in the statutory
school curriculum.
Talented learners are those who have
abilities in art, design, music and performing
arts such as drama and dance.
Students who are gifted and have learning
outstanding gift or talent and are capable of
high performance, but who also have a
learning disability that makes some aspect
of academic achievement difficult. These
learning disabilities include poor self-
concept and lack of motivation, children
whose exceptional abilities have never been
identified and sit around the classroom
doing ordinary course work well below their
potential.
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple
Intelligences
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to
spoken and written language, the ability to
learn languages, and the capacity to use
language to accomplish certain goals. This
intelligence includes the ability to effectively
use language to express oneself rhetorically
or poetically; and language as a means to
remember information. Writers, poets,
lawyers and speakers are among those that
Howard Gardner sees as having high
linguistic intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of
the capacity to analyze problems logically,
carry out mathematical operations, and
investigate issues scientifically. In Howard
Gardner's words, it entails the ability to
detect patterns, reason deductively and
think logically. This intelligence is most often
associated with scientific and mathematical
thinking.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the
performance, composition, and appreciation
of musical patterns. It encompasses the
capacity to recognize and compose musical
pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to
Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in
an almost structural parallel to linguistic
intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the
potential of using one's whole body or parts
of the body to solve problems. It is the ability
to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily
movements. Howard Gardner sees mental
and physical activity as related.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to
recognize and use the patterns of wide
space and more confined areas.
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with
the capacity to understand the intentions,
motivations and desires of other people. It
allows people to work effectively with others.
Educators, salespeople, religious and
political leaders and counsellors all need a
well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
Intrapersonal intelligence entails the
capacity to understand oneself, to
appreciate one's feelings, fears and
motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it
involves having an effective working model
of ourselves, and to be able to use such
information to regulate our lives.
LECTURE 9
Motivation
The question of motivation is the question of
“why.” Why do we behave the way we do?
Human experience involves a causative
factor that produces a kind of response. In
explaining behavior, we start with an active
driving force: the individual seeks, the
individual wants, the individual fears. We
also specify an object toward which that
active driving force is directed: he seeks
wealth, he wants peace and he fears
illness.  time since the person has been satisfied.
Motivation is the study of the relationship
between the driving force and the object
which the driving force is directed. It is the
study of dynamics of behavior. What are the
wants, desires, drives or urges that cause
people to behave as they do.
In order to understand the behavior of the
individual and to know why he behaves as
he does, we have to look into his motive and
its goal because there will be no goal if there
will be no motive.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Is increasing incentive the best way to
increase motivation? It is possible to
increase motivation by giving rewards for
performance. People are self-motivated to
do certain things. Some tasks are interesting
and enjoyable and provide their own
rewards.
When a person does something for no
obvious tangible reward, we say that he or
she has intrinsic motivation. A person who
does something in order to receive a
particular tangible reward, we say that he or
she has extrinsic motivation.
The Variability of Behavior
Different people behave differently in the
same situation. For example, some people
will drink alcohol at a party while others
while others won’t. This is a difference in
behavior between people.
Circularity of Explanations
Imagine a person who goes to a lot of
parties. Suppose he eats a lot of food at one
party. On another day, at another party, he
eats nothing. We postulate the existence of
motivation for food and explain the
behavioral variability by saying that the man
was hungry at the first party but not at the
second party. He eats food. Why? Because
he was hungry. How do you know he was
hungry? Because he ate food.
Motivational Constructs
The strength of a certain motivation is often
defined as depending upon the length of
The existence and degree of hunger is
determined by the number of hours it has
been since the man has eaten – the hours of
food deprivation.
There are three unobservable motivational
concepts.
1. Need. A need is a lack of something
required for optimal adjustment to the
environment like the need for water and
food. It may also mean the existence of an
unpleasant condition, which has to be
relieved or eliminated.
2. Drive. This refers to the energy level
mobilized by the person as a result of being
deprived of the goal object for the goal
object. Need level and drive level are closely
related.
3. Incentive. Not all goal objects are desired
equally. Objects that people are motivated to
obtain are called goal objects or incentives.
The motivating characteristics of a particular
goal object relative to other objects in the
same general class is called the incentive
value of the object.
Motivation is the joint effect of drive and
incentive. Drive level is derived primarily
from the organism’s needs, which may
either be cognitively or biologically based.
Incentive level refers to the attractiveness of
the various goal objects. Drive relates to the
internal state of the organism. Incentive
refers to the external situation. Motivation is
then the push and pull of drives and
incentives, working together and accounts
for the variability of human behavior.
Motivation as a Pushing Force: Drive
Our bodies have a system for detecting
needs for food, water and sex. As the need
gets greater, the body activates systems to
satisfy the need.  setting and decision-making are controlled
Drive consists of:
1. the energizing part – the body mobilizes
its resources to provide increased energy to
the organism for the purpose of obtaining
the needed substance;
2. the directive function – the guiding
function that seeks particular goal objects.
The energizing part activates behavior, the
directive function directs the same behavior
toward particular objects.
Motivation as a Pulling Force: Incentive
The incentive theory of motivation stresses
the attracting or repelling power that
particular stimuli appear to exert on reward
and punishments and the conditions
reinforcing behavior. Incentive refers to the
motivation the person has to achieve a
particular goal object. Reinforcement refers
to learning the fact that a particular response
increases in probability of occurrence in
attaining the goal object is contingent upon
making that response.  the highest drive. But before a person can
The behaving organism knows what the
consequences of its behavior will be. There
are positive incentives – circumstances we
are attempting to obtain. There are negative
incentives – circumstances we are trying to
avoid.  belief that he or she is in control of what
The Incentive Theory is concerned with the
objects, events and states of affairs that
people find rewarding or punishing and are
thus motivated to achieve or avoid. The
emphasis is on the goals of behavior. What
are people trying to acquire - food, drink,
love, fame? What are people trying to avoid
-pain, anxiety, frustration, starvation, poverty
and the like. It may include complicated
states of affairs like receiving a promotion,
winning an election, feeling satisfied with
one’s accomplishments and so on.
Theories of Motivation
I. Instinct Theories
An instinct is an innate biological force that
predisposes someone to behave in a certain
way when specific environmental conditions
are present. Accordingly, rational goal
by innate forces. 
Limitation: Nowadays, the concept of instinct
is reserved for lower animals, where
complex behaviors are programmed
genetically.
II. Drive Reduction Theories
Under this theory, there are three
components. First, a person has a biological
need. Second, the biological need causes
an aroused state or drive. Third, the person
engages in some behavior to reduce the
drive and return the body to a more
balanced state.
Limitation: It cannot explain why we continue
to engage in certain behaviors after our
needs are met. It also cannot explain why
we sometimes seek ways to increase our
states of tension.
III. Cognitive Theories
Under these theories, there are three
concepts.  For Abraham Maslow, self-actualization is
1. Expectation. People develop expectations
about the consequences of their actions,
place certain values on these consequences
and set their goals accordingly.
2. Self-determination. This is a person’s
happens.
3. Attribution. These are the explanations we
offer why things happen. People who
attribute successes to their own abilities and
failures to their lack of effort, tend to persist
in working toward goals. People who
attribute success to nothing more than luck
and failure to innate shortcomings in
themselves, tend to give up rather easily.
A person’s expectations, sense of self-
determination and attributions determine the
goals you set for yourself and how hard you
work toward them.
The Origin of Motives
Motives originate either from a biological
source or from environmental influences.
Biological needs are the need for water or
food. Environmental needs include social
acceptance.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-actualization
Personal growth and fulfillment
Aesthetic Needs
Beauty, balance, form, etc.
Cognitive Needs
Knowledge, meaning, self-awareness
Esteem Needs
Achievement, status, responsibility,
reputation
Belongingness and Love Needs
Family, affection, relationships, work group,
etc.
Safety Needs
Protection, security, order, law, limits,
stability, etc.
Biological and Physiological Needs
Basic life needs – air, food, water, shelter,
warmth, sex, sleep etc
turn to it, he or she must satisfy other lower
motivations. The hierarchy is dynamic; the
dominant need is always shifting. The
hierarchy does not exist by itself, but is
affected by the situation and the general
culture. Satisfaction is relative; it is different
for each person.
Maslow felt that unfulfilled needs lower on
the pyramid would inhibit the person from
climbing to the next step. Self-actualizing
people tend to focus on problems outside
themselves, are spontaneous and creative,
have a clear sense of what is true and
phony, and are not bound too strictly by
social conventions.
Self-actualizing people have peak
experiences, which are profound moments
of love, understanding, happiness or
rapture, when a person feels more whole,
alive, self-sufficient and yet part of the world,
more aware of the truth, justice, harmony,
goodness and so on.
Classification of Motives
There are three classifications of motives:
(1) survival, (2) social and (3) ego-
integrative. These motives or pressures
within the individual keep changing. What
the person does in one situation does not
necessarily hold true in another similar
situation at a different time.
I. Survival (physiological) Motives
These are motives that are gained at birth
and are not learned. They are the basic
needs for human life.
A. Hunger. Hunger depends chiefly on
deprivation: it initiates a complex set of
chemical and neurological events that cause
the organism to seek food with increasing
intensity as deprivation progresses.  A human being is warm-blooded. When the
The hypothalamus is primarily responsible
for food intake. Damage to its satiety center
will cause hyperphagia – an abnormally
increased desire for food. Damage to its
hunger center will cause hypophagia – an
abnormally decreased desire for food.  increased blood pressure and blood leaves
Hunger is somehow dependent on the
chemical composition of the blood. Blood
sugar increases soon after eating.
The liver is the central processor in the
physiology of nutrients. It processes amino
acids into glucose, fatty acids into ketones,
glucose into energy (to be used) or fats (to
be stored). The liver analyzes the levels of
various substances and regulates its
processes accordingly.
B. Thirst.To keep bodily fluids within some
critical range, we have developed a complex
and sophisticated homeostatic system. If
fluid levels are too high, the body gets rid of
the excess water by sweating or by
urinating. If fluid levels are too low, the body
conserves water by inhibiting urine formation
and activates our motivation to seek out
water.
To slow down urine formation, the pituitary
gland secretes the anti-diuretic hormone.
Too much salt in our diet cause water to
leave the body’s cells and they become
dehydrated.  themselves. Those who have low
C. Sleep
There is a strong desire to rest when one is
tired. The urge for sleep is a sign that the
body needs rest and relaxation. The reticular
activating center that lies in the
hypothalamus of the brain is known as the
sleep center. There is also a wakefulness
center in the hypothalamus.  and a high degree of cooperation.
D. Air Hunger
When we find ourselves in a closely
overcrowded area or in a packed elevator,
we realize how urgent and intense our need
for air is. Anoxia (oxygen deprivation) can
damage brain tissues.
E. Cold and Warmth
temperature of the body goes too low or too
high we are driven to regulatory behavior.
The body automatically adjusts to
temperature changes to maintain normal
body temperature. When it is cold, our body
reacts by increasing muscular activity,
the surface of the body and goes into
deeper tissue. When there is excess heat,
body activity slows down, perspiration cools
the body surface, arteries on the surface of
the body dilate exposing a great volume of
blood to the outer surface to be cooled.
F. Pain Avoidance
Physical pain serves as an “early warning
device” of possible injury. Some people
have increased sensitivity to pain called
hyperalgesia. How we react to pain is a
product of learning and cultural conditioning.
G. Elimination Drive
The elimination drive starts from the bladder
and the lower colon. When these are
distended, the receptor cells in their walls
are stimulated and cause the drive to seek
relief from the tensions produced.
II. Social Motives
A. Achievement Motivation. The need to
seek out situations in which they can
compete against some standards to prove
achievement need tend to choose tasks that
are either very easy or very hard, because
they have a strong desire to avoid failure.
B. Altruism Motivation. This is behavior
carried out to benefit another without
anticipation of rewards from external
sources. This indicates concern for people
C. Affiliation Motivation. This is the desire to
connect or associate with others manifested
in joining clubs or organizations. This is
related to the need for social approval.
D. Dependency. This is the need to seek
aid, protection or sympathy from another. It
is the need to depend on others, to have
someone to look up to and to depend on for
help.
E. Social Approval Motive. We exert great
effort to win the approval of others by
behaving in accordance with what society
expects of us.
F. Need for Power. This is the tendency to
gain influence over others’ behavior and to
be seen by others as a powerful individual.
G. Need for Security and Safety. This
motivates people to be cooperative, thereby
building a society that enables individuals to
live in peace and harmony. This is the need
to feel secure in one’s home, work and
social relationships, one’s ability to cope
with problems, developing attitudes of
confidence enabling him to progress
successfully in whatever he undertakes.
H. Affection Drive. The need for affection
comes from innate stages of human
development and also learned from
experiences.
I. Need for Independence. This is the desire
to assert one’s self and to seek freedom
from restricting stimulus. This is the need to
resist the influence of others; the need to
feel that one has power over his actions.
J. Sex Drive. Sexual desire is a normal and
natural feeling for women and men.
However, sexual desire can change over
time and can increase or decrease
depending on the situation. Sexuality, like all
aspects of a relationship takes effort to
perfect. Sex drive is also called libido.
Sexual desire can change in response to
outside forces like stress. or oral stimulation of the clitoris. The clitoris answer of the organism that informs about
is the small round bump at the very top of the degree of acceptability of the perceived
Working through issues about sexual desire the female genitalia that is super sensitive to situation.
takes open communication. Good sex first touch. 
begins outside the bedroom. There are Emotions act as a compass to find favorable
many ways in which to express sexual Since our educational system does not situations to survive and to move away from
desire. Many women enjoy cuddling, hand- comprehensively teach sexual activity, men unfavorable situations.
holding, back rubs and kissing.  may not fully understand female sexual
responses. In some instances, the female Emotional appraisal is carried out by a
When both partners agree on the types of may have to teach her partner what she variety of physiological-chemical mechanism
sexual activity that is desirable, there is likes. It is important to remember that we are depending on the complexity of the
usually little conflict. When one partner responsible for our own sexual pleasure. organism.
wants sexual activity that differs from his Women may become discouraged or
partners wishes, relationship problems may frustrated if they are not satisfied sexually. Emotions are positive when they are
develop. towards life and survival and negative when
LECTURE 10-A it is towards death and extinction.
Men and women have differing sex drives.
Men have testosterone that makes him more Emotions Emotion comes from the Latin word movere,
active in sexual activity. Testosterone, which means “to move.” Humans would
especially during puberty, may cause strong People are almost always undergoing some listless and accomplish nothing if there were
emotions.  type of emotion or feeling. Emotional states no emotions to motivate them.
vary within a day. Consciously or
The things that stimulate men often include unconsciously, external stimuli affect our Emotion is a name for expressed feelings.
pictures, watching sexual movies or staring emotional equilibrium. One is in better They have to do with the chemical
at attractive women. For women, words, control of his emotions if one is in better constitution of the body. Emotions are
intimate emotions or signs of affection like control of his environment. related to a basic human characteristic
touching or kissing may arouse women. called willpower.
Often, just letting your partner know what Emotions are so complicated and powerful
you like or what makes you aroused is a that sometimes such is expressed in a The guideline used by the ancient Greeks
more effective way in working out problems variety of attitudes, gestures and forms. may be helpful, “nothing in excess,
on sexual activity. everything in moderation.”
Positive Emotions:
When watching a sexual movie, never tell Emotional maturity comes with the passage
your partner “I wish you were more like that I feel myself  of time and is based on experience and
movie star.” This can damage self-esteem Well well-being  reflection on the past. If an individual can be
and ruin your relationship. Never make fun Happy happiness immersed in others, in interesting hobbies or
or threaten your partner.  Healthy health work, or in meaning ful causes, that person
Gay gaiety can develop positive emotions.
Good communication between partners is Strong strength
the key to a healthy sex life. Telling your Accompanied company Emotional Aspects
partner “It would be great if we could do
____________” is something you say Negative Emotions: 1. Physiological changes. This involves
outside the bedroom.  Uncomfortable discomfort changes in the blood chemistry, brain
Women have a lower sex drive when their Unfortunate unfortunate waves, and conditions of internal organs.
lives are stressful. Men actually use sexual Sick sickness 2. Neural responses are affected. Heart rate,
activity to reduce stress.  Sad sadness blood supply, respiration change, muscles
Childbirth and breastfeeding may lead to a Weak weakness react, goose flesh sometimes appear,
decrease in estrogen, which may cause Lonely loneliness eyelids and eyeballs protrude, kidneys and
vaginal dryness. This leads to painful sexual bladder also become more active during
intercourse for the woman. Depression can Each and every emotion says a quality in emotional crisis.
make all activity including sex difficult.  the positive or negative scale. Changes of 3. Observable changes in behavior. This
emotional intensity transpire either towards denotes the changes in facial expressions,
Women do not automatically experience the negative or the positive side. body movements, and vocal expressions.
orgasm. Sometimes, it takes more effort for 4. Subjective experiences. This connotes
the to experience orgasm. The truth is that Wukmir (1967) said that emotions the very the relativity of emotions. An individual no
most women cannot have orgasm by mechanism that perceives what is favorable matter what he is experiencing is always
intercourse alone – they may need manual for survival. Emotion is an immediate evaluating the situation. 
Effects of Emotions
Sickness and disorders are sometimes
caused by the inability of the organism to
handle stressful situations. In order to be
healthy and stress-free, emotions must be
properly managed, directed and expressed.
Proper handling of emotions leads to
enjoyment, endurance and even strength.
Controlling Emotions
Since emotion is inevitable in human
experience, it is best to have emotional
maturity for proper self-control of emotions.
Emotional maturity means management and
supervision of experiences in such a way
that it will not result in negative emotions
which may lead to physiological
complications.
Guilford’s (1964) steps toward emotional
maturity
1. Avoid emotion-provoking situations
2. Change the emotion-provoking situation.
It is always better to be a friend than to be
an enemy. It is better to forgive than to seek
revenge. It is better to make peace than war.
3. Increase skills for coping with the
situation. More opportunities of socialization
leads to better coping skills.
4. Re-interpret the situation. Everything is
relative. If one needs to change the world,
one need only to change his perception of
the world.
5. Keep working toward your goal. Problems
and difficulties are part and parcel of this
existence. Have an objective. As long as
one works towards an objective, there is
happiness, contentment and achievement to
look forward to.
6. Find a suitable outlet. Sigmund Freud
calls this concept displacement, which is a
defense mechanism. An indirect solution is a
better alternative than no solution.
7. Develop a sense of humor. Laughter
makes everything bearable.
LECTURE 10-B
Emotions continued…
Group Activity: List all the things that make
you angry, afraid, happy or sad.
Demonstrate the non-verbal ways of
expressing these emotions.
How do you manage anger, fear and
sadness? How do you deal with these
emotions?
Fear
Fear can be a poisonous emotion. It can
torment us, rob us of sleep and preoccupy
our thinking. People can literally be scared
to death. Fear can also be contagious.  satisfaction with their whole lives. When
Fear is an adaptive response. Fear prepares
our bodies to flee from danger. Fear binds
people together for mutual protection. Fear
of punishment constrains us from harming
others.
Fear can also be learned by observation.
We tend to adopt some fears of our parents
and other family members. Fear learning
happens in the amygdala of the brain. The
amygdala may cause the body to
experience diarrhea or shortness of breath
in extreme cases of fear.
Anger
Often anger is a response to a friend’s or
loved one’s perceived misdeeds. Anger is
especially common when another person’s
act seems willful, unjustified and avoidable.
But blameless annoyances – foul odors,
high temperatures, aches and pains – also
have the power to make us angry.
Should anger be expressed or kept under
control?
It depends on the culture. Individualized
culture would advise a person to release his
anger. But in group-centered cultures, anger
is seen as a threat to group harmony.  William James however, we feel sorry
The advice to vent one’s anger presumes
that emotional expression provides
emotional release or catharsis. The
catharsis hypothesis assumes that we
reduce anger by releasing it.
But expressing anger may breed more
anger. Retaliation and escalation may turn a
minor conflict into a major confrontation. 
What is the best way to handle anger? First,
bring down the physiological arousal level of
anger by waiting. Second, vent the anger by
doing something else like exercising, playing
an instrument, confiding your feelings to a
friend or to a diary.
Happiness
One’s state of happiness or unhappiness
colors everything else in the world. People
who are happy perceive the world as safer,
makes decisions easily, rate job applications
more favorably, and report greater
your mood is gloomy, life as a whole seems
depressing. Let your mood brighten and
suddenly your relationships, your self-image
and your hopes for the future all seem more
promising.
When we feel happy, we are more willing to
help others. This is called the feel-good, do-
good phenomenon. 
On the other hand, Positive Psychology
states that if you do good for others like
family, close friends and even strangers,
there is a tendency to feel good as a result.
Predictors of Happiness
Happy people tend to have high self-
esteem, optimistic and outgoing, have close
friendships or a satisfying marriage, have a
meaningful religious faith, sleep well and
exercise. People usually feel happier if
mentally engaged by work or active leisure. 
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory
Common sense tells us that we cry because
we are sad, lash out because we are angry,
tremble when we are afraid. According to
because we cry, angry because we strike,
afraid because we tremble. After you
successfully evade an oncoming car as you
cross the street, you may then feel your
heart beating fast and only then do you
shake with fright. The feeling of fear follows
the body’s response. This theory was
followed up by Lange.
James asserted that in order to feel cheerful,
sit up cheerfully, look around cheerfully and
act as if you already possessed
cheerfulness.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Cannon and Bard however concluded that
the physiological arousal and the emotional
experience occur simultaneously. Your heart
begins pounding as you experience fear but
that one does not cause the other.  conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned
Cognition and Emotion
What is the connection between what we
think and how we feel? Do emotions always
grow from thoughts? Is the heart always
subject to our mind’s appraisal of a
situation? Can we experience emotions
apart from thinking? Can we change our
emotions by changing our thinking?
Schachter proposed his two-factor theory
which states that emotions have two
ingredients: the physical arousal and a
cognitive label.
Our emotional arousal response is often
linked to our interpretation of the event.
According to Robert Zajonc, emotional
reactions are sometimes quicker than our
interpretations of a situation. He believes
that cognition is not necessary for emotion.
Some neural pathways involved in emotion
bypass the cortical areas involved in
thinking. One such pathway runs from the
eye via the thalamus to one of the brain’s
emotional control centers.  results in changes in the individual’s way of
Richard Lazarus disagrees. He claims that
some emotional responses do not require
conscious thinking. Even instantaneously
felt emotions require some sort of quick
cognitive appraisal of the situation. The
appraisal may be effortless and we may not
be conscious of it, but it is still a function of
the mind.
We may fear the spider even if we know it is
harmless. Some simple emotions require no
conscious thought.
LECTURE 11
Learning
Is it possible to observe or measure
learning? Learning is difficult to quantify or
qualify. What one could measure are
changes in behavior. Therefore, learning is
best defined as a change in behavior, a
mode of adjustment or even a form of
adaptation. Learning is a process, which is
composed of ways where built-in responses
are modified. It involves the modification of
behavior and the formation of habits and
routine where the results lead to a new
mode of behavior.
Learning is a life-long process. People learn
something new every day. In fact, learning
can even be equated with evolution. As long
as one continues to learn, one continues to
evolve. Of all the species of living things,
man is the only creature capable of complex
learning due to his innate higher mental
skills. However, the rate and skill of learning
differ for different individuals. Some are
simply fast learners as compared to others.
Some concepts about learning:
1.Learning is a restructuring of behavior.
2.Learning is a response caused by
experience.
3.The level of maturation determines
learning.
4.Learning is a process of development.
5.Learning needs stimulation.
6.Learning changes behavior through
experience and training.
Nature of Learning
Learning is best defined as a process, which
responding as brought about by experience.
Learning is can also be presented in such a
way that which alters behavior. Behavior is
affected and influenced by experience. New
sets of behavior are set in motion when an
individual interprets the world surrounding
him, responds and relates to it, and then
responds to the consequences of its own
responses. Learning here takes roots and
the organism is never the same again.
Learning is a never-ending cycle.
Knowledge and skills are constantly
accumulated. Some even go to the extent of
saying that learning is interactive and
developmental.
Stimulus and Response Theories
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning was first formulated
by Nobel Prize winner Ivan Pavlov. In this
pioneering study, Pavlov studied the
behavior of dogs and he would connect a
conditioned stimulus (the sound of a tuning
fork) to an unconditioned stimulus (meat) to
elicit the response (salivation). By
synchronizing the presentation if the
stimuli, the dog would respond by salivating.
Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental Conditioning was formulated by
Edward Lee Thorndike. In Instrumental
Conditioning, no new stimuli were
introduced; instead responses became
instrumental in receiving a reward.
Thorndike formulated the stimulus-response
theory also known as the theory of
connectionism. Here, learning consisted of
the formation of a connection between a
specific situation or stimulus and a specific
response.
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning:
a.Law of Effect
If the connection between the stimulus and
response is made and is followed by a
satisfier, the connection is strengthened. If
the connection is followed by an annoying
result, the connection is weakened. If
something is to be learned, a reward must
be presented for the desired behavior, and if
something is to be eliminated or unlearned,
punishment must follow the response. This
law states that the strength of a connection
is influenced by the consequences of a
response. 
b.Law of Exercise 
Connection is made stronger with use and
weakened with disuse. Repetition of a
response strengthens its connection with the
stimulus, while disuse weakens it. The law
states that the strength of a connection is
determined by how often the connection is
used. The repetition of the experience
increases the probability of a correct
response.
c.Law of Readiness
When a person is ready to respond, the
giving of the response is satisfying and
being prevented from doing so is annoying.
The potential learner must have the
maturation necessary for the desired
learning to be welcomed without the
possibility of being irritated.
d.Law of Belongingness
The connection is increased if the paired
stimuli are familiar or common with the
quality of belongingness. Results strengthen
the connection between whatever stimuli
were present and the response made just
prior to the appearance of the satisfying
result.
The classic example of Thorndike’s S-R
theory was a cat learning to escape from a
puzzle box by pressing a lever inside the
box. With much trial and error behavior, the
cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S)
with opening the door (R). The S-R
connection is established because it results
in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from
the box). The law of exercise says that the
connection was established because the S-
R pairing occurred many times and was
rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a
single sequence (law of readiness).
Operant Conditioning
Burrhus F. Skinner formulated Operant
Conditioning which focused on the
behaviors produced by the response.
Skinner built upon both classical and
instrumental conditioning, particularly,
Thorndike’s law of effect. He termed the
satisfying or annoying states as operant,
due to their effect on the learning
environment. Learning is a function of
change in overt behavior. Changes in
behavior are the result of an individual’s
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment.  3.The imitated behavior itself leads to
Reinforcement is the key element in
Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is
anything that strengthens the desired
response. It could be verbal praise, a good
grade or a feeling of increased
accomplishment or satisfaction. A negative
reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of the response when it
is withdrawn (not punishment).  to occur:
Social Learning Theory
The focus of the Social Learning Theory by
Albert Bandura is that learning occurs within
the social context. It states that people learn
from each other, by observational learning,
imitation and modeling.
Principles of Social Learning Theory:
1.People learn by observing the behavior of
others, especially the outcomes of such
behaviors.
2.Learning can occur without a change in
behavior. In contrast to what many
behaviorists suggest, social learning
theorists say that because people can learn
through observation alone, learning may not
follow their performance.  behavior can increase the appropriate
3.Cognition plays a role in learning.
Cognition affects learning. Expectation and
awareness of future punishment and
reinforcements can have a major effect on
the behavior of people.
4.Social learning theory can be a bridge for
transition between the cognitive learning
theories and the behaviorist learning
theories.
Different individuals are often the models of
behavior of others.
1.The observer is reinforced by the model. A
student who adopts the dress code of his
peers so as to be accepted and thus
reinforced by the group.
2.The observer is reinforced by a third
person. The observer might be imitating
someone else. The teacher might notice the
imitation and compliment the observer thus
reinforcing the behavior.
reinforcing consequences. Learned behavior
from others might produce reinforcing and
satisfying results.
4.Consequences of the model’s behavior
might affect the observer’s behavior
explicitly.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling
1.Attention. The person must pay attention
to the model.
2.Retention. The observer must be able to
remember the behavior that is observed.
3.Motor reproduction. This is the ability to
replicate the behavior that the model
demonstrates.
4.Motivation. Learners must have the desire
to demonstrate and show what they have
learned.
Implications of Social Learning Theory
a.People learn by observing other people.
b.Knowing the consequences of a particular
behavior and decrease inappropriate
behavior.
c.Modeling serves as an alternative for
teaching new behavior.
d.Appropriate behavior must be shown and
exposed to others and inappropriate
behavior not shown.
e.People should be exposed to a variety of
other models.
f.Self-regulation provides an effective
method for improving behavior.
“Learning from your mistakes is wise. But
learning from the mistakes of others is
wiser.”
LECTURE 12
Frustration, Mental Health and Adjustment
Frustration and Adjustment
Adjustment means the never-ending
process of overcoming impediments to the
satisfaction of the unlimited wants of man.
Since wants and desires of man will always
be unlimited, the dissatisfaction leads to
frustration. The intensity and result of
frustration however varies. 
Personal frustration could come into play
where the cause of frustration might be the
individual himself, such as low intelligence,
physical deformity, lack of skill or even
insecurities which hampers the attainment of
a certain objective. 
Environmental frustration could be another
element leading to dissatisfaction.
Environmental frustration denotes the
conditions outside the person which
prevents and individual from fully satisfying
his needs.
Defense Mechanisms  pornography.
The major function of defense mechanism is
to assist an individual to be conscious of
what is possible and unattainable and
devises certain strategies so as to assist the
individual in continued existence. Defense
mechanisms operate at the unconscious
level and that they deny, distort and falsify
the perception of reality, so as to make
frustration and anxiety less threatening to
the sanity and functioning of an individual.
Sigmund Freud enumerated a number of
defense mechanisms.
Repression. This is also known as motivated
forgetting. This is the process of excluding
distressing thoughts, feelings and
experiences from consciousness. The result
could lead to the inability to remember past
traumatic events. For example, a child may
forget the molestation done to her, but after
some years might remember the incident.
Projection. This is an act where a person
attributes his/her unacceptable thoughts,
feelings, behaviors and experiences to
others or to the environment. Projection
enables a person to blame the other people
or the environment for something that is
initially the result of his own shortcomings.
Displacement. This refers to the expression
of an impulse or emotion that is redirected
from a more threatening source to a less
threatening source.
Rationalization. This is also known as sour-
graping. This is the attempt of a person to
cope with frustration and anxiety in order to
distort reality and protect self-esteem or the
image of oneself.
Regression. This is the process of reverting
back to earlier development level involving
less mature response and the usual lower
level of aspiration. It is a way of alleviating
anxiety and frustration by retreating to an
earlier period of life that was more secure
and pleasant.
Reaction formation. This is the act of
preventing dangerous desires from being
expressed by exaggerating opposed
attitudes and types of behavior and using
them as a barrier. For example, a person
threatened by his or her own sexuality may
become a rabid crusader against
Sublimation. This refers to the gratification of
frustrated sexual desires by substituting
non-sexual activities. The individual diverts
these impulses so that they may be
expressed in socially approved thoughts and
actions.
Denial. This is the refusal to face an
unpleasant reality. When a person refuses
to acknowledge that an unpleasant event
has occurred, that person is engaging in
denial.
Fantasy. This is the gratification of frustrated
desires through imaginary achievements in
daydreams. 
Compensation. This is the act of covering
one’s weakness by emphasizing a desirable
trait or making up for frustration in one area
by over-gratification in another.
Identification. This is the process increasing
one’s feeling of self-worth by identifying
one’s self with another person or institution
of respectable standing.
Internalization. This is the incorporation of
external standard or values into the ego so
that a person is unaffected by external
factors.
Undoing. This is also known as atonement.
It is the act of expiation or penance in
counteracting undesirable acts, thoughts
and deeds.
Sympathism. This is the desire to gain
sympathy from others, thus bolstering
feelings of self-worth despite failures.  accompanied by contempt for the weak and
Acting out. This is the process of reducing
and decreasing anxiety aroused by
forbidden desires by permitting their
expression.
Abnormal Reactions to Frustration
As a rule, an individual responds to a certain
frustration in a certain way. Some will run
from the source of the frustration, while
others will face the source. When a person
is well-adjusted, a person copes with it in a
logical and ethical manner ensuring the
satisfaction of his needs.
However, if the person is unable to face his
frustration and challenges when it becomes
intense and overwhelming, a person’s
coping mechanism becomes inadequate,
thus leading to abnormal reactions.
Abnormal reactions are usually divided into
two, the neurotic responses and psychotic
responses.
Neurosis is a mild form of mental disorder
and an abnormal pattern that lowers
functioning and efficiency of an individual.
Neurosis is characterized by anxiety,
unhappiness, and mal-adaptive behavior.
Accordingly, needs and responses are
neurotic because they are unrealistic and
unreasonable.
For Karen Horney, neurosis is an attempt to
make life bearable, as a way of
interpersonal control and coping. Horney
describes ten patterns of neurotic needs.
The Ten Neurotic Needs 
1. The neurotic need for affection and
approval. This refers to the indiscriminate
need to please others and be liked by them.
2. The neurotic need for a partner. This
includes the misleading notion that love will
solve all of one’s problems.
3. The neurotic need to restrict oneself
within narrow borders. This is the
unreasonable need to be undemanding,
satisfied with little and to be inconspicuous.
4. The neurotic need for power. This is the
unrealistic need to have control over others
and for a façade of omnipotence. This is
dominance for its own sake, often
a strong belief in one’s own rational powers.
5. The neurotic need to exploit others and
get the better of them. This refers to the
manipulation and the belief that people are
there to be used.
6. The neurotic need for social recognition
and prestige. This is being overly concerned
about appearances and popularity. It is the
fear of being ignored, to be thought of as un-
cool and plain.
7. The neurotic need for personal
admiration. This is the desire to remind
people of how important he or she is.
8. The neurotic need for personal
achievement. This is the need to be number
one in any and every endeavor. If he does
not become number in a task, he will
devalue the task.
9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and
independence. This is the feeling of not
needing anybody. They refuse help and are
reluctant to commit to a relationship.
10. The neurotic need for perfection. This is
the drive to be perfect and the fear of being
perceived as flawed.
Anxiety Neurosis. This is a neurosis
characterized by extreme generalized
feeling of helplessness, indecision and
apprehension. The individual fears the future
and is constantly worried, tense and ill at
ease. He is afraid to make decisions, feels
helpless and is afraid of making mistakes.
Phobia. This is the unrealistic fear of a
certain object or situation. The person is
unable to overcome his fear even though
one knows it is irrational.
Obsessive-Compulsive (OC) neurosis.
Obsession here refers to a useless and
irrational idea. Compulsion refers to the
useless and irrational act. A serious OC
neurosis is characterized as a mania (e.g.
megalomania – the tendency to over
evaluate oneself, kleptomania – the
compulsion to steal anything, pyromania –
the tendency to set things on fire).
Conversion Reactions. This refers to
hysteria in which psychological conflicts are
converted into physical symptoms (e.g.
hysterical blindness – a person cannot see
though there is no medical impairment of
vision, hysterical paralysis, hysterical
mutism, hysterical deafness, hysterical
anesthesia).
Hypochondria. This is the unusual and
irregular preoccupation with the activities of
one’s body and the state of one’s health. A
hypochondriac is someone who looks for
symptoms of any disease in himself and
believes that he is afflicted with that disease.
Disassociative Reactions. This is an
extreme reaction where an entire episode in
one’s life is repressed from memory and
consciousness.
Amnesia. This is the loss of memory of past
experiences. The individual temporarily
forgets all experiences associated with the
experience the subject wants to forget.
Fugue. This is an extreme form of
disassociative reaction where the loss of
memory continues for a long duration and is
accompanied by actual physical flight.
Multiple Personality. This is an extreme
disassociative reaction characterized by the
development of two or more personalities
alternating with the individual’s
consciousness.
Maladaptive Behaviors connected with
neurosis
1. Alcoholism. This is compulsive drinking.
An alcoholic uses the effects if liquor as a
way of coping and facing his frustrations and
problems. The alcoholic keeps on increasing
his consumption to relieve stress, tension
and frustration. Then memory blackouts
occur. Loss of control over one’s drinking
follows. The final stage is alcoholic
psychosis characterized by hallucinations,
disorientation, disturbed mental functions
and deterioration of personality.
2. Substance or drug abuse. This is similar
to alcoholism with drugs as the focus of
abuse.
3. Promiscuity or sexual deviations.
Promiscuity is the indiscriminate acquisition
of a sexual partner. Sexual deviation is
synonymous with perversion or engaging in
distorted sexual practices.
Deviations in Sexual Behavior
a. Masturbation
b. Sodomy
c. Voyeurism
d. Exhibitionism
e. Transvestism. Cross-dressing
f. Sadism
g. Masochism
Deviations in the Sexual Object
a. Homosexuality
b. Fetish
c. Pedophilia 
d. Zoophilia
e. Incest
Psychosis
Psychosis is a serious form of personality
disturbance. While the neurotic does not
lose contact with reality, the psychotic is not
in touch with reality anymore.
Schizophrenia is a form of psychosis
characterized by distortion of reality.
Symptoms include loosening of
associations, ambivalence, withdrawal and
inappropriate affect. Manic-depression is
another form of psychosis which results in
the distortion of emotional responses
swinging between elation and depression
without any connection to what is happening
in the environment.
A person is out of touch with reality when
there is:
1. Disorder in perception. Hallucinations
occur.
2. Disorder in orientation. Not knowing the
time and place or the identities of people.
3. Disorder in thinking. The person suffers
from delusions 
a. Delusions of grandeur. A person believes
he is someone important in society
b. Delusions of reference. This is also called
paranoia where a person believes that
everything happening in the environment is
directly related to him.
c. Delusions of persecution. A person
believes that people are against him and are
plotting against him.
4. Disorder in emotions. A person displays
inappropriate and exaggerated reactions to
stress, frustrations, problems. 
Mental Health and Mental Hygiene
This refers to the state of adjustment of an
individual to himself and to the environment
with satisfactory results. The individual is not
overwhelmed by tension and stress, does
not engage in behavior that society does not
approve. The person is emotionally and
intellectually stable. He is well-adjusted.
The most destructive habit: worry
The greatest joy: giving
The greatest loss: loss of self-respect
The most satisfying work: helping others
The ugliest personality trait: selfishness
The most endangered species: dedicated
leaders
The greatest natural resource: the youth
The greatest fix: encouragement
The greatest problem to overcome: fear
The most effective sleeping pill: peace of
mind
The most crippling failure disease: excuses
The powerful force in life: love
The most dangerous pariah: a gossiper
The worst thing to be without: hope
The deadliest weapon: the tongue
The two most power-filled words: I can
The greatest asset: faith
The most worthless emotion: self-pity
The world’s most beautiful attire: a smile
The most prized possession: integrity
The most powerful channel of
communication: prayer
The most contagious spirit: enthusiasm
The most welcome words: I am sorry
Treatment of Abnormal Behaviors
I. Psychological Treatment
1. Psychotherapy
a. Insight therapy. This is the gaining of
insights into oneself
b. Action therapy. This is the learning of new
skills to correct one’s behavior.
c. Directive approach. Giving reassurance,
suggestions and advice.
d. Non-directive approach. The opposite of
directive approach.
e. Psychoanalysis. Bringing unconscious
thoughts to the conscious level.  and predisposition to a type of response and
f. Free association. The person is free to talk
about anything.
g. Dream analysis.  behavior.
2. Behavior therapy. The person is taught
skills to correct behaviors, to break up
incorrect associations. Behavior is modified
in order to resolve conflicts and problems.
Counter-conditioning. The subject is
reconditioned to associate pleasantness
rather than anxiety with a certain object,
person or an event.
3. Group therapy. Grouping people with
similar difficulties and working towards the
solution of their common source of
problems.  especially the learning experiences. He
II. Medical Approach. This involves standards and ideals of behavior. Freud said
pharmacotherapy, shock therapy and that these structures are in constant battle in
psychosurgery. trying to influence behavior.
LECTURE 13 Humanistic Approach
Personality
American psychologist Gordon Allport, on
the other hand, proposed a trait theory of
The individual’s attitudes, behavior and
personality. A trait is an inclination to behave
feelings in social situations make up his or
in a consistent manner over time and in
her personality. There are many factors that
different experiences and situations. In this
affect an individual’s personality. These are
theory, it was identified that there are traits
traditions, family background and genetic
common to all persons in a given culture.
make-up. Researches have shown that
There are also traits that grow out of
people with particular personality traits are
personal experiences that are unique to
more suitable for certain occupations or
different individuals. 
specific activities. 
Another theory of personality is situationism.
There are many theories concerning the
It emphasizes the importance of
development of personality and the causes
characteristics of the situation in which
of personality differences. The Greek
people find themselves, rather than on traits
physician Hippocrates believed that people
within the person. In situationism, human
behave in a certain way because they have
behavior is determined by the influences of
a predominance of one type of bodily fluid,
each situation. For example, the degree to
or humor. Accordingly, people with calm or
which a person may display of honesty in a
passive personalities have one dominant
situation may be different if the person
humor, while impulsive and temperamental
knows that dishonesty can be detected and
people have a different type of dominant
exposed. Or if the rewards for dishonesty
humor. The German psychiatrist Ersnt
are high and other people behave
Kretschmer believed that personality was
dishonestly, a person may become
determined by the person’s body type –
dishonest himself. However, factors in a
such as plump, lean or athletic. He
situation influence and affect people in
suggested that short people were more
different ways.
likely to be social, friendly and lively.
Another theory is interactionism. The
Psychoanalytic Approach
significance of both trait and situational
determinants of behavior are recognized
Modern personality theory began with the
and given credence. Interactionism takes
work of Sigmund Freud, who developed
into account both an individual’s tendency
psychoanalysis. As a personality theory,
psychoanalysis places importance on the
the elements of the situation. It states that
unconscious processes that affect behavior.
traits and the situation both influence
Personality is the result of the expression or
satisfaction of psychological impulses in
childhood. Freud proposed that an
Behavioristic Approach
individual’s personality is established in the
first few years of life that is associated with
There is also a nature-versus-nurture debate
the period of psychological development.
on how the personality is formed. Nature
refers to an individual’s genetic make-up
Freud described the three structures of
and nurture refers to the individual’s
personality: the id, which is the repository of
environment, which includes family
instincts and provides the source of psychic
influences. 
energy for all psychological processes; the
ego, which interacts with the demands of
American behavioral psychologist John B.
reality in fulfilling instinctual desires; and the
Watson contends that individual behavior is
superego, which represents the
the result of environmental factors,
internalization of social and parental
argued that the way in which children are
raised determines their personality. 
Ongoing researches contend that the
tendency for certain personality
characteristics such as temperament,
extroversion-introversion, anxiety and
aggression, dependence-independence, can
be inherited. It must be emphasized
however, that what may be inherited is just
the tendency. A person may still overcome
such tendencies by freely choosing to do so.
Genetic Approach  defy the rights of other people with no
Genetic studies often focus on studies
involving identical twins that have been
separated and grew up in different home
environments. Other studies involve
adoptions in which the adopted child
naturally has a biological make-up
completely different from their adoptive
parents. 
Certain genetic studies have asserted that
females are more socially adoptive than
boys, boys are more prone to behavioral
and learning disorders than girls. Autism is
four times more common in boys than in
girls.
Apperception Test.
Personality Disorders
Personality characteristics are maladaptive if
they cause impairment in everyday living or
if they lead to stress and discomfort. When
this happens, it becomes a personality
disorder. Personality disorders are life-long
patterns of behavior that leads to
maladjustment and the inability to deal with
day-to-day activity. Individuals with an
antisocial personality disorder, infringe and
regard to social rules. These individuals
often fight, steal, physically or mentally
abuse others or undermine authority. 
There is difficulty in: keeping a job,
maintaining functioning personal
relationships, and keeping out of trouble with
the law. 
Take the
Jung Typology Test™
http://www.humanmetrics.com/

Personality Assessment

There are numerous methods of personality

determination including personality scales
and inventories. In personality inventories,
people are given a set of situational
questions and are asked to choose among a
given list of actions to take. Each item is
designed to measure one particular trait
such as introversion-extroversion. To make
sure that the individual is consistent in his
answers, a number of similar questions
measuring introversion-extroversion are
spread throughout the questionnaire. A
pattern of answers must be seen in order to
make a conclusion. 

Other assessment instruments involve the

use of projective tests. These tests present
a variety of stimuli to the individual. The
individual is then asked to interpret the
stimuli. These tests are projective because
the person is projecting his or her own
meaning into the test material. The most
popular types of projective tests are the
Rorschach ink blot test and the Thematic