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Error analysis
Goal: Identify and explain errors
Error Analysis Process:
◼ Collect production data
◼ Identify errors
◼ Classify errors
◼ Quantify errors
◼ Analyze the source of errors
◼ Remediation
Error Analysis
Sources of errors
◼ Interlingual: Errors caused by interference from
the L1
L1-based
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Negotiation for meaning
Instances in conversation when participants
need to interrupt the flow of the conversation
in order to understand what the conversation
is about. (G&S: pp. 318-319)
Negotiation for Meaning
1. T: And when do you speak English with your host
siblings?
2. S: Host siblings, what’s that?
3. T: Siblings means brothers and sisters.
4. S: Oh, un, when?
5. T: Yeah, do you speak English with your host brothers
and sisters?
6. S: Mm, yup, of, of course
Intervening research
◼ Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis (1990)
◼ Swain’s output hypothesis (1985)
Noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1995)
To learn any aspect of the L2, learners need to
notice the relevant material in the linguistic
data afforded by the environment
Noticing does not itself result in acquisition,
but it is the essential starting point
Noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1995)
Noticing
◼ refer to the process of bringing some stimulus into focal
attention
◼ E.g., When one notices the odd spelling of a new
vocabulary word (Schmidt, 1994, p. 17)
Output Hypothesis
Output (1985, 1993, 1995)
◼ Language production forces learners to move from
comprehension (semantic use of language) to
syntactic use of language.
Unlike comprehension, production requires full syntactic
processing
Cognitive, social & linguistic demands can push output to
higher levels
◼ Modified output-pushing learners to produce more
target-like output
Updated Interaction Hypothesis
◼ The interaction approach explains language learning
“… through…
that negotiation of meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers
interactional
Input adjustments by the NSoforlanguage
+ production more competent interlocutor
+ noticing offacilitates
language
acquisition because it connects input, learner internal capacities, particularly
features (e.g., through feedback)
selective attention, and output in productive ways.”
What does Interaction Involve?
Output
Input
Noticing
Interaction features
(feedback/negotiation
for meaning
Language Learning
What does interaction involve?
Input: language that a learner is exposed to (i.e.,
from reading or listening or visual language)
◼ Adjustments during interaction (i.e., modified
interaction)
Simplification
Elaboration
What does interaction involve?
Output: Language production forces learners
to move from comprehension (semantic use of
language) to syntactic use of language.
◼ Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1985, 1993, 1995)
◼ Modified output-pushing learners to produce
more target-like output
Learner: what happen for the boat?
NS: what?
Learner: what’s wrong with the boat (McDonough, 2005)
What does interaction involve?
Interactional features
◼ Negotiation for meaning
Instances in conversation when participants need to interrupt
the flow of the conversation in order to understand what the
conversation is about.
◼ Oral corrective feedback
Response that learners receive regarding the language they
produce
Helps to make problematic aspects of learners’ interlanguage
salient and give them additional opportunities to focus on
their production or comprehension
Often focuses on accuracy development
How interaction brings about
learning
Through interaction learners’ attentional
resources are directed to problematic aspects
of knowledge or production
◼ Learners may notice that what she/he says differs
from what a native speaker says (noticing the
gap; Schmidt & Frota, 1986)
◼ Interaction may direct learner’s attention to
something new
Corrective feedback
◼ Response that learners receive regarding the
language they produce
Declarative Knowledge vs. Procedural
Knowledge
Declarative Knowledge vs. Procedural
Knowledge
Declarative knowledge
◼ Knowledge about facts and things (knowledge
that)-e.g., word knowledge
◼ Flexible-can be used in different task types
Procedural Knowledge
◼ Knowledge about how to perform various cognitive
activities (knowledge how)-e.g., sequencing
information (playing tennis, processing sentences)
◼ Skill-specific
Developing Procedural Knowledge
Strong interface position (DeKeyser)