Chapter 7 NERVOUS SYSTEM

3 Functioning Parts of NS
I.Sensory Receptors - Monitors Changes (Stimuli) inside & outside body & responds.
II. Integration or Association by CNS aided by PNS- Processes, interprets and makes
decisions about what done each instant.
III. Effectors -muscles or glands to cause a response.
(Red light (sensory) integrates with previous input & brain decides on - Motor output of
foot to brake)

2 Coordinating Systems
that maintain Homeostasis for body
Nervous system
- Faster and (more specific)
Endocrine System
-slower-> hormones thru blood thus
-More general

Two types of cell in NS

1) Neurons
2) Neuroglial

Neuroglial (nerve glue)-

- support, insulate and protect delicate neurons
- cannot transmit nerve impulses like neurons
- continue to divide so most brain tumors are Gliomas

Nerve & Glial Cells

Neuron
-highly specialized to transmit messages (Nerve Impulse or Action Potential)
Common Nerve fibers or Processes
microscopic to 3-4 feet (big toe to lumbar region)
1)Cell Body with nucleus (metabolic center)
2)Dendrite conduct impulses toward cell body
May have thousands.
3)Axons (only one) typically conduct impulses away from cell body to many axon
terminals which release Neurotransmitters into Synaptic cleft. (Axon Hillock or trigger
zone initiates Action Potentials)
Types of Glial Cells for CNS
1) Astrocytes (star shaped) - 1/2 of neural tissues
cling to neurons, brace them, anchor-link the neuron and capillary preventing harmful
substances & changing chemistry of brain by recapturing Neurotransmitters & ions.
(Blood-Brain Barrier)

2) Spiderlike Microglial
- dispose of debri- dead brain cells, bacteria etc.

3) Ependymal cells - in cavity of brain & spinal cord

-Have cilia help circulate cerebrospinal fluid that fill dorsal cavity & forms protective
cushion around CNS

4) Oligodendrosites -
wrap flat extensions tightly around nerve fibers producing fatty insulation called Myelin
Sheaths

Type of Glial Cells in PNS

Schwann cells form the Myelin Sheaths around nerve fibers of PNS
2. Satellite cells protect and cushion cells.

Synapse
Synapse - consists of:
1)Presynaptic membrane
-Releases neurotransmitter made in axon terminal
2)Synaptic Cleft-
gap through which neurotransmitter diffuses
3)Postsynaptic membrane
-membrane with Receptors that match shape of neurotransmitter
-Can be stimulated or inhibited
- Can be part of Nerve, muscle or gland

Neurotransmitters are broken down or reabsorbed VERY soon after they are released in
the synaptic cleft.

Myelin -white fat that covers, insulates and speeds up transmission rate
In PNS, Schwann Cells wrap jelly roll fashion around Nerve fiber to form MYELIN
SHEATH over axon (Neurilemma -part of Schwann cell outside myelin sheath that helps
fiber regeneration after an accident)
Gaps in Myelin Sheath where different Schwann Cells join, are called Nodes of Ranvier
Inside CNS, myelin sheaths formed by oligodendrocytes
With many extensions, one cell can form around small sections of up to 60 different fibers
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Demyelinating disease so without myelin sheath, nerves do not function well
Loses control of muscles -> disabled
-Seems to be Autoimmune damage to protein of myelin sheath which may be triggered by
virus.

Nuclei or Ganglia
Nuclei - Collections of cell Bodies in CNS
Protected by Bony skull or vertebrae (Not reproduce)
Ganglia - Collections of cell Bodies in PNS

Nerve Tracts in CNS- bundles of fibers

Nerves in PNS
In CNS
White Matter -dense collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
Gray Matter - Mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

Functional Classification of CNS Neurons

By Direction impulse travels in CNS
I. Sensory or Afferent (to go toward) Neurons - Carry impulses from receptors (internal
organs or skin) to cell body
- Cell bodies of Sensory Neurons in GANGLION outside CNS
Let us know what is happening outside and inside body.
Dendrites of Sensory neurons associated w/ Receptors to detect Specific Change

Receptors
For senses (vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, smell.)
Cutaneous receptors in skin
Pain least specialized (bare dendrite), most numerous; can be strong stimulation of any
cutaneous receptor such as extreme heat/cold, pressure
Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
Sense amt. of stretch to brain for adjustment to maintain balance & posture

Functional Neuron Classification

I. Sensory Nerves (Afferent)
II. Association Neurons or Interneurons
-Neurons of brain and spinal cord connecting & integrating Sensory and Motor neurons
III. Motor (Efferent Neurons)
- impulses from CNS to Viscera or Somatic muscles and glands).
Structural Neuron Classification
Based on Number of processes from cell body
Multipolar -
-Several processes as in motor and association neurons - Most common
2. Bipolar - Rare; in some eye/ear cells
3. Unipolar -
Single process -divides immediately into proximal and distal fibers;
Ex. Sensory Neuron where Axon conduct to & away from cell body.
Small dendrite; rest functions as axon

Neurons 2 unique functions

1) Irritability - ability to respond to stimuli
2) Conductivity - ability to transmit impulse to other neurons, muscles or glands

Membrane Potential
Nerve and Muscle Cell membranes are polarized (More + ions outside than inside)
largely because of the
1) Effects of the Na+K+ Pump which pumps 3 Na+ out of the membrane for
each 2 K+ that is pumped into the cell.
2) Membranes are not very permeable to ions but K+ can move out of the
membrane faster than Na+ moves into the membrane.
3) More negative ions (PO4-3), SO4-, Cl- inside cell.
Membrane is more + outside than inside (or more - inside than outside.)

Action Potential
Plasma membrane of Neurons and Muscle cells are unique, being able to produce action
potentials by selectively changing the permeability across the membrane.
Resting Potential of an inactive neuron is Polarized, meaning there are more + ions
outside than inside but there are still More Na+ outside and more K+ inside.
.
Action Potential
Plasma membrane with Resting Potential (an inactive neuron) is Polarized, more + ions
outside than inside even though there are More Na+ outside and more K+ inside.
Receptor
Different stimuli excite and cause specific receptors to generate impulse or Action Potential
Light for Eye Sound for ear Pressure, temp.,touch,etc. for cutaneous receptors.
Regardless of stimuli, permeability of receptor membrane changes for a brief period.

Action Potential
Normally, Na+ cannot move through cell membrane but with adequate stimulation,
“Sodium gates” or channels of neuron or receptor membranes open and Na+
quickly diffuses in -- making inside of membrane more +. This is called
DEPOLARIZATION. It causes neuron to transmit an Impulse or Action Potential
because all parts of the cell membrane respond the same way.

Action Potential
Immediately after Na+ gates open in these membranes, the permeability of the
membrane changes again, it becomes impermeable to Na+ but permeable to K+.
As K+ diffuses out, it restores the charge of membrane to + outside.
REPOLARIZATION - restoring of electrical conditions of membrane with more +
ions outside compared to inside; necessary so neuron can conduct another impulse.
Very Fast so only a few ions move through membrane

Action Potential
Na+-K+ pump restores the ions so more Na+ outside and more K+ inside. -Requires
ATP
(Neurotransmitters are most common cause for change in cell membrane that results
in Action Potentials.)

Nerve Impulse is All or None Response is Either Action Potential transmitted along
entire neuron or doesn’t happen at all. - Never partial Nerve Action Potential (AP)

Saltatory Conduction
In myelinated neurons, Action Potential is much faster.
The A.P. can NOT travel through membrane where fatty sheath insulates, it
JUMPs from node to node.
Saltatory (to jump or leap) Conduction

Irritability property - ability of neuron to send message along its neuron (above)
Conductivity property - ability to send messages from nerve to nerve (To follow)
Synapse
Impulse travels along nerve to axon terminals that release NEUROTRANSMITTERS that
diffuses across the Synaptic cleft to bind with receptor sites of next neuron or effector. If
enough neurotransmitter is released, it causes a change or affect in next neuron’s
membrane and an A.P. results.
Neurotransmitter effect is VERY BRIEF - broken down by enzymes or reabsorbed
by axonal terminal.

ELECTROCHEMICAL EVENT -
Electro - Change in ionic concentration along membrane
Chemical - diffusion of Neurotransmitter (chemical) across synapse

Each neuron is in conversation & contact with many other neurons at same time.
Factors which block nerve impulses and impair conduction of impulse : alcohol,
sedatives, anesthetics. (If no Na+ entry, No Action Potential)
COLD and continuous pressure disrupt blood flow, O2, ATP and thus disrupt
Action Potential.
Making cold or twisted leg you are sitting on “go to sleep”. Tingling when blood
flow resumes and conduction begins again.

Reflexes
Programmed reflexes for things we do automatically every day (for protection) (limited
neurons so quick but always same) Rapid, Predictable, Involuntary responses
2 classes of Reflexes
Somatic reflexes - stimulate skeletal muscles.
-hand from hot stove or step on tack
Autonomic - regulate smooth muscles, heart and glands
-salivary reflex, pupillary reflex of eye & regulates digestion, elimination, blood pressure,
sweating

Pathway of Reflex Arc

1) Sensory receptor reacts to stimulus
2) Afferent or sensory nerve pathway
3) Efferent or motor nerve pathway
4) Effector - Muscle or gland responds

Somatic Reflex -Patellar or Knee-jerk reflex (2 neuron arc) Flexor reflex - (Hot) 3
neurons
The fewer neurons, the faster the reflex.
Usually just spinal cord nerves involved but pupillary reflex involves the brain b/c
many types of info.
If reflex exaggerated, distorted or absent, problem in NS that may be detected before
other parts of NS involved.

Central Nervous System

Brain - 2 fistfuls of pinkish gray tissue, wrinkled (like walnut), texture of cold oatmeal,
little over 3 lbs.
Divided into
1) cerebrum,
2) diencephalon,
3) brain stem &
4) cerebellum

I. Cerebral Hemispheres -Largest most superior part of brain that covers and
encloses much of brain stem like mushroom cap over top of stalk
Surface Gyri (elevated ridges) & Fissures (deep grooves)
-Speech, memory, logical and emotional response, consciousness,
interpretation of sensation and voluntary response.
Special Sensory & Motor Areas

Somatic Sensory Area

Impulses traveling from body’s sensory receptors-Except Special Senses- are localized and
interpreted in Somatic Sensory areas ;
Recognize cold, pain, light touch;
Generally located in upside down manner esp. lips and mouth

Motor Area -
-allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles
Anterior to Central Fissure in Frontal lobe.

Gray matter - cell bodies of neurons of cerebrum on outside & called Cerebral
Cortex
-Highly ridged and convoluted - room for more neurons.
Cerbral White Matter - Bundles of nerve fibers which carry impulses to or
from cortex