Lecture Notes Materials and Ecological Engineering

CT4100 Ecological Engineering for Civil Engineers
Course structure and topics
Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Delft University of Technology
CT4100 Course structure and topics
Course scheme can be found on Blackboard under

CT4100 ‘Announcements’: ‘Lecture schedule and topics’
Course structure:
• 26 lectures
→ 16x Theory and background Ecological Engineering for
Civil Engineers: Focus on sustainability issues
→ 10x Delft research and practical examples
• 2 Case Studies
→ 1: Energy systems for the future: literature study
→ 2: Ecological Engineering in practice: students presentations
Examination
(CT4100 grade: [average case studies = 30%] + [examination = 70%])
Case studies + examination obligatory for obtaining final grade,
Average ≥6, and minimum level each part 5.5

Goal of CT4100:
• Obtain understanding of ecological engineering and sustainability

principles (theory and facts) and learn how to apply these for Civil
Engineering practices
• Society (including more and more companies!) demand application

and integration of sustainable products and processes in practice:
• Become pro-active: develop new ideas (technical applications) and be

able to discuss and advise stakeholders on civil engineering
sustainability issues

Companies and sustainability
Policy statement by BAM Civiel bv, January 2010 (www.bamciviel.nl):

Goal of CT4100:
• What should be known, learned, memorized?
• All information provided in the lectures
• Lecture presentation pdf files will be posted on Blackboard under

‘Course Documents’ / ‘Course 2010_2011’
• Typical / examples type of examination questions listed on last page

lecture presentations

Main topic: Sustainable civil engineering practices
Definition Sustainable development:

'Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'
- Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987 -

Sustainability and the 3P’s concept
People – Planet – Profit (Prosperity)

Coined in 1998 by John Elkington for corporate decision making
People: the social consequences

Planet: the ecological (environmental) consequences
Profit: the economic profitability

Sustainability and the 3P’s concept
The 3P’s sustainability concept is gradually becoming more and more

adopted in Corporate Governance:
Companies want to take socio-environmental responsibility!
Moreover, respecting environmental and social issues generally results in

saving money on the longer term and thus to increased profits!
= =

Sustainability thus involves socio-economic-environmental issues of which
the following three categories are commonly considered important:
1. Raw (finite) materials depletion

Including: - materials - fossil fuels
- biodiversity - water (quality and quantity)
- land use (e.g. depletion, desertification)


the following three categories are commonly considered most important:
2. Emission of harmful substances

Including: - global warming (greenhouse) gasses
(with CO2 being only one of many!)
- acidification - smog (fine dust)
- ozon layer depletion - toxic components


the following three categories are commonly considered most important:
3. Social factors
Including: - human wellbeing - human rights
- child labor - working conditions
- equality (gender) - participation (employee)
- animal wellbeing

For sustainable civil engineering practices all three categories are thus
considered important:
1. Depletion of (finite) materials

2. Emission of harmful substances
3. Social factors
A healthy environment (or sound ecosystem functioning)

forms the base for all three categories!

Ecological engineering for civil engineers comprises the relationship

between civil engineering practices and sound ecosystem functioning
Sustainability thus plays a central role in ecological engineering
Nine specific principles define the framework of

ecological engineering for civil engineers
The topics and structure of course CT4100 closely

relate to these nine principles

Nine important ecological engineering principles:
1. Apply natural ecosystem functions (Ecosystem approach)

2. Prevention of damage to ecosystems and human wellbeing
3. Mitigation of damage to ecosystems and human wellbeing
4. Compensation of damage to ecosystems and human wellbeing
5. Restoration of damaged ecosystems
6. Use of renewable resources
7. Minimize emissions of harmful substances
8. Recycling of matter: ‘waste as resource’
9. Integrate nature and economy: internalize environmental costs

Apply sustainability and 9 principles to civil

engineering practices, e.g. consider the building cycle:
Design, construction, maintenance, demolition of the built environment
‘The building cycle’

Design For all stages:
1. Depletion of
raw (finite) materials
Demolition Construction
2. Emission of
(harmful) substances
Maintenance
3. Social factors

Course structure and topics:
1. Introduction and overview Ecological Engineering (L1+2)

2. Nature: Ecosystem functioning, goods and services (L3)
Examples ecological engineering using ecosystem functioning:
3. Wastewater treatment (L4)
4. Integration ecosystem functioning in urban (built) environment (L 5)
5. Prevention – mitigation – compensation: Effect of Infrastructure on natural
ecosystems (Rural environment: Landscape Ecology) (L6+7+8)
6. Roads and environmental effects (prevent/mitigate/compensate) (L11+12)
7. Legal instrument: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) road development (L13)
8. Restoration of disturbed ecosystems: Bio-remediation (L9+10)
9. Renewable energy and building materials (L14)
10. Environmental costs: The Ecocost Value / Ratio Model and other Sustainability
Assessment Tools (15+16)
Case study 1: Minimize emissions: Energy systems for the future (L14)

Course structure and topics

Delft ecological engineering research
11. Application of Geopolymers to minimize CO2 emissions (17+18)

12. Bio-based Geo- and Civil engineering research program: Smart Soils (L19+20)
13. Building with Nature: Coastal defense and eco-engineering (L21+22)
14. Development of Self-healing materials to minimize raw material use, maintenance
and emissions (L23)
15. Application of nature in the urban environment: Green Facades (25+26)
Case study 2: Ecological Engineering in practice (L24+27)

All course topics and case studies thus relate to one or

more ecological engineering principles:
Topics 1-10: mainly theory and background
Topics 11-15: ecological engineering related research in Delft

Course topics and ecological engineering principles
1. Introduction and overview Ecological Engineering
1. Ecosystem approach
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration
6. Renewable resources
7. Minimize emissions
8. Recycle
9. Integrate Economy and Ecology

2. Nature: Ecosystem functioning, goods and services

3. Wastewater treatment
8. Recycle

4. Integration ecosystem functioning in the urban (built)

environment
8. Recycle

5. Effect of Infrastructure on Landscape Ecology
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation

6. Roads and environmental effects
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation

7. Legal instrument: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

road development
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation

8. Restoration of disturbed ecosystems: Bio-remediation
5. Restoration

9. Renewable energy and building materials

10. Environmental costs: The Ecocost Value / Ratio Model and

other sustainability assessment tools
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
8. Recycle

Case study 1: Minimize emissions: (Renewable) energy systems

for the future

Topics 11-15: Ecological Engineering related research in Delft
11. Application of Geopolymers to minimize CO2 emissions
8. Recycle

12. Bio-based Geo- and Civil engineering research program:

Smart Soils

13. Building with Nature: Coastal defense and eco-engineering
2. Prevention
8. Recycle

14. Development of Self-healing materials to minimize raw material

use, maintenance and emissions

15. Application of nature in the urban environment: Green

Facades
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration

Case study 2: Ecological engineering in practice
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration
8. Recycle

Ecological Engineering principles
Summary
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration
8. Recycle

Questions
1. What is the definition of ‘sustainable development’ according to the (1987) Brundtland
Commission of the United Nations?
2. What is in relation to sustainability ‘the 3P’s concept’, what do the 3P’s stand for?
3. Name the 3 sustainability categories which are commonly considered important.
4. Which 9 specific sustainability principles form the basis for ecological engineering for
civil engineers?
5. Give (1-5) examples of Delft research programs related to ecological engineering


Ecological Engineering for Civil Engineers
Introduction
• What is Ecological Engineering?
• Ecological Engineering and Sustainability
• Ecological Engineering principles
• Some examples

What is Ecological Engineering?

Ecosystems and the built environment
Apparent conflict between natural ecosystem functioning…

Ecosystems and the built environment
…and e.g. human transportation needs (infrastructures)

General definition of Ecological Engineering

(when the field was established in the 1960s, not specifically for civil engineering)
Ecological Engineering is the design of sustainable ecosystems that

integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both
[Howard T. Odum; also see background information paper Mitsch and Jørgensen 2003]
http://www.cfw.ufl.edu/ecological_engineering.asp

Ecological Engineering
and Sustainability

Ecological Engineering and Sustainability
Jens Galschiot
(Danish sculptor)
The Balancing Act
Sustainable development
is dealing with our future
in the present time!
Taking into account that
the result of present actions
is dealing with our future
will effect other people
another place, at a another time.
is dealing with an environmental,
in the present time! economical and social fair future
Taking into account that – your future, our future and their
the result of present actions future. Make your mind up and act,
will effect other people be a part of the development.
another place, at another time If you don’t, you will be a part
of the development anyway!
http://www.balancingact.dk/

Sustainability
Definition Sustainable development
'Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of

the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs'
[Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987]

Sustainability
Sustainability and 3 P’s concept:

People – Planet – Profit (Prosperity)
(coined by John Elkington 1998)
People: the social consequences
Planet: the ecological (environmental) consequences
Profit: the economic profitability

Sustainability
People – Planet – Profit

(preceding versions of the 3P’s in relation to sustainability:)
As formulated by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in

the report ‘Our Common Future’
(1987, World Commission on Environment and Development):
• ‘The downward spiral of poverty (People) and environmental degradation

(Planet) is waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular it is a waste
of human resources (People). These links between poverty, inequality
(People) and environmental degradation (Planet) formed a major theme in
our analysis and recommendations
• What is needed now is a new era of economic growth (Profit) that is forceful
and at the same time socially (People) and environmentally (Planet)
sustainable’

Sustainability
Also, in 1993 the World Council for Sustainable Development defined

eco-efficiency as:
• ‘The delivery of competitively priced goods and services (Profit) that satisfy
human needs and bring quality of life (People), while progressively reducing
ecological impacts (Planet) and resource intensity, throughout the life cycle,
to a level at least in line with the earth’s estimated carrying capacity
(Planet)’

Sustainability
• Since 1987 the sustainability concept became more and more

adopted by companies, and only in 1998, John Elkington coined the
3P’s terminology in relation to sustainability for corporate decision
taking:
‘Equal weight should be given to the following three aspects, the social
(People) consequences of the total life cycle of a product, its
ecological (Planet) consequences, and its economic
profitability (Profit)’
Since then, the 3P’s concept in relation to sustainability became more

widely used

Sustainability
Specifically important sustainability aspects for

civil engineering practices:
• Depletion of finite resources

(environment = planet)
• Emission of harmful substances

(environment + health issues = planet + people)

Sustainability
Depletion of finite resources:

E.g.:
• Fossil fuels
• Rare earth metals
• Minerals, e.g. Phosphorous
But also
• Land / soil use

• Ecosystems (forests, oceans)
• Biodiversity
• Etc.

Sustainability
Emission of harmful substances

E.g.:
• Heavy metals
• Fine dust particles - Example -
• Greenhouse gases
• Persistent organic
pollutants
• Excess nutrients
(eutrophication)
• Etc.

Emission of (toxic) substances - Example -
POPs (persistent organic pollutants)

These chemicals, very similar to PCBs and DDT (compounds which production
is already banned in Europe), even in low to very low concentrations,
degrade only slowly in the environment and can
accumulate in humans and animals. Examples of these chemicals are:
• Dioxins, released from numerous industrial processes, including incineration and the
chlorine chemical industry
• Brominated flame retardants, used in many consumer products, particularly

electronic devices such as computers
• Tributyltin (TBT), an anti-fouling pesticide used in many ship paints
• Chlorinated paraffins, used as industrial lubricants, flame retardants, waterproofing

agents and plasticisers
• Lindane, an organochlorine pesticide

Emission of (toxic) substances - Example -
POPs (persistent organic pollutants)
Elevated tissue levels of POPs have been implicated in a number of

observed problems in wildlife populations. Some examples:
• Mass mortalities of seals in the Wadden Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Mediterranean
and along the coast of the British Isles in the 1970s and 1990s
• Illness and deaths among dolphins and harbour porpoises in the North Sea, the
Baltic Sea and the Mediterranean, for example in the period 1990-1992
• The extinction of sea snails in the Wadden Sea and parts of the North Sea since
the 1970s. These populations have still not recovered
Once in the environment, such compounds can not be retrieved:

Costs of these consequences not included
in the sales price of these products!


1. Apply natural ecosystem functions

(Ecosystem approach)
Plant- or microbial processes for cleaning, recycling, and
improvement of wellbeing
Example: Application of green facades in the urban environment

2/3/4: Prevention – Mitigation – Compensation

2. Prevention
• Always try to prevent damage to nature / ecosystems and human
wellbeing:
• E.g. build not in sensitive areas if not absolutely needed

3. Mitigation
• If construction is needed, avoid / minimize damage as much as
possible!
Example: The eco-road fits well into the surrounding landscape

4. Compensation
• If damage can not be avoided, compensate elsewhere to restore
nature / ecosystem value
Example: forest plantation elsewhere

5. Restore ecosystem disturbances

Bioremediation: use natural processes (e.g. bacterial conversions) to
clean-up polluted areas
Example: application of oil-degrading bacteria for oil-spill treatment

6/7/8
# Renewable resources
# Minimize emissions
# Recycle

• Use renewable resources as much as possible, avoid use of finite
resources
Example: sunlight instead of fossil fuels for energy generation

• Try to avoid emission of harmful substances as much as possible
Example: technical applications, such as CO2 captivation and storage

8. Recycle
• Follow Nature in its element cycling, i.e. efficient and no waste
production: ‘waste as resource’
Example: composting Concrete aggregate recycling

9.
# Integration of economy and ecology

9. Integration of economy and ecology:

Internalize external (prevention) costs
for fair competition
sustainable and non-sustainable
materials and practices
Example: impose eco-tax on harmful products

Ecological Engineering
- Examples -

Ecological Engineering - Examples -
Eco-design of a village in Austria (by Hundertwasser)
Application of nature in the built environment (principle 1)

• Agro / housing combination: heating & cooling
Principle 1+6: ecosystem functions (agro) in combination with renewable resources

• ‘Living machine’ for cleaning of wastewater

From chain to cycle: Waste water recycling on local scale
Principle 1+6: Ecosystem function and recycling

• An ecological sound barrier for noise reduction
Principle 1+3: Habitat for plants and animals (Krijn Giezen) and noise mitigation

• A helophyte filter system for cleaning road run-off
Principle 1+7: Ecosystem function and reduction of emissions

• Roadside verges
15 % of the Dutch flora depends on roadside verges

Principle 1+4+7: Ecosystem function and compensation and minimize emissions

• Rail / road fauna passage
Prefab culvert with fauna passage

Principle 3: mitigate ecosystem damage (fragmentation)

• Rail / road fauna passage
Eco-passage overcrossing an highway

Principle 3: mitigate ecosystem damage (fragmentation)

• More ideas?

Ecological Engineering: Conclusions
Overall objective:
• Seek sustainable balance between natural and human dominated
areas and activities
Main principles:
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration
8. Recycling
9. Integrate nature and economy

Further reading / background information
• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapter 5: Ecological Engineering. In: Ecological

Engineering – Bridging between ecology and civil engineering
• Mitsch WJ and Jorgensen SE (2003) Ecological engineering: A field whose

time has come. Ecological Engineering 20:363-377

Questions
• What is the general definition of ‘Ecological Engineering’ as formulated by
Howard T. Odum in the early 1960’s?
• … and definition of ‘Sustainable Development’ as formulated by the

Brundtland Commission of the United Nations in 1987?
• What is the 3P’s concept in sustainability, and who and when coined the
term in relationship to corporate decision making?
• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins represent an example

of harmful emissions. Give two reasons why emissions of such compounds
are considered a health threat even when emitted concentrations are very
low?
• Name the 9 ecological engineering principles
• Give a practical example for (1-9) ecological engineering principles

• Ecosystem goods & services
• Biodiversity

Ecosystem goods & services
Info from publication office

‘How complex and unexpected are the checks

and relations between organic beings,
which have to struggle together’
Charles Darwin: The origin of Species (1859)

Ecosystems are basis of all human life and activities
• The goods and services they provide are vital to:

→ Sustaining well-being, and to
→ Future economic and social development
• The benefits ecosystems provide include:

- Food - Air
- Water - Timber
- Purification - Soil formation
- Medications
Etc.

Human activities are destroying biodiversity and

altering the capacity of healthy ecosystems to deliver this
wide range of goods and services
→ In the past, societies often failed to take account of the

importance of ecosystems
→ Scientists are predicting that an increase in world population to

8 billion by 2030 could lead to dramatic shortages of:
1. Food,
2. Water
3. Energy
The loss of services from natural ecosystems

will require costly alternatives
→ Investing in preservation of ecosystems now will save money

in the long run!
→ Important for our welfare and long-term survival
→ Greater awareness of the economic value of ecosystem goods

and services is needed among decision-makers and the public
→ If decline of ecosystems is not stopped, a high price has to be

paid in the future!

Important topics:
1. Humanity needs ecosystem goods and services
2. Biodiversity loss is destroying ecosystem functions
3. Valuing ecosystem goods and services
4. International (EU) actions needed for ecosystem conservation
5. Example: The ‘Natura 2000’ network to protect ecosystems

1. Humanity needs
ecosystem goods and services

Definitions:
• An ‘ecosystem’ is a complex and dynamic combination of living
organisms (plants, animals, micro-organisms) and the natural
environment, existing as a unit, and depending on one another
• ‘Biodiversity’ comprises all the living elements of these

partnerships

- Example of an ecosystem -
A meadow is an ecosystem in which insects

pollinate flowers and grasses
→ Cattle feed on these plants and

their manure broken down by
(micro)organisms in the soil helps
in turn to nourish the plants
→ Each element of the cycle

depends on others for survival

- Example of an ecosystem -
Coral reefs form ecosystems in which fish and

coral formations, rock and seawater interact together
→ Some 500 million people

worldwide use coral reefs
for tourism, fishing, pearl
culture and other activities

‘Goods’ produced by ecosystems include:
• Food (vegetables, meet, fish etc)
• Water
• Fuels
• Timber
→ Thus mainly physical products

‘Services’ produced by ecosystems include:
• Water and air purification
• Natural recycling of waste
• Soil formation
• Pollination
• Regulatory mechanisms:
– Climate
→ Thus mainly ‘processes’
– Populations of plants, animals, insects etc

Four different kinds of services can be identified:
1. Provisioning services: supply of the goods
2. Regulating services: govern climate, rainfall, water quantity

(flooding), waste, spread of disease
3. Cultural services: spiritual welfare, experience of beauty,

recreation, inspiration
4. Supporting services: soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling

(basis for growth and production)

Important consideration:
Because many of these goods and services have always

been freely available, with no markets and no prices, their true
long-term value is not included in society’s estimates!
(see ‘valuing ecosystem services’ further on)

2. Biodiversity loss is
destroying ecosystem functions

‘Biodiversity’ comprises all the living elements

of an ecosystem
• Biodiversity, essential to ecosystem functioning. A high biodiversity
stabilizes (and buffers) the different ecosystem functions. However,
biodiversity in many natural ecosystems is decreasing rapidly.
Causes are among others:
• - Land-use change
- Agricultural intensification
- Pollution
- Climate change
- Urbanization
- Over-exploitation
- Introduction of exotic species
(compete with local species)

Restoration of lost biodiversity is costly and

sometimes impossible
Some facts: Recent studies show that:
# 40% of existing agricultural land risks over-exploitation
# 80% of European protected habitat types (suitable living spaces) are

under threat
# 60% of coral reefs probably disappeared by 2030
# 11% of world natural areas compared to 2000 level lost by 2050
# In the last 100 years, human activities multiplied species extinction by

50-1000 times!

Important social consideration:
• Particular poor people in developing countries are most at risk from

biodiversity loss as they often rely directly on ecosystems goods and
services

Conclusions biodiversity loss:
Preserving ecosystems is both:

→ Ethical duty and
→ Practical necessity
for current and future generations
Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning

are closely linked and are essential to (human) life:
Can not be exploited without paying a price!


How to value ecosystem goods and services in

financial terms?
→ In Potsdam, March 2007, Environment Ministers from the world’s
major economies agreed to launch a global study on the economic
benefits of biological diversity, comparing the costs of loss and of
effective conservation measures
→ This resulted in a ‘TEEB’ (The Economics of Ecosystems and

Biodiversity) study

• May 2008: first publication of TEEB study, initiative of the European

Commission, Germany, and partners, estimated:
→ Annual loss of ecosystem services € 50 billion
→ 2050: loss of terrestrial biodiversity 7% of GDP
The study recommended to:
→ End environmental harmful subsidies
→ Create ‘markets’ for ecosystem services

How to value ecosystem goods and services in

financial terms?
• 2nd phase of TEEB study (2008-2010) will propose:
→ Detailed framework for the economic valuation of ecosystem

services
→ Take ecosystem value into account in decision-making at all levels

Further facts and problems:
Ecosystem goods and services may become

increasingly rare (and costly) over time
• Example: Real value of clean water supply usually much higher

than we pay for
In May 2008 the city of Barcelona had

to import water from elsewhere due to
long-term drought and loss of ecosystem
water retaining and storage capacity:
Costs € 22 million / month!

The European Environment Agency (EEA) analyses the relationship

between economic sectors and their reliance and impacts on
ecosystem goods and services
• These data should be used for policy-making

and local management of natural resources
Example:
EEA calculates the global value

of wetlands services (water
purification and carbon absorption)
at
€ 2.5 billion / year!

Tools to protect ecosystem services:

Currently payment programs for ecosystem services are
developed in many countries:
• Goal: provide adequate rewards to landowners who protect

ecosystem services that are valuable to society

4. EU actions on ecosystem conservation

The EU is one of the 191 Parties to the

UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
→ Recent CBD initiative: Set standards to ensure sustainable bio-fuel
production (e.g. do not compete with food production, do not destroy
ecosystems for bio-fuel crop plantations)
→ Inclusion of biodiversity in climate change negotiations
→ Criteria for marine protected areas (MPAs)
→ Development of a new action plan to reduce the

rate of loss of biodiversity: 20 ‘SMART’ targets
for 2020 (specific, measurable, ambitious,
realistic, time-bound)

In 2000 the United Nations launched a global

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment initiative (MA):
→ Goal: Assess the consequences of ecosystem change for human

well-being and advise on actions that could be taken to respond to
harmful changes
• In 2005 the MA reported that two-thirds of the Earth’s ecosystem

services are in decline or threatened
• The EU is committed, as part of the global

MA follow-up initiative, to develop a
sub-global assessment (SGA) for the
European Regions, due in 2015

The EU Biodiversity Action Plan (2006) sets out what needs to be done
to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010:

→ The mid-term assessment (2008) showed difficulty in meeting the

target: all partners need to step up and maintain efforts after 2010
as well
• See also further reading: EU Biodiversity Action Plan: 2010 assessment
The souslik Spermophilous citellus is declining as a result

of increasingly intensive agricultural practices

Further EU actions:
• Earmarking of millions of euro in external aid for biodiversity
conservation
• Inclusion of Sustainability Impact Assessments (SIAs) in trade

negotiations → Political/legal tool to enforce sustainability practices
(see also lecture13 EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment)
• Sharing the benefits of genetic resources (an ecosystem product) in

a fair way

EU policy-makers are changing their perspective and are

integrating ecosystem health into policies:
(more legislative tools)
• EU Directive on pesticides: greater protection for specific

(economically interesting) species, e.g. bees
• EU rural development policy 2007-2013: financial compensation for

farmers who sign up to environmental commitments (protection of
ecosystem goods and services valuable for society)

5. The ‘Natura 2000’ network

Natura 2000 is a network of more than 25 000

conservation sites all over the EU
• It provides extensive ecological as well as socio-economic benefits:
- Spread/exchange of species between sites:

increases/stabilizes biodiversity
- Tourism
- Recreational activities
- Ecosystem goods and services

such as:
- Flood control
- De-pollution of water
- Nutrient recycling

EU Commission initiative in 2007-2008, valuing

ecosystem functions:
• Assessment of costs and socio-economic benefits of the network

and individual protection sites

Conclusions

Conclusions
• Understand link between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning

(ecosystems functioning) and human profits (socio-economical)
• Ecosystem goods and services (biodiversity) represent socio-

economic value
• Economic valuing of ecosystem functions is difficult, but important

for policy-making: internalize external (environmental) costs of
anthropogenic actions (pay for disturbances)

Conclusions
Apply Ecological Engineering principles for
Civil Engineering practices to protect environment
(biodiversity and ecosystem goods and services):
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration
8. Recycle
9. Integrate nature and economy
(See also lecture 1-2: Introduction Ecological Engineering)

• EU Biodiversity Action Plan 2010
• EU Biodiversity Action Plan 2010 Assessment
• RS de Groot, MA Wilson and RMJ Boumans (2002) A typology for the classification,
description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecological
Economics 41: 393-408
• R Costanza et al. (1987) The value of the World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural
Capital. Nature 387: 253-260
• HM Pereira et al. (2010) Scenarios for Global Biodiversity in the 21st Century.
Science 330: 1496-1501
• C Perrings et al. (2010) Ecosystem Services for 2020. Science 330: 323-324

Questions
• Give a definition for an ‘Ecosystem’
• What are ‘Ecosystem services’, give 4 examples
• What are ‘Ecosystem goods’, give 4 examples
• Anthropogenic actions tend to result in a decrease of ecosystems’ biodiversity, give
(up to 7) possible reasons
• Valuing of ecosystem functions is difficult. However, in March 2007 in Potsdam, the
Environment Ministers of the world’s leading economies decided to launce a ‘TEEB’
study. What does ‘TEEB’ stand for?
- The TEEB study estimated the annual loss of ecosystem services at ?Euro
- and the costs of loss of terrestrial biodiversity in 2050 at ?% of GDP
• Governments can apply legal instruments to protect ecosystem functioning. Give two
examples of such instruments
• What is the main goal of the ‘Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Initiative (MA)’
launched in the year 2000 by the United Nations?
- As a result the EU launched in 2006 the ‘Biodiversity Action Plan’, what was the
main goal of that program?
• What is the ‘Natura 2000’ network, and give 2 examples of its ecological and socio-
economic benefits

Example Ecosystem functioning and practical engineering
application using biological processes:
A wastewater treatment plant

The problem:
• Wastewater containing excess organic compounds, nutrients and
harmful substances must be cleaned before use as resource for
drinking water or being released to rivers and streams (surface
waters)
• Wastewaters derived from domestic sewage or industrial sources

can thus not be disposed off for
- Public health
- Recreational / economic / aesthetic reasons

Some figures:
• About 15 000 wastewater treatment facilities exist in the United
States
• A ‘small’ plant treats about 3.8 million liters of wastewater per day
• Collectively: 160 billion liters per day

Some figures:
• How much is 160 billion liters per day?
→ 64 Arena stadiums!
• (for comparison: worlds daily crude oil production

= 13.4 billion liters = 5.4 Arena stadiums)
Volume Amsterdam Arena = 2.5 billion liters

Treated are domestic + industrial waters
• Domestic waters are made up of:
- Sewage (black water)

- ‘Gray water’ (water from washing, bathing, cooking)
- Food processing

• Industrial wastewaters contain:
- Petrochemical compounds
- Pesticides
- Foods
- Plastics
- Pharmaceutical products
- Heavy metals etc.

Pretreatment:
• Toxic compounds must be removed from waters before entering the

wastewater plant:
• Pretreatment is generally a mechanical process in which larger

debris is first removed
• Pretreatment could also involve biological processes to remove

highly poisonous substances such as cyanide and heavy metals
→ For the latter, specific microorganisms are needed

Workings of a typical wastewater

treatment facility for
domestic sewage treatment

Domestic sewage treatment
Treatment stages:
• Sewage treatment is a multistep
process employing both physical
and biological treatment steps:
• 1. Primary treatment
• 2. Secondary treatment
• 3. Tertiary treatment

1. Primary treatment
Primary treatment of sewage consists

only of physical separations:
1. Large object are removed using a series of grates and screens
2. The effluent is left to settle for several hours to allow suspended

solids to sediment
→ After primary treatment the water still contains a high nutrient load
and must be further treated to reduce the organic load to acceptable
levels before release

2. Secondary treatment
Secondary treatment involves a series of

microbiological processes:
1. Anoxic secondary treatment
2. Aerobic secondary treatment
ro bic
Ae
o xic
An

Anoxic treatment:
• Anoxic sewage treatment involves a complex series of digestive and
fermentative reactions for the removal (decrease in concentration) of
organic compounds, and is carried out by different bacterial species
• The efficiency of a treatment process is expressed as the

percentage decrease in biological oxygen demand (BOD)
(although oxygen is not actually involved in the anoxic process!)
• BOD is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by

microorganisms for the oxidation of organic and inorganic matter
→ A well-operated plant removes >95% of initial BOD
(thus realize that a direct relationship exists between theoretical oxygen consumption
rate and actual amount of organic compounds present!)

• Anoxic treatment is specifically employed in treatment of waters

containing much insoluble organic matter such as fiber and cellulose
• Degradation takes place in large enclosed tanks called sludge

digestors or bioreactors. Many different types of microorganisms
are involved (high biodiversity needed!)
Sludge
digestors

Four important anoxic microbial degradation

processes:
1. Macromolecular compounds are first enzymatically digested
(polysaccharidases, proteases, lipases) into soluble
compounds
proteins
→ amino acids
cellulose fats
→ sugars → fatty acids
Four important anoxic microbial degradation

processes:
2. The soluble compounds are fermented to a mixture of fatty acids,

H2 (hydrogen), and CO2
3. Fatty acids are further fermented to acetate, H2 and CO2
4. The intermediate products acetate, H2 and CO2 are finally

converted to methane by methanogenic bacteria:

Reactions carried out by methanogenic bacteria:
1. CH3COOH (acetate) → CH4 (methane) + CO2
2. 4 H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2 H2O
• Thus major products of anoxic sewage treatment are CH4 and CO2
• Methane can be collected and used as energy source to drive

electric generators for heat and power production
• CH4 → energy source

• CO2 → greenhouse gas

Aerobic treatment
• Most common aerobic decomposition treatments make use of the
trickling filter or activated sludge method
• In both systems microorganisms degrade organic matter

to carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia (NH3), nitrate
(NO3-), sulfate (SO42-), and phosphate (PO43-)
← trickling
filter
activated
sludge →

Reactions carried out by aerobic bacteria:
→ E.g. Glucose: C6H12O6 (from polysaccharides)
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Reactions carried out by aerobic bacteria:
→ E.g. Methionine: C5H11NO2S

(sulfur-containing amino acid from proteins)
C5H11NO2S + 7.5 O2 → 5 CO2 + H2SO4 + NH3 + 3 H2O
CO2 → greenhouse gas

H2SO4 → sulfuric acid
NH3 → ammonia (NH4+ ammonium = fertilizer)

A trickling filter
• A trickling filter consists of a 2m-thick bed of crushed rocks on top of
which the wastewater is sprayed
• The liquid slowly passes through the bed, the organic matter
adsorbs to the rocks, and the microbial growth and organic
compound conversion takes place

Activated sludge process

• Most common treatment system. The wastewater is mixed and
aerated in a large tank. Slime-forming bacteria grow and form flocs
which degrade (oxidize) the dissolved organic compounds
• The effluent containing the flocs is

pumped in a holding tank where the
flocs settle
• The flocs are collected and sent to

the anoxic sludge digestor

Activated sludge system (aerobic)
Flocs holding tank

(anoxic)

• The residence time of waste water in the aerobic activated sludge

tank is 5 – 10 hours. During this short period most of the soluble
organic matter is adsorbed to the flocs
• The BOD of the liquid is reduced by up to 95% and the liquid can be
released
• Most of the BOD is now contained in the settled flocs (thus mainly in
form of degradable organic matter)
• → The main BOD reduction thus occurs in the anoxic sludge

digestor to which the flocs are transferred and degraded

Aerobic + anoxic treatment
Overall wastewater treatment scheme:
Aerobic and anoxic treatments

are thus partly cyclic

3. Tertiary treatment
Tertiary treatment is not always employed

as it is expensive
• The most complete method of sewage treatment includes tertiary

treatment as it involves physico-chemical treatments such as
precipitation, filtration, chlorination to sharply reduce levels of
inorganic nutrients, specifically phosphate and nitrate
• The final effluent water is so free of nutrients that it is unable to

support extensive microbial growth. If tertiary treatment is skipped,
the effluent water does still contain high concentrations of N and P
nutrients, which lead to eutrophication of surface water (extensive
growth of bacteria and algae)

Water purification
Wastewaters treated as described so far are generally of a quality

that they can be discharged into rivers and streams,
but is not suitable for drinking
• For drinking water further treatment is needed:
- Removal of pathogenic microorganisms (chlorination)

- Decrease of turbidity
- Elimination of taste and odor (chlorination)
- Reduction of harmful chemicals
Calcium hypochlorite

Conclusions wastewater treatment
• Wastewater treatment is mainly a bio-based process, thus an

example of applying an ecosystem approach in civil engineering
• Organic compounds are converted to CO2, CH4 and inorganic

nutrients
• Two kinds of secondary treatment are used:
1. Anoxic: predominant production of CH4 and CO2
2. Aerobic: microbial cells (flocs) and CO2

Ecological Engineering considerations
• A wastewater treatment system represents a complex community

(ecosystem) of microorganisms
• Conventional wastewater treatment converts organic compounds to

CH4 (fuel), CO2 (greenhouse gas) and inorganic nutrients (can result
in eutrophication, i.e. excess nutrients)
• Challenges:
1. Removal of excess nutrients: e.g. ‘Helophyte filters / Constructed

wetlands’ (see lecture 5)
2. Reduction of CO2 emission: Technical solutions? (see lecture 5)

Questions
• Why is wastewater treatment necessary, and what are the main compounds that
need generally to be removed before treated wastewater can be released to natural
surface waters?
• What are typical microbial reaction products after conversion of organic compounds
during anoxic and aerobic conditions respectively? Indicate for each product whether
it is a beneficial or rather harmful product and why
• What is the meaning of BOD in wastewater treatment. What are the two main
processes in ‘secondary wastewater treatment’ and which one is responsible for the
highest BOD decrease?
• To which of the 9 ecological engineering principles does wastewater treatment relate
and why?
• Wastewater is usually treated in different stages; which are these and in which ones
does biology (microorganisms) play a major role?
• Wastewater treatment is an example of how nature can be applied for civil
engineering purposes. Why is a high biodiversity (microbial diversity) important in
wastewater treatment?

Integration ecosystem functions in the
urban (built) environment
• Previous topics:
1. Ecosystem goods and services
2. Wastewater treatment

Integration ecosystem functions
Examples of sustainable integrated approaches in the

urban environment
Coupling energy demand and waste emissions:
1. The Energy Factory (energiefabriek.com)
2. Greenhouses as energy source (leveninhoogeland.nl)
3. Bio-energy village Jühnde (bioenergiedorf.de)

The Energy Factory
The Energy Factory

(energiefabriek.com)

The Energy Factory
Renewable energy from wastewater
• Wastewater contains a lot energy in form of organic compounds. It would

literally be a waste to transform all these into CO2 (an important greenhouse
gas) during wastewater treatment
• The 26 water boards (Waterschappen) in the Netherlands treat

approximately 1.5 billion cubic meter of sewage a year with the aid of 350
sewage treatment plants (STPs).
This process uses a great deal of energy and produces the
same amount of CO2 as 80,000 cars. This situation has to change!
• This is the reason behind the Energy Factory: the water boards in the
Netherlands have joined forces and developed a strong ambition to convert
sewage water into green energy on a large scale, at a local level, and thus
possibly become energy neutral. This will result in a considerable CO2
reduction, achieving a better environment both now and in the future

The Energy Factory
An enthusiastic group of water board employees

has its mind set on an ingenious plant, which will
convert incoming effluent at water boards
into energy for internal use, and possibly also for
use by third parties. In short, water boards as
energy producers, which will
ultimately also benefit consumers

The Energy Factory
The baseline:
Demand for energy is rapidly increasing all over the world, at the same time we
want to become less dependent on fossil sources of energy and are aware
of the fact that global oil and gas reserves will not last forever
We also need to reduce the negative impact on our climate caused by the use
of fossil fuels such as oil and coal
Global warming has to be brought to a halt. We could make a successful switch

to clean energy by making extensive use of sustainable sources of energy
such as wind and solar power, making substantial energy savings and
introducing green innovations
It is time to take a closer look at existing technologies and processes and

perhaps change them

The Energy Factory
The Energy Factory concept:
• Effluent contains energy. Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) receive

large quantities of effluent, thus energy
• The goal is thus to use the energy that comes in at one end, to
supply energy to processes that require energy at the other end
• This is already taking place at the bigger STPs, but could be rolled
out more widely
• 350 STPs as 350 new sources of energy that will enable water
boards to meet their own energy needs and may even leave them
with enough energy to supply others as well

The Energy Factory
The aim of the project was:
• To develop a waste processing concept that would enable the water

boards to treat sewage water, possibly in combination with other
energy-rich organic streams (such as manure, green waste or
industrial residual streams) and at the same time supply energy,
such as green electricity, green gas and heat

The Energy Factory
How to convert STPs into Energy Factories?

First the facts:
• Water boards buy 600 GWh a year for their treatment activities.
Fermentation of sludge produces 150 GWh
• Their total consumption is thus 750 GWh
• For the purpose of comparison: Nuon generates 667 GWh of
sustainable electricity each year
• Water boards consume 29 million m3 of natural gas each year
• An average household consumes 3000 kWh and 1600 m3 of gas
per year
• The electricity consumption of the water boards is equal to the
electricity consumption of 250.000 households

First the facts:
• If water boards would be Energy-neutral, they would be able to save

the equivalent of the energy consumed by the population of
Rotterdam
• In the Netherlands 25% of all STPs generate electricity by means of

sludge fermentation
(see previous lecture ‘wastewater treatment’:

1. soluble compounds are fermented to a mixture of fatty acids, H2
(hydrogen), and CO2
2. Fatty acids are further fermented to acetate, H2 and CO2
3. Acetate, H2 and CO2 are converted to methane by methanogenic
bacteria
Final products fermentation: H2, methane and CO2)

Electricity generation by means of sludge fermentation:

• The diagram shows what the energy balance at a common
wastewater treatment plant is like:

Thus at the moment:
• Energy generating sewage treatment plants generate

30 to 50% of the energy they consume
• 30% of the sludge produced is converted into methane gas, which is

turned into electricity with the aid of a gas engine with a maximum
efficiency of 40%. The residual heat can often also be useful, for
instance to heat the fermentation process
• Energy recovery from the treatment of 100.000 p.e. generates a

maximum capacity of 100 kW, the electricity consumption of 250
households (thus 50% of input!)

• The current sewage treatment plants would need to generate at

least double the amount of energy from the same amount of sewage
to become energy neutral (let alone become net energy suppliers!)
• How to achieve the goal set by long-term agreements on energy

efficiency, i.e. 500.000 p.e./year have to be treated in an energy
neutral manner

First consider the Potential energy from treatment:
• If more organic material (energy) is sent to biomass

conversion/sludge fermentation, this produces more energy. At the
same time, less energy is consumed (less energy input needed) as
a result of the biological treatment: an absolute win-win situation!
• The question is how much energy the wastewater represents and

whether it is possible to generate that energy more efficiently

• The chemical composition of the sewage water represents an

energetic capacity of 1,6 MW, and this could result in an improved
conversion in a modern plant:

Thus, energy-neutral wastewater treatment is possible already

with the use of existing technologies
• For modern treatment this means:

→ Improved sedimentation
→ Application of improved gas engine (39% efficiency)
→ Side-stream treatment for nitrogen removal
• However, still, the chemical energy content of the influent contains

as much as eight times the amount of energy required to run the
treatment process!

It thus appears potentially possible for a wastewater treatment

plant to produce a supply by:
1. Simply replacing the gas engine with a fuel cell (60% efficiency
instead of 39%)
2. It is also possible with the aid of a heat pump to use the heat energy
of the effluent. The effluent cools down a couple of degrees, as a
result of which an extra supply potential of a couple of MW is
created; enough to meet the heating needs of thousands of
households

Sewage treatment plants should therefore be able to produce a

surplus of both electricity and heat for supply to third parties
This means that it is possible to have

energy supplying sewage treatment plants!

Three options to change current plants to

new Energy Factories:
Basic: expansion of the plant with proven technologies, this creates an

energy-neutral situation and is currently already possible to achieve
Plus: the basic scenario with the application of a fuel cell and an extra
pre-treatment step prior to the sludge treatment, so that net energy
supply occurs. This scenario can be realized within the next 2 years
Super: the plus scenario, whereby fermentation makes way for the
supercritical gasification of sludge. This option generates plenty of
energy, but will take a few more years to develop

Basic
The basic variant:
Expanding existing plants to energy-neutral ones by:

1. Applying improved sedimentation
2. Side stream treatment for nitrogen removal
3. Improved gas engine (39% efficiency)

Plus
The plus variant: net delivery
This scenario involves expanding the basic variant with:

4. A fuel cell
5. An extra pre-treatment step for sludge (CAMBI) for improved
fermentation

Super
The super variant: net delivery
An elaboration of the plus scenario by:

6. Replacing fermentation by supercritical gasification of sludge (no
sludge waste production anymore, thus no final treatment needed,
however, technique needs further 5 years development…)
7. Treatment of the residual salt slurry: waste to resource!
No sludge removal needed

Useful energy facts
• Gas yield 1 kg COD = 0,35 m3 methane

Energy content of 1 kg COD Energy consumption of households
= 0,35 m3 x 35,9 MJ/m3 Heat = 1.600 m3 natural gas per year
= 12,6 MJ = 1,7 kW thermal
Capacity of 1 kg COD/hour
= 12600 kJ/3600 sec Electricity = 3000 kWh
= 3,5 kW (theoretical) = 0,35 kWe
• Energy sewage water
(on average) = 15 W/v.e. Green energy, The Netherlands
Specific heat of water = 4,18 kJ/kg.K-1 Windmills = 800 to 1200 kWh/year
Vaporisation heat of water = 2,26 MJ/kg per m2 rotor surface
500 m3/h water DT= 5 °C increase
= 4,18 x 500.000 x 5 Solar cells = 50 to 100 kWh/m2 panel
= 10.500 MJ/h
= 2,9 MW thermal Grey energy, The Netherlands
• Gas engine efficiency Natural gas = 1,78 kg CO2 per m3
= 37,4% electrical Electricity = 0,6 kg CO2 per kWh
= 45% thermal
• Fuel cell efficiency
= 60% electrical
= 35% thermal
• Energy consumption in the Netherlands
= 100 billion kWh electrical
+ 50 billion m3 natural gas

Greenhouses as energy source
Project Hoogeland (Naaldwijk):

Functional greenhouses for warming and cooling
of living quarters
Warming
/
Cooling

Application of innovative sustainable climate systems:
• Modern greenhouse tomato growers (cooperation

‘Prominent’) supply warming and cooling for new living
block ‘Hoogeland’, Naaldwijk NL:
Result: 40% reduction CO2 emission
The greenhouse as energy source

System description
• Summer period: greenhouses produce surplus heat and

store this in subsurface aquifer, cold water is used for
cooling (both houses and greenhouses)
• Winter period: stored warm water used for heating
• Core of system is the heat pump which delivers heating,

cooling and warm tap water

Summer: warm water , cold water
Winter: warm water , cold water
Prominent
Greenhouses Heat pump
Heat exchanger
Warm water Cold water

• Heat pumps have the ability to move heat energy from one environment to
another, and in either direction. A (ground-source) heat pump uses an
intermediate fluid (a refrigerant) which absorbs heat as it vaporizes and
releases the heat when it condenses
• Since a heat pump moves 3 to 5 times more heat energy than the electric
energy it consumes, the total energy output is much greater than the input.
This results in net thermal efficiencies greater than 100% for most electricity
sources. Traditional combustion furnaces and electric heaters can never
exceed 100% efficiency, but heat pumps provide extra energy by extracting
it from the ground
A simple stylized diagram of a heat pump's

vapor-compression refrigeration cycle:
1) condenser, 2) expansion valve,
3) evaporator, 4) compressor
Source: Wikipedia

• Heat pumps provide wintertime heating by extracting heat from a source
and transferring it to the building
• In theory, heat can be extracted from any source, no matter how cold, but a
warmer source allows higher efficiency
• In the summer, the process can be reversed so the heat pump extracts heat
from the building and transfers it to the ground
• Ground source heat pumps must have a heat exchanger in contact with the
ground or groundwater to extract or dissipate heat
• The efficiency of ground source heat pumps can be improved by using

seasonal thermal storage. If heat loss from the ground source is sufficiently
low, the heat pumped out of the building in the summer can be retrieved in
the winter
• These principles are used to provide renewable heat and renewable cooling
to all kinds of buildings

Ecological engineering principle:
1. Minimize (CO2) emissions
2. Recycle: ‘Waste heat’ as resource

Bio-energy village Jühnde
Figure 1:
The bio-energy plant in the idyllic village Jühnde

The concept:
• Many studies have proven that a hundred per cent energy supply
from Renewable Energy Sources is possible
• But still many people are skeptical whether this would be possible to
achieve in practice
• The bioenergy village Jühnde in northern Germany switched its

power supply to Renewable Energies completely

A bio-energy plant for generation of renewable energy
• Jühnde installed a bio-energy plant consisting of:

→ a 700 kW biogas installation and
→ a 550 kW wood chip heating plant
to provide electricity and heat
• The plant is exclusively fuelled with local resources
• The biogas is gained from the liquid manure of 800 cows and 1,400
pigs, grass and other plants
• It generates 4,000,000 kWh of electricity annually

A bio-energy plant for generation of renewable energy
• In summer the generated heat is sufficient for heating and hot water,
in winter the wood chip heating plant joins in
• The bioenergy village Jühnde attracts many visitors who experience

on-site that a hundred per cent energy supply from Renewable
Energy Sources is utopia no longer but a serious alternative with
ecological, economical and regional advantages over conventional
energy supply systems
• It has been estimated that the participating households save €750

per year in energy costs

The biogas and wood chip plant:
Manure
Biomass
waste
Wood chips
Back up system

Ecological engineering principle:
1. Renewable (energy) resources
2. Recycle: ‘Waste (manure, wood chips) as resource’
3. Minimize (CO2) emissions

Background information / further reading
• Energy factory – Water boards inside out
• Def-Klimaatbrochure (in Dutch)
• Bio-gas village

Questions
• A current average sewage treatment plant recovers about (how much percent) of the
energy input?
How could this possibly be improved (name 3 out of 7 technical possibilities) to
become energy neutral or even energy supplying, as is e.g. proposed by the ‘Energy
Factory’ consortium?
• Describe a concept, using at least one technology, how coupling of greenhouses with
living quarters could substantially reduce overall energy consumption
Name at least 2 ecological engineering principles which relate to this concept
• Explain the working principle of a ‘heat pump’ and give an example of how/where it
can be applied to reduce CO2 emissions
• Describe how the German village ‘Jühnde’ was able to switch completely to 100%
energy supply from renewable resources, which two technical installations were
necessary to achieve this objective?

Landscape ecology (ecosystems)

and infrastructures

Landscape ecology and infrastructures
Apparent conflict between natural ecosystem functioning…

…and human transportation needs (infrastructures)

What is landscape ecology?
It is the science of studying and improving

relationships between urban development
and ecological processes (ecosystem functioning)
in the environment
The term landscape ecology was coined in 1939

by Carl Troll, a German geographer
In his work he used aerial photography for studying relationships
between vegetation types and environmental components

Topics
1. Some basic principles of landscape ecology
2. Effects of roads and traffic: habitat fragmentation
3. Policy to counteract the impact of transportation infrastructure
4. ‘Defragmentation’ and other examples of eco-engineering
5. Road ecology - the ecological value of roadside verges;
vegetation and fauna
Hans de Vries
Centre for Traffic and Navigation


Important concepts / notions:
- Fragmentation
- Stepping stones
- Corridors
- Dispersal barrier
- Source and Sink
- Road side verges

National governments have to manage

1. Main road (rail) and 2. Main waterways infrastructures

Landscape ecological integration of infrastructure:

from prevention of damage towards increased ecological value

New infrastructure results in:
1. Increase in road density
2. Fragmentation of
landscapes / ecosystems
3. Disappearance of
‘green networks’
i.e. hedgerows,
wooded banks etc

- Habitat fragmentation - (Habitat: the natural environment in

which an organism lives)
1. Inhibits dispersal of species
2. Number of suitable habitats (minimum sizes required) decrease
3. Infrastructures form additional barriers, increase isolation
- ‘Stepping stones’ or ‘corridors’ (e.g. hedgerows) -
1. Can connect fragmented landscape patches / ecosystems
2. Active measures such as fauna passages and

ecological verge management may improve connectivity

- ‘Stepping stones’ -
Smaller landscape patches close enough to each other can

provide ways for species to migrate between larger
landscape patches / ecosystems

- ‘Corridors’ -
Roads and railroad tracks form barriers for species to migrate

between landscape patches / ecosystems (Figure 3).
However, they can be changed to ‘corridors’ when actively

combined with suitable verges (e.g. hedgerows) and ecoducts
(fauna passages) to allow species to migrate (Figure 4)

1. Some basic
Fragmentation: Largerprinciples of landscape
areas with mono-cultures, ecology
very low biodiversity

Hedgerows:
Connections between
fragmented areas; thus
can function as a corridor
for organisms to migrate
between habitats (or patches)

A ‘Meta-population’ of a species is composed of several (sub) populations

living in different areas (Figure A). If migration between areas becomes limited
due to e.g. infrastructure, sub populations become isolated and may go extinct
Local extinction can be followed by re-colonization from surrounding populations

if dispersal is possible (again)
A road may thus act as a dispersal barrier, preventing re-colonization

- ‘Habitat as ‘Sink’ or ‘Source’ -
1. A ‘habitat’ is a living area for a plant or animal species
2. A ‘Sink’ habitat for a specific species has a non-sustaining

birth-death ratio and depends on immigration from other habitats
3. A ‘Source’ habitat is an area in which a population of a given species

can reach a positive balance between births and deaths and thus
act as a source of emigrating individuals

- ‘Road side verges’ -
1. Road side verges are for many species not ideal habitats as these are
often relatively small (narrow) and dangerous (due to traffic)
2. However, road side verges may be used by certain species to migrate

between isolated habitat patches. Road side verges (if wide enough)
can thus connect isolated areas and increase the total connected area
to a minimum size required for survival of certain species

Topics
Hans de Vries

2. Effects of roads and traffic

Important concepts / notions:
- Habitat fragmentation - Connectedness

- Connectivity - Scale
- Hierarchy - Road effects
- Loss of habitat - Disturbance
- Barrier effect - Corridor
- Function of road side verges - Nitrogen deposition

- Habitat fragmentation -
Habitat fragmentation

1. Negative:
Dissection and reduction of the habitat area available to a given species
→ caused directly by 1. habitat loss (e.g. due to land-take)
→ or indirectly by 2. habitat isolation (e.g. due to barriers)
2. Positive:
1. Dispersal of plant species via cars (e.g. seeds on tires) or road side
animals (but can also introduce ‘intruder’ species)

Habitat fragmentation as such

is thus not always negative:
2. Natural isolation may

enhance area species
diversity (unique biotopes)
3. Increase landscape diversity

Difference between connectedness and connectivity:
(1) connectedness: How well are landscape features connected
(2) connectivity: How well can species move between places
→ Knowledge of scale (size) and hierarchy (ecosystem structure) are important

for understanding ecological patterns en processes within the landscape
→ Necessary condition in order to successfully counteract

habitat fragmentation,
e.g. scale of landscape in relation to scale of road network

- More road effects on the ecosystem -

- Road effects -

- 1. Loss of habitat -

Land take by transport mode: - Loss of habitat -
Mode Type Width (m) Size (ha/km)
railway conventional 26 2,6
HSR upgrade 32 3,2
HSR new 35 3,5
road 2x1 32 3,2

(# lanes)
2x2 54 5,4
2x3 60 6,0
2x4 72 7,2

Netherlands (NL)
• 125.000 km road:
• - rural 68.000 km
• - urban 57.000 km
• 55.000 ha road verge = 2% NL,
• Compare: protected nature area = 4% NL
• motorways 3.100 km
• unpaved roads 11.000 km
• 15.000 ha motorway verges
- Loss of habitat -

- Loss of habitat -

- Loss of habitat -
Average size of land parcels not fragmented by motorways:

- Disturbance -

- Disturbance -
all species together

breeding density
noise load dB(A)

- Disturbance -
Disturbed bird habitat: 15-20%

- Disturbance -
‘Barrier effect’
road mortality
successful crossing
- Disturbance -
Road casualties most visible, annual toll in The Netherlands:
→ 2-10 million birds
→ 0,5 - 1 million rabbits and hare
→ 0,3 - 0,5 million hedgehogs
→ 500 – 800 badgers
Estimated 5 – 10 million vertebrates

(= approx. 3 casualties / week / km1 road)

- Disturbance -
Example specific mammal species:
Hedgehog research (6 years)
6 – 9 % of the population killed by traffic
2 - 3 times more males killed than females
Peak in July
High risk spots: wooded banks, forest edges, etc.

crossing roads

Example specific mammal species: Hedgehog research (6 years)

- Barrier effect -

- Barrier effect -

- Barrier effect -
Effects species dependent

Mortality effect
Badger
Squirrel
Mouse
Barrier effect

Effects species dependent: - Barrier effect -

→ Some species may not experience any physical or behavioural barrier,
whereas others may not try to even approach the road corridor.
→ To effectively mitigate the barrier effect, the relative importance of the

inhibiting factors on individual species must be established

- Barrier effect -
Animal movements along and across a railway and road

- Barrier effect -
→ Infrastructure causes a loss and degradation of habitat

due to disturbance effects (grey area) and isolation

- Barrier effect -
→ With increasing infrastructure density, areas of undisturbed habitat (white)

are reduced in size and become inaccessible

- Barrier effect -
→ Remnant fragments of suitable habitat may eventually become too small and
isolated to support local populations, resulting in extinction

- Barrier effect -
→ The critical threshold in road density is species-specific,

but will also depend on landscape and infrastructure characteristics

- Barrier effect -
In agricultural areas the splitting of habitats is less severe than in natural areas:
→ Lower biodiversity: high number of fewer species present
→ No (hardly) rare species present

- Corridor function of road side verges -
The corridor function differs with respect to the surrounding landscape:
A) Open, agricultural landscapes:

Richly vegetated corridor verges can provide a valuable habitat
for wildlife and facilitate movement (corridor function);
Can also act as ‘source’

B) Forested landscapes:
Open and grassy verges introduce new edges and can increase
the barrier effect on forest interior species;
Can act as ‘sink’

C) Verges may also serve as sources of species

spreading into new habitats or re-colonising vacant areas

- Other effects of roads and traffic: - Nitrogen deposition -
→ Traffic emissions contribute to the excessive deposition of nitrogen

in vulnerable habitats. Nutrient-poor vegetation types and species disappear

Further/background reading
• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapter 9: Main ecological and landscape ecological
principles in road construction and hydraulic engineering. In: Ecological Engineering
– Bridging between ecology and civil engineering
• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapter 12: Fragmentation of nature by roads and traffic
and its defragmentation: prevention, minimization, mitigation, compensation effects,
and conservation, restoration and development of ecological values. In: Ecological
• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapter 14: Infrastructural landscapes: from theory to
practice. In: Ecological Engineering – Bridging between ecology and civil engineering

Questions
• In relation to the scientific field of 'Landscape Ecology', what is the meaning of the
terms 'fragmentation', 'stepping stones', 'corridors', 'dispersal barrier' and 'source
and sink'
• Explain how 'road side verges' as part of civil engineering infrastructural works can
positively contribute to ecosystem functioning (e.g. in relationship to the terms
stated above)
• What is a 'habitat'
• What is the typical function of 'hedgerows' in relation to landscape ecological
engineering?
• What is a 'meta-population', and what specific negative role can infrastructure play
in its decline?
• Give one example of a negative and two examples of possible positive effects of
roads and traffic on the environment in relation to habitat fragmentation
• What percentage of total country area is taken up by roads in the Netherlands: 0.5,
1, 2, 4, 8 or 16%? And by protected nature area: 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16%?
• Why is the barrier effect of roads often less severe in agricultural areas compared
to nature areas?

Topics
Hans de Vries

3. Policy to counteract the impact of infrastructure
- National measures - European measures
- Defragmentation policy - Habitat and Bird directives
- Fauna measures - Natura 2000
- Ecological Main Structure

Nature conservation in the Netherlands: legal instruments
• # Flora and Fauna Act (into force in 2002)

→ aims to protect plant and animal species
• # Nature Conservation Act (established 1998, into force in 2005)

→ aims to protect nature areas
• Boths Acts include aspects of the EU:
# Habitats Directive and

# Wild Birds Directive
• and international # CITES treaty (Convention on international trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

- National (Dutch) measures -
‘Defragmentation’ in the Netherlands:
→ 1990 Defragmentation policy made official by government
→ 1993 ‘No net loss’ principle adopted, start defragmentation program

at existing motorways
→ 2010 Approx. 600 fauna measures at motorways: 6 ecoducts,

200 badger tunnels, 300 small fauna tunnels,
4 large fauna tunnels, 170 modified engineering structures
→ Long range defragmentation program for national and provincial

roads, railroads and waterways

In 1990 the Dutch government launched the

National Ecological Network
(also named Ecological Main Structure EMS)
Program
→ EMS important concept and tool for

counteracting fragmentation
→ National plan, regional elaboration

by provinces
→ Will be part of the European

‘Natura 2000’ network

Principles and objective of EMS:
→ Connect core natural areas (>500 ha)
→ Using ecological corridors
→ Network consisting of:

- ‘Arteries’ (national)
- ‘Veins’ (regional)
- ‘Capillaries’ (local)
→ Connection zones:
Within 20 years (2000-2018):
- 5000 km corridors
- 725.000 ha
- involves >100 million €

- International (European) nature conservation policies:
Implementation in national legislation of:
# Birds Directive (1979):

- Protection of 194 endangered species
- Designation of Spatial Protection Areas (SPAs)
# EU Habitats Directive (1992):

- Promote maintenance of Biodiversity
- Conservation of 450 endangered animals and 500 plants
- Conservation of 200 rare and characteristic habitat types
- Establishment of the EU wide Natura 2000 ecological network
The Birds and Habitats Directives form the

backbone of EU nature protection legislation

Spatial Protection Areas (SPAs)

and rare and characteristic habitat types
(defined under Birds and Habitats Directives)
are part of the EMS and Natura 2000
Ecological networks

The ‘Natura 2000’ network

Natura 2000 is a network of more than 25 000

conservation sites all over the EU
• It provides extensive ecological as well as socio-economic benefits:
- Spread/exchange of species between sites:

increases/stabilizes biodiversity
and ecosystem functioning
- Stimulates tourism
and recreational activities
- Ecosystem goods and services

such as:
- Flood control
- Cleaning of water
- Waste/Nutrient recycling
Topics
Hans de Vries

4. ‘Defragmentation’ and other examples

of eco-engineering
- Prevention - Mitigation - Compensation
- Building with Nature - River Ecology
- Filtering wetlands - Eco-passages
- Traffic disturbances - Connecting habitats
- Compensation measures

4. ‘Defragmentation’ and examples of eco-engineering
Defragmentation strategy:
1. Prevention (avoidance)
2. Mitigation (minimizing)
3. Compensation
of ecosystem fragmentation by infrastructure

Defragmentation: prevention
Avoiding habitat fragmentation by:
→ No road construction (look for alternatives)
→ Choice of route: not through sensitive area / least impact corridor
→ Tunnel construction
All feasible alternative solutions have to be investigated before making

a final decision on whether and where to build a road



In some area’s new roads are considered unacceptable,

e.g. through unique or sensitive area’s such as EMS or Natura 2000 sites
Defragmentation: mitigation
The eco-road fits well into the surrounding landscape with

minimal negative impact on nature and the environment
Mitigation:
Mitigating strategies / programs to reduce the impact of civil engineering by:
1. Building with nature
2. Separating / shielding the impact source from the area/species to be protected
- Traffic measures such as wildlife detection, speed limitations
- Adaptation of surroundings (configuration of the landscape)
3. Connecting protected area’s / populations by the use of:
- Fauna passages such as ecoducts,

- Modification of existing constructions (bridges etc.)

Mitigation:
Mitigating strategies:
1. Building with Nature:
- Developing new knowledge for sustainable lay-out of coastal, delta

and river areas
- Design based on ecosystem using natural processes
- Based on ecosystem knowledge, using nature as

“dynamic motor”
- Nature as basis for establishing infrastructure, with

meeting the infrastructural and economic needs

- Example ‘building with Nature’ -
Nature development Confined Disposal Facility IJsseloog

Nature development CDF IJsseloog
Confined disposal facilities (CDFs) are one of the most widely used technologies
for managing contaminated sediments
The effectiveness of a CDF in containing contaminants depends on

the design, construction, operation, and management of the facility
IJsseloog is an Island type CDF. This makes it rather easy to

combine the CDF with other functions as
- Marinas,
- Recreation and
- Nature enhancement
Clay and peat that became available by the construction of the site has been used
to create wetlands and marshland on the outer bank of the cdf:
Waste as resource!

Ecological improvement

More examples of using waste as resource (sustainable building):
uses of dredged material in road construction, banks, covering, dikes

More examples of environmental use of dredged material:
Haringvliet nature development,
Construction of artificial islands for nature

IJssel delta nature development
Dredged material from maintenance (2 Mm3) is used to create islands near the mouth of the
river IJssel for nature development. Sandy (clean) dredged material was used to construct an
outer ring filled with finer dredged material including peat (category 1, lightly contaminated)

Measures: - Example mitigation: Improvement of river ecology -
→ Water quality high priority
→ Restoring natural character of river
→ Cleaning up polluted sediments
→ Fish migration: fish ladders
→ Natural embankments
→ Fauna exits

- Mitigation - Fish passages:

Co-operation between ecologists and engineers
Physical structure

Fauna exit
To prevent animals from drowning,

fauna exit ramps are made along canal banks

In urban area’s, infrastructure could be designed and maintained
in a more sustainable way:
→ Multi-functional use of limited space may benefit both people and the environment!

- Example: filtering wetlands for pollution mitigation -
Ecological engineering can be used to construct biotopes:
The construction of run-off filtering wetlands is an example of integrating different interests
Experiments with run-off filtering wetlands now take place on a limited scale

- Example mitigation of ecosystem fragmentation: building Eco-passages -
Veluwe

- Example: Decrease (mitigate) disturbance by traffic -
Natural sound barriers

Natural sound barriers

Mitigating actions:
a/b Reduction traffic mortality by fencing + crossing facilities e.g. eco-ducts/passage
c/d Elimination of barrier effect linking isolated habitats
Connecting habitats and species

Elimination of barrier effect
linking isolated habitats

Ecoducts
Front view: lowered highway

Ecoducts
Top view

The A1 ecoduct near Kootwijk

Wildlife overpass across a high-speed railway in France

Overpass for wildlife and agricultural use in Germany
For agri-traffic
For wildlife

Design for both ecological passage and public traffic
For traffic
For wildlife

Large underpass for wildlife, combining an unpaved road and a stream

Badgers are protected in The Netherlands, but they still fall victim to the traffic
Needed: tunnel 30-40 cm diameter under the road together with badger fencing

Some 600 badger tunnels have been constructed and most of them work

Warning signs have little effect

Special amphibian tunnel: appropriate fencing is crucial as well

Special amphibian tunnel: Germany is most experienced

with using these measures. A lot of research has been done here
The design of viaducts should enable animals

to use the verges crossing under the road

A vegetated river or canal bank enables

ground dwelling species to cross a road safely

A wall of tree stumps offers shelter

and cover to smaller mammal species
Research has shown organic rubble structures

to be effective for many species

Artificial strips or banks as catwalk for animals under roads

So called ‘eco-culverts’ are pre-designed

A ‘catwalk’ for wildlife along river banks

Special kerbstones
with gentle slopes
are designed
enabling toads
to cross local roads

Mitigate habitat loss:
Ditches are very important in the Dutch landscape,

along roads they can provide good amphibian habitat

Crossing of deer is a problem in many areas

Total damage of wildlife car collisions in the USA is estimated 1,4 billion € / Y
In Switzerland (7 million inhabitants) the amount is estimated 42 million € / Y

Mitigate road accidents with wildlife:
Effectiveness of special wildlife warning reflectors are studied:

No conclusive evidence of significant effectiveness so far
A modern warning system

for crossing game
developed in Switzerland:
a system with sensors
warn drivers when an
animal approaches the road

Compensation measures
If prevention and mitigation are not enough,

the ‘no net loss’ principle requires additional compensation
for loss of nature
New wet habitat created in the vicinity of a road project

In several European countries comprehensive directives

exist for compensating habitat loss, e.g. change of former agricultural land
into (semi) natural wetlands

An artificial nesting wall for Sand martins (or Bank swallows) was build
to compensate for the loss of nesting habitat in a road construction sand depot

Further/Background reading
• Spatial Development and the National Ecological Network. Publication by the Ministry
of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the
Environment 2009
• Hein van Bohemen (2001) Infrastructure, ecology and art. Landscape and urban
planning 59:187-201

Questions-1
• Name 2 Dutch and 3 International legislative instruments (laws) related to nature conservation,
and which have implications for civil engineering activities
• In which year did the Dutch government officially started a defragmentation policy program
counteract impact of infrastructure on the environment: 1960 – 1970 – 1980 – 1990 or 2000, and
what was the name of that program? Give 5 examples of physical (civil engineering) fauna
measures (structures) that were developed and applied in relation to that program?
• What is the main objective of the ‘Ecological Main Structure’ program which was launched in 1990
by the Dutch government? How many thousand hectares of nature are is planned to be involved
in this program by the year 2018: <100, 250, 500, >700?
• Which three of the nine ecological engineering principles mainly apply to defragmentation
strategies in relation to infrastructure development, and explain their meaning
• In some areas construction of new roads are considered unacceptable, and here the ‘prevention’
principle has to be applied. For what type of areas does this hold, and which Dutch and EU nature
protection programs relate to these area’s?
• Name 2 possible mitigating strategies which could be applied in relation to the phenomenon of
‘fragmentation’ due to infrastructure development, and explain their meaning
• One of three possible mitigating strategies to reduce the impact of civil engineering practices is
the concept of ‘Building with Nature’. Explain the concept and give two examples of its practical
application

Questions-2
• Give two examples of physical (civil engineering) structures which can contribute to mitigation of
civil engineering practices in rivers, and six to mitigate harmful effects of transportation
infrastructure on landscapes (ecosystems)
• Which one of the nine ecological engineering principles relates to the ‘no net loss’ principle, and
give two practical engineering examples of possible measures that could be undertaken

Topics
Hans de Vries

5. Road ecology - the ecological value of roadside verges
- Maintenance management - Biodiversity
- Refuge - Habitat value
- Corridor function - Gradients
- Vegetation types - Special habitat

The road as a habitat

Road maintenance, verges, fauna measures:
In the Netherlands:
→ 3.100 km national roads
→ Cost of road maintenance: 500 million € / year

= 160.000 € / km
→ Road-side maintenance 35 million € = 7% of budget
→ 12.000 ha of road verges = 29.000 € / ha
→ Fauna measures on existing roads: 1% of budget

ZOAB (very open asphalt concrete) makes a good habitat for weeds
Weed control without the use of herbicides poses a new challenge
In contrast to some decades ago, only 0.5% of the

total grassland area is natural or semi-natural
1930
Dikes and verges:
rich in species
2000
(semi-) natural grasslands:
Only 3000 ha
= 0.5% of all grasslands
→ Verges of roads and dikes were

used by farmers for cattle and hay
→ Many of these verges were species-rich

and covered by flowers
→ Until some fifty years ago these pictures

were very common

Strategies to improve nature quality outside the existing nature areas:

Urban areas and infrastructure comprise vast territories and
therefore offer possibilities to develop nature

1950-1970:
→ Mowing (mulching)
6-10 times / year
→ Herbicides/pesticides
→ Fertiliser
→ Nutrient-rich soil
→ Low ecological values

1970-1980:
Changing management:
→ More ecology
→ Mowing (cutting) 1-3 times / year
→ Removal of the hay (nutrients)
→ No fertilisers
→ No herbicides/ pesticides

Netherlands:
→ 1600 plant species
Road verges:
→ 780 plant species
→ Important for agrestal plants
(weeds growing on cultivated land)

25 Netherlands
road side verges

20
15
10
common
common
common
common
uncommon
ext. rare
very rare
rare
quite rare
quite
very
ext.
Rareness of plant species in road side verges
→ Road side verges have many common plant species

→ Only very few rare species present
→ However, some grassland species mainly occur in road verges
- Management measures -
Contribution to nature protection:
→ About 80% of all road verges is grassland

→ Mowing once or twice a year and removing the hay
leads eventually to 1) a species-rich grassland

- Management measures -
Leaving strips of vegetation unmown will offer 2) shelter

for smaller animals during winter season

→ Road verges can have a high nature value, specifically in countries suffering
from major ecological destruction of nature and landscape (Netherlands)
→ Countries with less nature loss show less interest in road side verges

→ Recent investigation showed motor-way verges had three times

more plant species than the adjacent agricultural fields:
→ Can be 3) a source for species distribution

→ In the Netherlands, many road verges are surrounded by intensively managed
agricultural landscape with very low nature values
→ The verges are 4) the last refuge for extensively managed, semi-natural vegetation
types and thus make an important contribution to nature protection
→ Aquatic biotopes are very common in the Netherlands,

However, clear, nutrient-poor water is not very common
→ Many places alongside motorways appear to support water and
bank vegetation types that are rich in species

Significance of verges as habitat / corridor species dependant:
group of species significance (under conditions) effect
Mustelidae (weasels) part of habitat, corridor --
large mammals minimal --
hare/rabbit/hedgehog part. habitat -
mice/voles full habitat, part. habitat, corridor ++/-
bats part. habitat, corridor -/+
birds part. habitat --/-
reptiles/amfibians part. habitat, corridor? -/+
invertebrates full habitat, part. habitat, corridor ++/-
plants habitat, corridor?? ++/-
→ Verges can be ecologically managed to be optimised either for

- Habitat value or
- Corridor function
→ Most countries where verge maintenance is ecologically adapted
seem to give priority to the habitat function of the verge
Conclusion of some studies:
→ Verges are most important for
- Plants (mushrooms included),
- Some groups small mammals,
- Invertebrates
→ Less important / suitable
for other species.

- Gradients -
→ If road verges are wide enough, slow gradients can be developed,

e.g. between woodland and herbaceous vegetation,
thereby offering more habitat quality to the fauna

- Vegetation types -
→ Arrhenaterion most common type

of vegetation
Arrhenaterion
Ericaceous communities
On dry sandy soil heath land can be found.

The purple flowering heather offers a nice view to car drivers

Vegetation of nutrient-rich soil
Anthriscus and Rumex
Aegopodium community
Even if the vegetation is not very valuable botanically spoken,

wild flowers can offer a nice view to motorists
→ Road sides / verges can act as corridors
e.g. saline vegetation spreads along
roads due to use of de-icing salt

The Yellow rattle or Rhinantus indicates good soil quality

for nutrient poor grassland communities
- Special habitat -
Road verges appear to be surprisingly important

for e.g. grasshoppers and crickets

- Special habitat -
No less than 34 of the 40 plus species found in the Netherlands

are also found on road verges,
including a large number of relatively rare species

- Special habitat -
35
30
25
20
%
15
10
5
common
common
common
common
uncommon
ext. scarce
scarce
scarce
scarce
quite
very
quite
very
ext.
rareness of grasshopper species in road
verges
The most important reason why grasshoppers prefer
road verge habitat is the absence of
nutrient-poor grassland in most agricultural areas
Conclusions
1. Close co-operation of ecological and civil engineering disciplines

within the road administration strongly improves mutual understanding
2. In international co-operation there is a growing exchange of

information and experience
3. In addition to budget, ecological management requires the right attitude
In the Netherlands, previously separate

Ministry of Infrastructure and Ministry of Environment
now merged into one single Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment
• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapters 9, 11, 12: Ecological Engineering –

Bridging between ecology and civil engineering

Questions
• Give three reasons why ‘road side verges’ can make a positive contribution to nature
protection
• Give three possible active management actions which can result in an increase of
species richness in road side verges
• Which two specific functions could road side verges provide for fauna?
• What does the term ‘gradient’ mean in relation to road side verges and why could it
be of importance?
• For some fauna species road side verges represent a valuable habitat as elsewhere
natural habitat areas are rapidly declining. Give an example for a fauna species, and
explain why particularly road side verges are important for this species

Introduction to Ecological Engineering in the
Sub-surface
CT4100
Timo Heimovaara
t.j.heimovaara@tudelft.nl
015 2781969
Room: KG.00.540
www.geo.citg.tudelft.nl 1
What is the sub-surface?
• Volume below our feet (all the way to the core of the earth 6500 km)
• Crust (20 to 120 km thick)
• Lots of volume, lots of properties, ...
• http://www.earthscrust.org/earthscrust/science/historic/andriji.html
Layered system
source: Atlas van Nederland, deel 13: Geologie, 1985
• Sediments in different times

• Young country
• North Sea Basin
• Developed by sediments of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt
• Basin is sloping towards the middle,
• layers of same age in Roermond and 50 m, in Alkmaar at 500 m...
• Grain size sediments reflect position in basin, and sorting processes
Development in the holocene & Soils in the
Netherlands
http://avn.geog.uu.nl/index13.html
Soils, layered systems
February 14, 2011
February 14, 2011
February 14, 2011
Sources of Soil & Groundwater contamination
Types of contamination
• Identify properties and behavior of contamination

• Solubility in water and in other liquids
• Volatility
• Density
• Degradability
• etc.
http://www.enbridgecasslake.com/casslake/main.aspx?id=12429
Cleaning up soil contamination
• Dig & dump

• Active in-situ remediation
• Passive in-situ remediation
http://www.bnl.gov/community/cleanup/Groundwater.asp
1997/1999 2007
Major speed up due to realization that
bacteria can degrade contaminants
• Mid 1990's more and more evidence from monitoring

• Much cheaper
• How protective?
• → monitoring technology improved
• → change in paradigm
• → slow implementation in regulations
Biogeochemical degradation of contaminants
Proof of Natural Attenuation
• Measurement strategy
• What do we look for?
• Why?
• What can we measure?
• Where and when?
• How sure are we of the results?
Metabolism is driven by oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions.
These involve transfer of electrons
Reaction and component stochiometry
• Most important chemical elements:
• C,H,O,N,S,P,Fe,Cl, etc...
• Combine in a wide range of compounds

• organic (substrates) like Glucose: C6H12O6
• ions like nitrate (NO3-) or iron(II), Fe2+
• contaminants like Per (Cl2-C=C-Cl2, or C2Cl4)
more negative oxidized/reduced forms
potential acceptor/donor
more positive
O2 Aerobes
Oxic
H2O
NO3- Denitrifiers
N2
Sub-oxic MnO2 Manganese reducers
anaerobic Mn2+
Fe(OH)3 Iron reducers
Fe2+
SO42- Sulfate reducers
Sulfidic
H2S
CO2 Methanogens
CH4
Methanic H2O
H2
The redox-couples are shown on each stair-step, where the

most energy is gained at the top step and the least at the bottom
step. (Gibb’s free energy becomes more positive going down the
steps)
Chlorinated solvents
Life cycle of a plume...
Eco-engineering principles adhered to:
Seek sustainable balance between natural and human

dominated areas and activities
Main principles:
1.Ecosystem approach
2.Prevention
3.Mitigation
4.Compensation
5.Restoration
6.Renewable resources
7.Minimize emissions
8.Recycling
9.Integrate nature and economy
Some informative websites
• http://www.bodemrichtlijn.nl/ (Richtlijn herstel en beheer

(water) bodem kwaliteit
• http://www.senternovem.nl/Bodemplus/index.asp (Dutch
governmental agency for soil contamination related issues, result
of institutionalization …)
• http://www.claire.co.uk/ (Same for the UK)...
• http://www.eugris.info/ (… for the EU)
• http://www.clu-in.org/ (… for the USA)
Soil (ecosystem) functions
• Food and other biomass production

• Environmental Interaction: storage, filtering, and
transformation
• Biological habitat and gene pool
• Source of raw materials
• Physical and cultural heritage
• Platform for man-made structures: buildings, highways
BioGeoCivil
• Use Soil ecosystem functions as inspiration for solving

engineering challenges
• BioGrout
• Biological Corrosion Protection
• Biological prevention of subsidence
• BioSealing
• ...
BioGrout
Questions
• Why do micro-organisms degrade organic contaminants?
• What do we mean by the ”redox ladder”?
• What is the sequence in which micro-organisms consume electron
acceptors?
• Why is the sub-surface a layered system?

• Give 6 (ecosystem) functions of the soil?
• Give an example of engineering in an urban setting which utilizes these
ecosystem functions.
Roads and environmental effects
Marcel Koeleman
Head Airquality group
DCMR-Environmental Protection Agency
Rijnmond/Rotterdam

Introduction, main categories of disturbances:
1) Soil- and 2) water pollution
3) Air pollution, road- and water traffic
4) Noise hindrance
• Effect of climate change on roads: adaptation
• Mitigation in 2030

Ecological engineering principles
2. Prevention
3. Mitigation
4. Compensation
5. Restoration
8. Recycle

Introduction

Introduction
The problem:
• Infrastructure requires space,

and therefore competes with other functions:
E.g. living, working, recreation, nature
• Competition is not only for space, but also for

function / performance
• Sustainability requires ‘sufficient space’ for all functions

in an area

Introduction
The problem and resulting Policy:
How to distribute available space

(in a sustainable way)
over the different functions?

Introduction
The Netherlands:
Ca. 3.200 km motor way
Ca. 1.000.000 houses

within 1km of a motor way

Introduction
Potential environmental effects of roads:
• Noise (tires / engines)
• Air pollution (fuel combustion: fine dust and (climate) gasses)
• Soil- and water pollution (contaminated runoff water)
• Ecological disturbances (e.g. habitat fragmentation)
• Health effects

Introduction
Pollutants (contaminants)

Introduction
Space requirements new roads:
→ Subjected to (inter) national legislation,
Environmental Impact Assessment needed
• Governmental sustainable strategies:
→ Prevention – Mitigation – Compensation
and Spatial reallocation measures

Introduction
Prevention of spatial conflicts:
• Careful spatial planning in combination with
Environmental Impact Assessment analyses

Introduction
Mitigation of spatial conflicts:
• Taking measures to limit emissions
• Reduce effect of contaminant emissions

Introduction
Compensation of spatial conflicts:
In practice applied for:
• Ecological compensation
• Recently also for Climate Change effects

Introduction
Spatial reallocation:
• Removal of one of the spatially conflicting functions
(Can also be grouped under ‘Mitigation’ or ‘Prevention’)

Introduction
Tools for impact assessment
Comparison to set Norms for environmental aspects

Soil and water pollution

Emission and dispersion mechanisms:
Evaporation, precipitation, adsorption, run off, deposition

Soil and water pollution dispersion
Emission sources
from
to to

Air and water pollution related strategies :
Prevention:
Avoid vulnerable landscapes and soils (ecosystems)
Mitigation:
Adapt type of pavement and implement sewerage

system (technical solutions)

Consider possible mitigation measures with respect to criteria:
Mitigation measures: Criteria for implementation:
1. Collection
1. Effectivity collection runoff
Gully / sewer
Ditches
Sedimentation tanks 2. Effectivity collection dispersion
2. Purification system
Physical chemical
Wetlands / reed beds
3. Effectivity removal organic compounds
Compost filter
3. Sealing 4. Effectivity removal heavy metals
Soil with clay / organic material
Clay
Lining 5. Technical practicability
Foil
Soil fixation
6. Use of space
4. Vehicle barrier
Metal crash barrier
Concrete barrier 7. Experience
Soil bank
5. Miscellaneous 8. Implementation costs
Binding agent
Noise barrier
Wind break 9. Exploitation costs
Hard shoulder
Cleaning road surface

- Example - Mitigation measure: type of road pavement
wind
water
compare
ZOAB:
Dense asphalt
Porous asphalt
Comparison of treatment efficiencies:

Air pollution, road- and water traffic

Air quality along highways
2000 NO2 concentration 2010

< 30 ug/m3
30-40 ug/m3
> 60 ug/m3

Establish activity and its contribution to air pollution
to undertake most effective mitigating measure
PM10 – Total Rotterdam harbor

Establish activity and its contribution to air pollution
to undertake most effective mitigating measure
PM10 – Shipping Rotterdam harbor

Identify ‘hotspot’ to undertake most effective mitigating measure
35
Traffic+ background
Background
32,5
PM 10 co n cen tratio n (µg /m 3)
30
PM10
27,5
25
22,5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance
Motorway junction
Identify ‘hotspot’ to undertake most effective mitigating measure
Transect NO2-concentrations

Contribution to emissions and concentrations
Contribution to PM10 emissions Contribution to PM10
concentration
4%
26% 7%
8%
2%
54%
11%
9%
79%
industry/energy road traffic shipping other industry/energy road traffic shipping other background
→ Impact of sources depends enormously on

source height and distance to location
→ Background concentrations are huge compared to local contributions:
i.e. the two main factors which determine local concentrations
Background concentrations of pollutants
National institutes,
e.g. PBL in the Netherlands,
deliver maps with background
concentrations of pollutions
Obtained values are mostly

based on modeling and
validation with local
measurements
PBL: Netherlands Environmental

Assessment Agency
(Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving)

Establishing air quality: Measuring or Modeling?
Measuring:
Plus
- ‘The real reality’ (concentrations)
Minus
- Expensive
- Represents the situation on one specific and limited spot
- Not suitable for spatial planning use
- Not distinctive in different sources of pollution

Modeling:
Plus
- Relatively cheap
- Suitable for prognostic analysis
- Good insight in spatial dispersion
- Insight per source category
Minus
- Less precise (conversion known emissions Æ concentrations)
- Uncertainty input = uncertainty output

Best of both worlds:
- Measuring in limited amount of locations
- Prognostic: modeling
- Diagnostic: measuring + modeling
- Measurements as calibration and validation of the

modeling

Air pollution and policy
1. Strong indications relations traffic related emissions/public

health effects
2. Bottle-necks NO2 and PM10

Without additional measures, some bottle-necks still exist
for NO2 and PM10 in the Netherlands in 2011/16
3. Measures to achieve EU directions limit values for NO2 in

2011/2016 are estimated to cost 400 to 1700 Million Euro
4. National Cooperative Program on Air quality

Fine dust: PM10 vs PM2,5
Health
- PM2,5 more harmful than PM10 (dust particles ≤ 2.5 or 10 µm respectively)
- PM2,5 more anthropogenic than PM10
EU legislation
- Intervention value: 25 µg/m3 from 2015
- ECO-value: 20 µg/m3 from 2020
- Contribution traffic (vehicles as well as shipping)

PM2,5 = +/- PM10

Strategies to
prevent – mitigate – compensate for air pollution:
Prevention:
- Development of non-combustion technologies for traffic
- and/or clean combustion technology based on hydrogen,

hybrid technology, and electricity
Mitigation:
- Technical measures: examples next slides
Spatial reallocation:
- Replacements of e.g. schools
Mitigation – Technical measures
Example: Catalyst at 25% Dutch inland shipping; NO2
Reduction

Example: Catalyst at 100% Dutch inland shipping; NO2
Reduction

Example: Catalyst at total EU inland shipping; NO2
Reduction

Example: Speed reduction Overschie at the A13
Situation:
→ Intensely used highway (150.000 vehicles per 24 hours)
close to dense population areas
Measure:
→ Limitation max. speed from 100 to 80 km/hour
→ Strictly maintained: 100% chance on fine
→ Extensive air quality and noise measurement
and modeling program to evaluate effects
Results:
→ Decrease 10 to 20% of contribution of local
traffic to NO2/NOx concentration levels
→ Decrease of noise with 3 dB
→ Improvement of traffic flow rates
Example: Noise barriers and air quality
Barrier 4 m, effect 10 m behind: NO2 -14%, PM10 -34%

Barrier 10 m, effect 10 m behind: NO2 -35%, PM10 -45%
Noise hindrance

Noise hindrance
Hindrance caused by Noise
• Ca. 3.200 km motorway

• Ca. 1.000.000 houses within
1km of a motorway
• Number of houses per dB(A)
CONTOUR Points Houses Inhabitants

50-55 29750 496900 1133000
55-60 11580 175800 397800
60-65 3970 49900 111500
65-70 1150 12000 26100
70-75 440 4200 9300
75-140 210 1700 4200
Total 47100 740400 1681900

Noise hindrance
Noise policy
→ By 2010:
- Road traffic noise emission is down by 2 dB
- No increase of the number of houses subjected to traffic

noise levels of over 70 dB(A)
- Relative decrease of number of houses subjected to noise

levels of over 65 dB(A)
→ By 2030:
- A yet-to-define ‘good acoustic quality’ must be
accomplished in both cities and rural surroundings
(e.g. Natura 2000)

Noise hindrance
Strategies to
prevent – mitigate – compensate for Noise hindrance:
Prevention
- Low speed areas
- Offices instead of houses
Mitigation
- Noise barriers
Spatial reallocation
- Replacement of e.g. schools

Noise hindrance
Example: Noise barrier with T-top
> -2/-3 dB(A) vs conventional noise barrier

Noise hindrance
Example: Double layer porous asphalt (DPAC)
Upper layer:
- 5 or 8 mm max chippings
- 20 mm thick, 22 % voids, 5.2 % binder
Lower layer:
- 13 mm max chippings
- 30 mm thick, 20 % voids, 5.0 % binder
The binder is a high-viscosity SBS-modified binder
Source: IPG/Sandberg/Masuyama; 2005

Climate and adaptation

Effects of Climate Change on Roads
Policy:
→ Focus on safety and availability of infrastructure
Targets:
→ Sufficient mobility space
Measures:
→ Impact on design, construction, use and maintenance

Possible effects climate change on infrastructure and road use:
1. Decrease number of frost days
2. Increase hot and dry periods: low water periods on rivers
3. High temperatures: increase ozone concentrations along highways
4. High temperatures + high intensity lorry traffic:

damage to road pavement by track shaping
5. Increase winter- and summer rainfall:
- Road traffic: water nuisance, lowering speed, less sight,

less traffic safety
- Inland shipping: extreme (high as well as low) water levels

limits use of rivers

Considerations for Infra-planning:
1. Soil stability
2. High temperatures: effect on bitumen
3. Increase frequency/intensity showers: road drainage,

prevention inundation tunneled roads
4. More flexible design specifications needed: innovations like

roll-pavement, floating roads, flexible road constructions

Consequences for Infra-planning:
Positive:
→ Extended working period due to
- Decrease in number of days with frost
- Decrease summer rainfall
Negative:
→ Increase in number of showers with high intensity

Policy sensitivity analysis effect Climate Change
on infrastructural branches
Time scale
Severe effect
Road
Substantial effect
Rail
Aviation
Mild effect
Inland
shipping
Sea shipping
Effects climate change on

Infrastructure and road use
Adaptation strategies will be a mix of measures:
Prevention
Mitigation
Compensation
Spatial reallocation

What is adaptation?
Adaptation means anticipating the

adverse effects of climate change
and taking appropriate action to
prevent or minimize the damage
they can cause. Early action will
save on damage costs later
Adaptation strategies are needed

Adaptation to Climate Change:
Revisiting
at all levels of administration, Infrastructure Norms
from the local up to the
international level
Source: EU against climate change, adapting to

climate change, 2006

Policy
Three recommended changes to current infrastructure policies:
1. Incorporate climate forecasts more effectively in infrastructure

capital and maintenance decisions
2. Reconsider the location of new and updated infrastructure

investments
3. Update infrastructure design standards.
Source: James Neumann, Adaption to climate change, revisiting infrastructure norms, 2009

Mitigation in 2030

Mitigation in 2030
Needs for physical infrastructure:
→ Focus on future performance and

functionality of (high) ways

Mitigation in 2030
Methodological strategy
1. Make inventory demands of society in 2030
- Functional demands infrastructure
2. Technical translation to:
- Materials
- Construction
- Design

Mitigation in 2030
Society in 2030:
1. Shortage of:
- Mobility capacity
- Clean environment
- Energy
- Space
2. Demand for:
- Increased mobility
- Increased individual demands

Mitigation in 2030
Mitigation strategies:
Multifunctional
Smart and Multifunctional
use of space
Smart
Mitigation in 2030
Modular Road
Smart
Road
Energetic Road

Mitigation in 2030
Goals:
1. Save space: Multifunctional use of space
2. Function specific design
- Major reduction of noise
→ Technological improvements:
- Modular constructions
- Prefab production
- Tailor made solutions
- Improved quality assurance

Mitigation in 2030
Technical properties required to reach set goals
(increased mobility, safer, cleaner, durable: sustainable):
1. New technologies should be fast to apply (and to remove again!)
2. 100 km/h, i.e. 30% max speed reduction (improvement air quality)
3. Major reduction of traffic noise, more than 5 dB(A)
4. Permeability as poreus asphalt, but improved durability
5. Modular constructions (re-use)
6. Prefab production (faster implementation, less traffic jams)
7. Implementation new technologies:

- sensors, clean energy, etc

Mitigation in 2030
Examples innovative developments
The Very Silent Sound Module

Mitigation in 2030
The Rollable Road

Mitigation in 2030
Modie-slab

Mitigation in 2030
The Easy Road

Mitigation in 2030
‘Sufficient space’ in 2030?
Energy efficiency, modular (re-use), prefab, improved durability etc:
Lower consumption of non-renewable resources,

lower emissions, improved safety → improved sustainability
More examples of sustainable road developments:
BAM project: ‘The emission-free road’

http://www.emissielozeweg.nl/portalen/Emissieloze_weg/menu/Algemeen/index.jsp
Technical solutions for:
→ Noise
→ Greening
→ Light
→ Air quality
→ Water quality
/ quantity
→ Energy

Technical solutions for Noise:
GROAB
(Grof open asfaltbeton) Course Open Asphalt Concrete. 3-layered
ZOAB plus very open top layer for maximum noise absorbance:
reduction up to 7 dB(A) compared to conventional road decks
SoundKiller
30 dB(A) noise absorbing screen consisting of completely plant
overgrown compact construction. Plantation can additionally
contribute to fine dust and N-oxides removal. Contributes
furthermore to greening of urban settings

Technical solutions for Greening:
ITG
Integral technical greening. Plantations substantially improve
road climate: reduce wind and noise while improving air
quality. Reduced wind can safe car fuel and thus emissions
of harmful substances. Plantations take up CO2,
up to 6.5 tons / ha, and improves water buffering capacity
of road side verges

Technical solutions for Light:

Light and visibility are essential for road safety, however, too much light can negatively
affect nature and environment. Light pollution can technically effectively be reduced
without compromising safety while at the same time reducing energy consumption
Luxfalt
Better reflection of light through application of white
pigments or aggregates in the asphalt top layer.
Reduces need for public lighting and thus safes
energy consumption and CO2 emission
SmartLeds
Efficient lighting reduces energy consumption
and CO2 emission. Leds light intensity can be
easily adapted to traffic needs. Long lifetime
resulting in reduced maintenance costs

Technical solutions for Air quality:

Fine dust and Nitrous oxides emissions threaten human health. Concentrations are limited
by law (international norms). Breaching norms has consequences, e.g. building can be stopped. Clever
technologies can provide solutions:
CleanScreen
Reduces noise and improves air quality. Consist of noise barrier and attached
permeable layer capable of filtering air for fine dust removal and absorption of
nitrous oxides
DustKiller
Open porous construction containing plantation.
Fine dust and nitrous oxides are filtered by the
plants and noise is simultaneously reduced. Fits
into the landscape due to integration of plants
Particle Absorber
Jointly developed by BAM-TUD system absorbs fine
dust particles (PM10) using a nature-inspired
electrostatic concept

Technical solutions for Water:

Rain water can quantitatively (e.g. flooding) cause problems to infrastructure, but also transport
harmful substances emitted by traffic away from roads into the environment. Technical adaptations
can provide facilitate water storage and filtration:
SouterRain
Road construction with water-storing capacity. Can act as buffer
in times of excess water deposition.
Run-off stopper
Design of road side verges as water run-off
filter. Plant strip acts as first filter system for
Removal of contaminants, and can be combined
with helophyte filter system in attached ditches /
water ponds, also serves for storage of excess water

Technical solutions for Energy:

Emission of greenhouse gasses, particularly of CO2, affect climate, and is mainly due
to energy consumption. Focus should therefore be on energy saving and reduction of CO2 emission
LWT (light wind turbine)

Small wind turbine for placement on energy-consuming road systems.
Provides 1000-3500 kWh per year and stores energy for use during
low/now wind periods. Makes roads self-energy supplying and
eliminates CO2 emissions
LEAB (low energy asphalt beton)

Special BAM developed asphalt mixture which is processed
at 95ºC instead of at 165ºC saving a lot of energy and thus
reduction of CO2 emission

• Hein van Bohemen (2005) Chapter 11 and Appendix 11: Ecological


Questions
• Roads and corresponding traffic can negatively affect the environment. What are the four main
categories of disturbances?
• Road infrastructure facilitates transportation but also requires space, and therefore competes with
other space-requiring functions useful to society. Give 3 examples of such competing functions
• Construction of new roads is subjected to (inter)national legislation. What is legally required in
most countries before road constructions can be undertaken, and what are three typical
governmental sustainable strategies in relation to this?
• Name four typical mechanisms which can be involved in dispersal of traffic pollutants
• What are the main factors which determine the local concentration of a contaminant? Which two
methods are commonly applied to quantify concentrations, and give one advantage and one
disadvantage of for each method
• Which two type of compounds in relation to traffic emissions are most problematic, i.e. pose a risk
for health and which current emissions are often higher than set norms allow?
• Technical measures can be taken to mitigate negative effects of roads and traffic on: 1) noise, 2)
air quality, 3) water quality and quantity and 4) energy consumption. Give two examples for each
of the four categories
• Roads and traffic can influence the future climate, e.g. through emission of greenhouse gasses.
However, future climatic changes can also have its impact on future roads. Give two potentially
positive and three negative impacts of global warming on future road durability


Lecture Notes Materials and Ecological Engineering

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes Materials and Ecological Engineering

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CT4100 Ecological Engineering for Civil Engineers

Course structure and topics

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Course scheme can be found on Blackboard under

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

• Obtain understanding of ecological engineering and sustainability

• Society (including more and more companies!) demand application

• Become pro-active: develop new ideas (technical applications) and be

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Policy statement by BAM Civiel bv, January 2010 (www.bamciviel.nl):

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

• All information provided in the lectures

• Lecture presentation pdf files will be posted on Blackboard under

• Typical / examples type of examination questions listed on last page

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Main topic: Sustainable civil engineering practices

Definition Sustainable development:

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Sustainability and the 3P’s concept

People – Planet – Profit (Prosperity)

People: the social consequences

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Sustainability and the 3P’s concept

The 3P’s sustainability concept is gradually becoming more and more

Companies want to take socio-environmental responsibility!

Moreover, respecting environmental and social issues generally results in

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

1. Raw (finite) materials depletion

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Sustainability thus involves socio-economic-environmental issues of which

2. Emission of harmful substances

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Sustainability thus involves socio-economic-environmental issues of which

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

1. Depletion of (finite) materials

A healthy environment (or sound ecosystem functioning)

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Ecological engineering for civil engineers comprises the relationship

Sustainability thus plays a central role in ecological engineering

Nine specific principles define the framework of

The topics and structure of course CT4100 closely

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Nine important ecological engineering principles:

1. Apply natural ecosystem functions (Ecosystem approach)

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Apply sustainability and 9 principles to civil

‘The building cycle’

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

1. Introduction and overview Ecological Engineering (L1+2)

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

Course structure and topics

11. Application of Geopolymers to minimize CO2 emissions (17+18)

Case study 2: Ecological Engineering in practice (L24+27)

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

All course topics and case studies thus relate to one or

Topics 1-10: mainly theory and background

Topics 11-15: ecological engineering related research in Delft

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

1. Introduction and overview Ecological Engineering

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment

2. Nature: Ecosystem functioning, goods and services

Faculty CiTG / Section Materials & Environment