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Advances in Modern Sensors
Physics, design, simulation and applications
 IOP Series in Sensors and Sensor Systems

The IOP Series in Sensors and Sensor Systems includes books on all aspects of the
science and technology of sensors and sensor systems. Spanning fundamentals,
fabrication, applications and processing, the series aims to provide a library for
instrument and measurement scientists, engineers and technologists in universities
and industry.

The series seeks (but is not restricted to) publications in the following topics:
• Advanced materials for sensing
• Biosensors
• Chemical sensors
• Industrial applications
• Internet of Things
• Lab-on-a-chip
• Localization and object tracking
• Manufacturing and packaging
• Mechanisms, modelling and simulations
• MEMS/NEMS
• Micro and nanosensors
• Non-destructive testing
• Optoelectronic and photonic sensors
• Optomechanical sensors
• Physical sensors
• Remote sensors
• Sensing for health, safety and security
• Sensing principles
• Sensing systems
• Sensor arrays
• Sensor devices
• Sensor networks
• Sensor technology and applications
• Signal processing and data analysis
• Smart sensors and monitoring
• Telemetry

Authors are encouraged to take advantage of electronic publication through the use of
colour, animations, video and interactive elements to enhance the reader experience.
 Advances in Modern Sensors
Physics, design, simulation and applications

Edited by
G R Sinha
Professor, Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar

IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK

ª IOP Publishing Ltd 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, or as expressly permitted by law or
under terms agreed with the appropriate rights organization. Multiple copying is permitted in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, the Copyright
Clearance Centre and other reproduction rights organizations.

Permission to make use of IOP Publishing content other than as set out above may be sought
at permissions@ioppublishing.org.

G R Sinha has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

ISBN 978-0-7503-2707-7 (ebook)

ISBN 978-0-7503-2705-3 (print)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2708-4 (myPrint)
ISBN 978-0-7503-2706-0 (mobi)

DOI 10.1088/978-0-7503-2707-7

Version: 20201101

IOP ebooks

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.

Published by IOP Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of Physics, London

IOP Publishing, Temple Circus, Temple Way, Bristol, BS1 6HG, UK

US Office: IOP Publishing, Inc., 190 North Independence Mall West, Suite 601, Philadelphia,
PA 19106, USA
Dedicated to my late grandparents, my teachers and Revered Swami Vivekananda.
 Contents

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xviii
Editor biography xix
List of contributors xx

1 Introduction to sensors 1-1

Bhagwati Charan Patel, G R Sinha and Naveen Goel
1.1 Introduction 1-1
1.2 Sensor characteristics 1-2
1.2.1 Transfer function 1-3
1.2.2 Full-scale input (FSI) 1-4
1.2.3 Full-scale output (FSO) 1-4
1.2.4 Accuracy 1-4
1.2.5 Calibration 1-4
1.2.6 Hysteresis 1-5
1.2.7 Non-linearity 1-6
1.2.8 Resolution 1-6
1.2.9 Saturation 1-6
1.2.10 Repeatability 1-7
1.2.11 Dead band 1-7
1.2.12 Reliability 1-7
1.2.13 Output characteristics 1-7
1.2.14 Impedance 1-7
1.2.15 Excitation 1-8
1.2.16 Dynamic characteristics 1-8
1.2.17 Precision 1-8
1.2.18 Environmental factors 1-8
1.2.19 Uncertainty 1-9
1.2.20 Application characteristics 1-9
1.3 Types of sensors 1-9
1.3.1 Temperature sensors 1-9
1.3.2 Position sensors 1-10
1.3.3 Light sensors 1-11
1.3.4 Sound sensor 1-12
1.3.5 Proximity sensor 1-12

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 Advances in Modern Sensors

1.3.6 Accelerometer 1-12

1.3.7 Infrared sensor 1-12
1.3.8 Pressure sensor 1-13
1.3.9 Ultrasonic sensors 1-13
1.3.10 Touch sensor 1-13
1.3.11 Humidity sensor 1-14
1.3.12 Colour sensor 1-15
1.3.13 Chemical sensor 1-15
1.3.14 Seismic sensor 1-16
1.3.15 Magnetic sensor 1-16
1.4 Comparison of different sensors 1-17
1.5 Modern sensors 1-19
1.6 Conclusions 1-19
References 1-19

2 Classification and characteristics of sensors 2-1

P Vyas and K Thakur
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Classification 2-4
2.3 Commonly used sensors and their features 2-10
2.4 Transfer function 2-11
2.5 Characteristics of sensors 2-19
2.6 Sensors should meet the following basic requirements 2-24
2.7 Factors for choosing sensors 2-25
2.8 Conclusion 2-26
References 2-26

3 Optical sensors: overview, characteristics and applications 3-1

Kusumanjali Deshmukh, Naveen Goel and Bhagwati Charan Patel
3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 Optical sensors: fundamentals 3-2
3.2.1 Modes of operation 3-3
3.2.2 Light sources for optical sensors 3-5
3.2.3 Advantages of optical sensors 3-8
3.3 Optical sensing devices (detectors) 3-8
3.3.1 Photoemissive cells (photoemitters) 3-9
3.3.2 Photoresistor or light dependent resistors 3-11

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 Advances in Modern Sensors

3.3.3 Photodiodes 3-13

3.3.4 Phototransistor 3-17
3.3.5 Infrared sensors 3-21
3.3.6 Fiber optic sensor 3-24
References 3-26

4 Recent applications of chalcogenide glasses (ChGs) 4-1

based sensors
Neeraj Mehta
4.1 ChGs based sensors: a brief introduction 4-1
4.2 Fabrication and molding of ChGs in the form of different 4-3
devices for sensing applications
4.2.1 Infrared optical fibers 4-3
4.2.2 Infrared optical lenses 4-6
4.2.3 Thin film membranes 4-8
4.3 Description of some principals behind the sensing applications 4-8
4.3.1 Attenuated total internal reflection 4-8
4.3.2 Fiber evanescent wave spectroscopy 4-9
4.3.3 Thermal imaging 4-11
4.4 Some exclusive examples of sensing applications of 4-11
ChGs based sensors
4.4.1 Application in bio-sensing and food security 4-11
4.4.2 Early cancer diagnostics 4-12
4.4.3 Monitoring of pollutants in groundwater 4-13
4.4.4 Night vision systems for surveillance assignments 4-14
4.4.5 Monitoring of global warming 4-16
4.4.6 Other significant applications 4-17
4.5 Conclusions 4-19
References 4-19

5 Advanced dynamic and static calibration methods for 5-1

optical imaging sensors
Jin Li and Zilong Liu
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Principle of camera calibrations 5-3
5.2.1 Position determination principle using optical cameras 5-3
5.2.2 Camera calibration principle 5-5

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5.2.3 Camera calibration model 5-6

5.2.4 Distortion model in camera calibration 5-7
5.3 Dynamic calibration approaches 5-8
5.3.1 The principle of the dynamic camera calibration 5-9
5.3.2 Calibration model used for the dynamic calibration 5-10
5.3.3 Dynamic calibration with multi-aperture MEMS light lead-in 5-11
devices
5.4 Static calibration principle with mSOL 5-13
5.4.1 Static calibration general principle 5-13
5.4.2 Static calibration principle with DOEs 5-14
5.4.3 Calibration configurations with mSOL 5-15
5.4.4 Calibration theory 5-17
5.4.5 The position extraction approach of the predefined 5-19
target images
5.4.6 Applied examples 5-20
5.5 Discussion and future development directions 5-21
5.6 Conclusion 5-22
References 5-22

6 Smart and wearable sensors used in numerous modern 6-1

applications and their significance
N Hema and Suma Dawn
6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Smart sensors properties 6-3
6.2.1 Self-calibration 6-4
6.2.2 Reliability or self-health assessment 6-5
6.2.3 Self-healing 6-5
6.2.4 Compensated measurements 6-6
6.2.5 Self-adaptability: exchange accuracy for speed and vice versa 6-7
6.3 Smart sensors types 6-8
6.4 Smart sensor applications 6-10
6.4.1 Smart cities 6-10
6.4.2 Smart environment 6-11
6.4.3 Smart factories 6-13
6.5 Case study: smart home surveillance system using a smart camera 6-15
6.6 Wearable sensors 6-16
6.7 Applications of wearable sensors 6-20
6.7.1 Programmable bio-electric ASIC sensors 6-20

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6.7.2 Diabetes wearable medical device 6-22

6.7.3 Cancer detecting wearable device 6-22
6.7.4 Wearable sweat-sensor 6-22
6.7.5 Wearable peritoneal dialysis device 6-22
6.7.6 Predicting the progress of Alzheimer’s and dementia diseases 6-23
6.7.7 Monitoring Parkinson’s disease 6-24
6.7.8 Vision-related biosensors 6-24
6.8 Conclusion 6-25
References 6-26

7 Smart stick for the visually impaired 7-1

Chilakala Sudhamani
7.1 Introduction 7-2
7.2 Smart blind stick 7-3
7.3 Hardware description 7-3
7.3.1 Arduino UNO 7-3
7.3.2 Ultrasonic sensor 7-7
7.3.3 Water sensor 7-9
7.3.4 GPS module 7-10
7.3.5 LDR-light dependent resistor 7-10
7.3.6 Alarm unit 7-11
7.4 Results 7-12
7.4.1 Ultrasonic sensor 7-13
7.4.2 Detection of water by water sensor 7-14
7.4.3 Detection of light by using LDR 7-14
7.4.4 Location of the stick 7-15
7.5 Conclusion 7-17
References 7-18

8 Smart and wearable sensors 8-1

Vandana Khare and K Rangacharya
8.1 Introduction 8-1
8.2 Features of smart sensors 8-2
8.3 Evaluation of smart sensors 8-2
8.3.1 Third-generation 8-2
8.3.2 Fourth-generation 8-2
8.3.3 Fifth-generation 8-3
8.4 Design of a smart sensor 8-4

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8.4.1 Data acquisition 8-4

8.4.2 Data transfer 8-5
8.4.3 Data processing 8-6
8.5 Consequences 8-6
8.5.1 Advantages of smart sensor 8-6
8.5.2 Disadvantages 8-6
8.6 General applications 8-7
8.7 Wearable sensors 8-8
8.7.1 Need for wearable sensors 8-8
8.7.2 Smart sensor as a wearable sensor 8-9
8.8 Wearable sensor devices 8-9
8.8.1 Wristwatches architecture and performance 8-9
8.8.2 Electronic T-Shirt architecture and working principle 8-10
8.8.3 BP monitoring using PPG 8-11
8.9 Conclusion 8-12
References 8-13

9 Cognitive and biosensors: an overview 9-1

Samrudhi Mohdiwale, Mridu Sahu, G R Sinha and Silvia Liberata Ullo
9.1 Introduction and background 9-1
9.2 Cognitive sensors 9-2
9.2.1 Research challenges 9-3
9.2.2 Application of cognitive sensors 9-3
9.2.3 Cognitive sensors and machine learning 9-3
9.2.4 Cognitive sensors and security threats 9-5
9.3 Biosensors 9-7
9.3.1 Research challenges 9-7
9.3.2 Application of biosensors 9-9
9.4 Conclusion 9-14
Acknowledgment 9-15
References 9-15

10 Sensor technologies combined with AI helping in smart 10-1

transport systems as driverless cars
Chan Myae Kyaw Win, Myat Thu Kha, May Thin Khaing, Chan Myae Khin,
G R Sinha, Phyu Phyu Khaing and Divya Prakash Shrivastava
10.1 History of driverless cars using smart sensors 10-1
10.2 Automation levels 10-3

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 Advances in Modern Sensors

10.3 Sensors and other technologies used by manufacturing companies 10-4

10.4 Design components 10-7
10.5 Sensor technology 10-9
10.5.1 GPS 10-10
10.5.2 LiDAR 10-11
10.5.3 Cameras 10-13
10.5.4 Radar sensors 10-14
10.5.5 Ultrasonic sensors 10-15
10.6 Challenges and future research 10-15
10.7 Conclusions 10-16
References 10-16

11 Recent advancements in smart and wearable sensors 11-1

Preeti Goswami, Anuj Sharma and Govind Gupta
11.1 Introduction 11-1
11.1.1 Basics of SWSs 11-2
11.1.2 Working principle of a smart sensor 11-3
11.2 Types of wearable sensors 11-3
11.2.1 Optical sensors 11-4
11.2.2 Physical sensors 11-8
11.2.3 Chemical sensors 11-12
11.2.4 Multiplexed sensors 11-16
11.2.5 Wireless sensors 11-16
11.3 Challenges in wearable chemical sensors and possible solutions 11-17
11.3.1 Materials-based challenges with possible solution 11-17
11.3.2 Operational challenges and possible solutions 11-18
11.4 Conclusion and future direction 11-20
References 11-20

12 Design and implementation of a wearable gaze tracking 12-1

device with near-infrared and visible-light image sensors
Chih-Peng Fan
12.1 Introduction 12-1
12.2 Proposed wearable gaze tracking design 12-4
12.2.1 Near-infrared image sensor based wearable eye 12-4
tracker design [13, 14]
12.2.2 Visible-light image sensor based wearable eye 12-6
tracker design [17–19]

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 Advances in Modern Sensors

12.2.3 Calibration and gaze tracking function for wearable 12-9

eye tracking device
12.3 Experimental results and comparisons 12-10
12.4 Conclusion and future works 12-13
Acknowledgments 12-13
References 12-13

13 Vibration powered wireless sensor networks—harvesting 13-1

energy from good vibrations
K P Venkat Vivek, Abhishek Choubey and Shruti Bhargava Choubey
13.1 Introduction 13-1
13.2 literature survey 13-2
13.2.1 Piezoelectric sensors 13-2
13.2.2 Modeling and analysis of a bimorph piezoelectric 13-2
cantilever beam for voltage generation
13.2.3 Feasibility of structural monitoring with vibration 13-2
powered sensors
13.2.4 Vibration powered wireless sensor networks 13-3
13.3 Existing methodology 13-3
13.3.1 Proposed methodology 13-5
13.3.2 Comparison of proposed methodology with 13-8
existing methodology
13.3.3 Advantages 13-9
13.3.4 Disadvantages 13-9
13.4 Conclusion 13-10
References 13-11

14 Comprehensive review on brain–computer interface 14-1

sensor-based smart home appliances control system
Praveen Kumar Shukla, Rahul Kumar Chaurasiya, Mridu Sahu
and Shrish Verma
14.1 Introduction 14-2
14.1.1 Motivation and requirement 14-3
14.2 Background 14-4
14.2.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) 14-4
14.2.2 Brain waves 14-4
14.2.3 EEG artifacts 14-5

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14.2.4 Control signal of BCI 14-6

14.3 Step involved in BCI-based controlling home appliances system 14-7
14.3.1 Data acquisition framework 14-7
14.3.2 Preprocessing and feature extraction 14-7
14.3.3 Classification results 14-9
14.4 Controlling methods based on single and multiple appliances 14-10
14.4.1 Single appliance control 14-10
14.4.2 Multiple appliance control 14-13
14.5 Observation and discussion 14-18
14.5.1 Hardware analysis 14-18
14.5.2 Discussion 14-20
14.6 Conclusion 14-21
References 14-21

15 Future directions: smart sensors for green Internet 15-1

of Things (green IoT)
K C Raveendranathan
15.1 Introduction 15-2
15.1.1 The internet of things: prospects and challenges 15-2
15.1.2 LoRaWAN® technology 15-4
15.1.3 Organization of the chapter 15-5
15.2 literature survey on smart sensors 15-5
15.3 Smart low power sensors—design and applications 15-10
15.3.1 Fabrication of smart sensors 15-11
15.3.2 Other advantages of having smart sensor intelligence 15-12
15.3.3 Smart sensors and intelligent sensors—differences 15-13
15.3.4 Energy harvesting techniques in smart sensors 15-13
15.3.5 Internet cloud 15-14
15.4 The green IoT—prospects and challenges for smart sensors 15-16
15.4.1 Smart sensors for smart grids—problems, prospects 15-20
and challenges
15.4.2 Smart cities—concept, technologies and challenges 15-21
15.4.3 Smart transportation systems—problems and prospects 15-21
15.5 Enhancing smart sensors for a smart world 15-22
15.6 Summary and conclusions 15-23
References 15-23

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 Advances in Modern Sensors

16 Basic modeling of ‘cognitive sensors’ based on literary 16-1

study of ‘thick description’ of human behavior
Valiur Rahaman and Sanjiv Sharma
16.1 Introduction: humanities-inspired technology 16-2
16.2 The function of literary theory for medical sciences and technology 16-3
16.2.1 Health science in literature 16-3
16.2.2 Cognitive poetics of health: health imageries 16-3
16.2.3 Identifying neurocognitive conditions: analysis 16-4
of Keats’ Ode to a Nightingale
16.3 Sensors are the spirits of modern and 16-7
postmodern technologies
16.3.1 Security, technology and literary arts 16-7
16.3.2 Thick description and cognitive sensor 16-8
16.4 Basic modeling of cognitive sensors 16-11
16.5 Conclusion 16-13
Acknowledgments 16-13
References 16-13

xvi
 Preface

Sensors have become essential parts of all automated systems, modern gadgets and
handy devices. Smartphones used commonly by all of us, have around 22 sensors for
various purposes. There have been advances in sensor technology in the last two
decades; and smart sensors have dominated in almost all applications of sensors.
Wearable, smart and intelligent sensors are used in numerous applications, such as
robotics, industrial robotics, space navigation, global positioning systems, smart
environment monitoring systems, driverless cars and so on. Sensors are like the eyes
in human vision and the capabilities of human eyes are exploited by the sensors
deployed for computer vision. Computer vision is empowered due to two important
components, namely machine learning methods and sensor technologies. There is
literature and books on physics and characteristics of traditional sensors such as
transducers, optical sensors, capacitive sensors, photo sensors etc, but most of the
resources fail to highlight simulation capabilities and applications of modern sensors
such as smart sensors, wearable sensors, wireless sensors, cognitive sensors etc.
Therefore, this book attempts to present the basics, introduction and overview of
sensors and technologies with more emphasis on modern sensors.
The book highlights: introduction and classification of sensors; overview and
applications of optical sensors; chemical sensors; simulation and calibration of
optical imaging sensors; smart and wearable sensors; cognitive and biosensors; and
also a major application of modern sensors in self driving cars. We have also
included future research directions on the emerging sensors so that more studies and
research can be carried out in the area of sensor research. The purpose of this book is
to bring out the fundamentals, background and theoretical concepts of sensors case
studies.
The book will be very useful for a wide spectrum of target readers, such as
research scholars, academia, and industry professionals. It is especially for those
who are working on real-time hardware implementations employing smart sensors
for merging applications like robotic arms, cognitive applications, brain–computer
interface etc.

xvii
 Acknowledgments

I express my sincere thanks to my wife Shubhra, my daughter Samprati, and my

great parents for their wonderful support and encouragement throughout the
completion of this book on Advances in Modern Sensors: Physics, design, simulation
and applications. This book is an outcome of focused and sincere efforts that could
be given to the book only due to the great support of my family.
I am grateful to my teachers who have left no stones unturned in empowering and
enlightening me, especially Shri Bhagwati Prasad Verma who is like a Godfather to
me. I extend my heartfelt thanks to Ramakrishna Mission order and Revered Swami
Satyaroopananda of Ramakrishna Mission Raipur India.
Sincere thanks to all the contributors for writing the relevant theoretical back-
ground and real-time applications of sensors and for entrusting me with the
editorship. I also wish to thank all my friends, well-wishers and all those who
keep me motivated.
My reverence with folded hands to Swami Vivekananda who has been my source
of inspiration for all my work and achievements.
Last, but most important, I express my humble thanks to Dr John Navas, Senior
Commissioning Manager of IOP Publishing for great support, necessary help,
appreciation and quick responses. It has been a wonderful experience working with
John. I would also like to thank Sarah Armstrong of IOP Publishing and the entire
team of IOP Publishing for giving me this opportunity to contribute on this relevant
topic with a reputed publisher.

xviii
 Editor biography

G R Sinha
G R SINHA (PhD, Senior Member IEEE, Fellow IETE, Fellow IE) is
Adjunct Professor at International Institute of Information
Technology Bangalore (IIITB) and currently deputed as Professor
at Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay
Myanmar. He is ACM Distinguished Speaker in the field of DSP.
He has more than 200 research papers, edited books and authored
books to his credit. He has teaching and research experience of 21
years. He has been Dean of Faculty and Executive Council Member of CSVTU and
currently a member of Senate of MIIT. He is recipient of many awards and
recognitions at national and international level. He served as Distinguished IEEE
Lecturer in IEEE India council for Bombay section. He is Associate Editor of 03 SCI
journals including IET-Electronics Letters. He has delivered more than 50 Keynote/
Invited Talks and Chaired many Technical Sessions in International Conferences
across the world. Dr Sinha has Supervised eight (08) PhD Scholars, 15 M.Tech.
Scholars and has been supervising one more PhD Scholar. His research interest
includes cognitive science, medical image processing, outcome based education (OBE)
and ICT tools for developing employability skills.

xix
 List of contributors

Abhishek Chaubey
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Shruti Bhargava Chaubey
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Rahul Kumar Chaurasiya
Maulana Azad National institute of technology Bhopal, India
Sudhamani Chilakala
CMR Technical Campus, India
Suma Dawn
Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India
Kusumanjali Deshmukh
Hemchand Yadav University Durg, India
Chih Peng Fan
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
Naveen Goel
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Bhilai, India
Preeti Goswami
CSIR National Physical Laoboratory, India
Govind Gupta
CSIR National Physical Laoboratory, India
Myat Thu Kha
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar
May Thin Khaing
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar
Vandana Khare
CMR College of Engineering & Technology, India
Phyu Phyu Khiang
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar
Chan Myae Khin
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar
Rangacharya Kondapaka
CMR College of Engineering & Technology, India
Jin Li
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Zilong Liu
National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China

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 Advances in Modern Sensors

Neeraj Mehta
Banaras Hindu university, Uttar Pradesh, India
Samrudhi Mohdiwale
National Institute of Technology Raipur, India
Hema N
Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, India
Bhagwati Charan Patel
Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Bhilai, India
Valiure Rahaman
Madhav Institute of Technology & Science Gwalior, India
K C Raveendranathan
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Thiruvananthapuram, India
Mridu Sahu
National Institute of Technology Raipur, India
Anuj Sharma
CSIR National Physical Laboratory, India
Sanjiv Sharma
Madhav Institute of Technology & Science Gwalior, India
Divya Prakash Shrivastava
Higher Colleges of Technology UAE, United Arab Emirates
Praveen Kumar Shukla
National Institute of Technology Raipur, India
G R Sinha
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar
Kavita Thakur
Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India
Silvia Liberata Ullo
Universita Degli Studi Del Sannio, Benevento, Italy
K P Venkat Vivek
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Shrish Verma
National Institute of Technology Raipur, India
Prafulla Vyas
Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, India
Chan Myae Kyaw Win
Myanmar Institute of Information Technology (MIIT) Mandalay, Myanmar

xxi