WOLLO UNIVERSITY

KIOT
Department of civil engineering

Assignment of surveying field 3 practice

Prepared by

Fraol Tesfalem WOUR/1436/11

Submitted to

Natnael

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 Surveying Field practice Assignment
Discuss the following in detail

Part one
A Topographic surveying
Topographic surveys were created in series to serve as the basis for larger
topographic maps. Performed on a large scale, these surveys were meant to show
elevations and landforms not listed on traditional maps and surveys. The first
topographic map series of an entire country is known as the Carte géométrique
de la France (1789). Topographic surveys were then used for military and
infrastructure-building applications. In the 1980s, databases began to replace
printed topographic maps. Database creators combined the information from
those topographic maps with other sources to create what became, by the mid-
90s, user-friendly resources we now recognize when we access maps online. In
present day, topographic maps still serve their purpose: assisting with geographic
planning, earth science studies and civil engineering, so we can say Topography is
the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area
could refer to the surface forms and features themselves, or a description
(especially their depiction in maps).
Topography is a field of geo science and planetary science and is concerned with
local detail in general, including not only relief, but
also natural and artificial features, and even local history and culture.
Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the
three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific land
forms. This is also known as geo morphometry. In modern usage, this involves
generation of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to
include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by and variety of
techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints, and relief shading.
After analyzing the Historic Background of topographic Surveying, now we can see
the definition and features of topographic surveying

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  method of determining the three-dimensional positions, on the
surface of the earth, of the man made and natural features.
 It is also used to determine the configuration (topography) of the
terrain.
 The topographic features and contour lines, plotted in a certain
scale, form the topographic map (plan).
 used for the planning of a building complex, an industrial plant, a
railway or a highway project as well as for irrigation projects etc.
 It is the first step in the planning and designing of a major civil
engineering project.
Topographic survey is simply the recording of co ordinates
And height data for a particular survey area. This data can be used
to create spot height maps, contour maps, or more complex terrain
models of the surveyed area.

General principles:

Boundaries - it is important in topographic surveys to record the boundaries of

your survey, both so that the data can be spatially located, but also, for the
management of point collection. More often than not, survey boundaries are
defined by field boundaries, and it is good practice to record these immediately
after instrument setup and orientation.
Features - Often the survey area will have buildings, standing remains, or
archaeological features which you don’t want to include with the topographic
data. Points associated with these features should be recorded separately and
assigned point IDs which are different from the ID of Topographic points.
Topo Points - The idea behind collecting topographical points is simply to record
elevation data for the entire area of survey. Important points to keep in mind

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: • Ideally points will be recorded at a high density (close together) over the entire
area of the survey.
• In practice this is not often possible and different strategies have to be chosen:
two possibilities are as follows:
1. Even coverage over survey area In this option point spacing should be
approximately equal over the entire area of the survey.
Pros: The theory behind this method is that with a full and even coverage, a
true representation of the topography of the survey area will be generated.
Cons: The drawback is that in practice, it is often hard to record a density of
points over the entire area that will accurately reflect the detailed surface of
the ground. Rather, this method often gives a general idea of the surface of
the ground
2. Feature oriented Topo survey if the survey area covers a number of
earthworks or areas of archaeological significance, a strategy which
concentrates on these areas may be chosen. In this type of survey points are
collected at a high density in the area of the archaeology/ feature, while the
surrounding area is surveyed at a lower density. Pros: This strategy relies on
the judgment of the surveyor and has the potential to be very accurate (the
human eye is left to judge where more points are needed based on the
complexity of the ground surface. Cons: Features which escaped initial
observation by the surveyor may be missed. Areas with very few points can be
misinterpreted. Areas which are left out the survey for whatever reason must
be marked by survey boundaries.
Importance of topographic Survey

Topography has a number of uses including

Agriculture – topography is often used in agriculture to determine how soil can be

conserved and how water will flow over the land

Environment – Data from topography can be used to conserve the environment.

By understanding the contour of the land, scientists can determine how water
and windy ma cause erosion. They can help to establish conservation areas such
as watersheds and windy blocks.

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Weather- the topography of the land can have an impact on weather patterns.
Meteorologists use information on mountains, valleys, oceans, and lakes to help
predict the weather

Military- Topography is also important to the military. Armies throughout history

have used information or elevation, hills, water, and other landforms when
planning their military strategy.

B Element of topographic map

The main elements of topographic maps are

Slopes
elevation of a point

Bench mark and Mean sea level

Contour lines
Maps

Bearing

Classified roads

Horizontal datum

Legend

Magnetic north

National topographic system

Projection

Relief

Spot elevation

Symbols

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Topography

Unclassified roads

Slopes

A slope is the rise or fall of the land surface. It is important for the farmer or
irrigator to identify the slopes on the land.

A slope is easy to recognize in a hilly area. Start climbing from the foot of a hill
toward the top, this is called a rising slope (see Fig. 46, black arrow). Go downhill,
this is a falling slope (see Fig. 46, white arrow).

Fig. 46. A rising and a falling slope

Flat areas are never strictly horizontal; there are gentle slopes in a seemingly flat
area, but they are often hardly noticeable to the naked eye. An accurate survey of
the land is necessary to identify these so called "flat slopes".

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Method of expressing slopes

The slope of a field is expressed as a ratio. It is the vertical distance, or difference

in height, between two points in a field, divided by the horizontal distance
between these two points. The formula is:

..... (14a)

The slope can also be expressed in percent; the formula used is then:

..... (14b)

Finally, the slope can be expressed in per mil; the formula used is then:

..... (14c)

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Elevation of a point

In figure point A is at the top of a concrete bridge. Any other point in the
surrounding area is higher or lower than A, and the vertical distance between the
two can be determined. For example, B is higher than A, and the vertical distance
between A and B is 2 m. Point C, is lower than A and the vertical distance
between A and C is 1 m. If point A is chosen as a reference point or datum, the
elevation of any other point in the field can be defined as the vertical distance
between this point and A.

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Reference point or datum "A"

Thus, the height or elevation of B, in relation to the datum A, is 2 m and the

elevation of C, also related to the datum A, is 1 m.

As a reminder that a point is above or below the datum, its elevation is prefixed
by the sign + (plus) if it is above the datum, or - (minus) if it is below the datum.

Therefore, in relation to the datum A, the elevation of B is +2 m and the elevation

of C is -1 m.

Bench mark and mean sea level

A bench mark is a permanent mark established in a field to use as a reference

point. A bench mark can be a concrete base in which an iron bar is fixed,
indicating the exact place of the reference point.

A bench mark can also be a permanent object on the farm, such as the top of a
concrete structure.

In most countries the topographical departments have established a national

network of bench marks with officially registered elevations. All bench mark
heights are given in relationship to the one national datum plane which in general
is the mean sea level (MSL)

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A bench mark (B.M.) and mean sea level (M.S.L.)

Contour lines

A contour line is the imaginary horizontal line that connects all points in a field
which have the same elevation. A contour line is imaginary but can be visualized
by taking the example of a lake.

The water level of a lake may move up and down, but the water surface always
remains horizontal. The level of the water on the shore line of the lake makes a
contour line because it reaches points which are all at the same elevation

Suppose the water level of the lake rises 50 cm above its original level. The
contour line, formed by the shore line, changes and takes a new shape, now
joining all the points 50 cm higher than the original lake level

Contour lines are useful means to illustrate the topography of a field on a flat
map; the height of each contour line is indicated on the map so that the hills or
depressions can be identified.

Bearing: The horizontal angle at a given point, measured clockwise from magnetic
north or true north to a second point.

Classified roads: Roads for which surface type, width and use are identified.

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Horizontal datum: The positional reference or basis for the geographic location
of features on a map.

Legend: A description, explanation table of symbols, or other information, on a

map or chart to provide a better understanding and interpretation of it

Magnetic north: Direction to which a compass needle points.

Mean sea level: The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of tide,
used as a reference surface from which elevations are measured.

National Topographic System: An orderly index system suitable for a series of

maps of different scales for the coverage of a nation

Projection: Geometric representation of the curved surface of the Earth on a flat

sheet of paper.

Relief: The physical configuration of the Earth’s surface, depicted on a

topographic map by contour lines and spot heights.

Spot elevation: A point on a map where height above mean sea level is noted,
usually by a dot and elevation value; it is shown wherever practical (road
intersections, summits, lakes, large flat areas and depressions).

Symbols: A diagram, design, letter or abbreviations, placed on maps, that (by

convention, usage or reference to a legend) is understood to stand for or
represent a specific feature or object

Topography: Surface features both natural and man-made, collectively depicted

on topographic maps.

Unclassified roads: Roads for which the surface is unidentified.

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C The difference between topographic map and
plan
1. Topographical plans and maps are drawings which show the main physical fetures on
the ground, such as buildings, fences, roads, rivers, lakes and forests, as well as the
changes in elevation between land forms such as valleys and hills (called vertical relief).
You base these plans and maps on the information you collect from topographical
surveys.
2. Plans are usually large-scale drawings; maps are usually small-scale drawings.
Depending on the scale you use to make the drawing (see Section 9.1):
it is a plan if the scale is larger than 1 cm for 100 m (1 : 10 000), for example 1 cm for 25
m;
it is a map if the scale is equal to or smaller than 1 cm for 100 m (1 : 10 000), for example
1 cm for 200 m or 1 cm for 1000 m.
Topographic maps are detailed, accurate graphic representations of features that appear
on the Earth's surface. These features include:
cultural: roads, buildings, urban development, railways, airports, names of places and
geographic features, administrative boundaries, state and international borders, reserves
hydrography: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, coastal flats
relief: mountains, valleys, contours and cliffs, depressions
vegetation: wooded and cleared areas, vineyards and orchards.
A map legend (or key) lists the features shown on that map, and their corresponding
symbols

Plans and maps have two main purposes in fish-farm construction. They help
guide you in choosing a site, planning the fish-farm, and designing the structures
that are needed for the farm. Plans and maps also guide you as you lay out marks
on the ground; so that you can follow the plan you have made of the fish-farm, and
build the structures on it correctly.

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Topographic Map
If the scale of the graphical representation on a horizontal plane is small, the plan is
called a map.
A map is drawn on a small scale.
Scale: 1 cm = 100 m or > 100 m
On a topographic map, vertical dist’s (elevations) are also shown by contour lines.
A map is drawn for large area.
e.g. – Map of Area

Plan
A plan is the graphical representation, to some scale, of features on, rear or below the
surface of the earth as projected on horizontal plane.
A plan is drawn on a large scale.
Scale: 1 cm = 10 m or  < 10 m
On a pan, generally horizontal dust’s& directions are shown.
A plan is drawn for small area.
e.g. – Plan of house, plan of bridge

D Purpose of topographic map

Topographic maps are a tool that can two-dimensionally represent a three-
dimensional landscape. They do this by using color-coded lines to map the earth’s
surface.

If you are able to read a topographic map, you can find out where the lowest
parts of the land are as well as the peaks. This kind of information is useful for a
variety of reasons, like hiking, building projects, dictating the moves of military,
and transportation. Topographic maps are important because they accurately

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represent the terrain of an area. That means that they many different industries
use them to understand the area they are working in.

This could include selecting areas for road construction, choosing places for
reservoirs and dams, and deciding where to put airports and other large facilities.
City managers use this information to help them zone land and determine where
to focus city services.

Topographic Maps in Hiking

When you are planning an extensive hike, it’s helpful to have a topographic map.
Make sure that it’s an up-to-date one and that it’s waterproof. The last thing you
want is to get lost in the wilderness with a blotted map.

You will also need to make sure that the map has seasonal snowfall information
on it. The elevation of land can vary based on the amount of ice that has piled up
over the year.

Topographic Maps in Land Development

Having a topographic map can help you decide where you should build on your
property. They’re also used by governments to zone land for development.

If an area is very steep then it’s not often zoned for commercial or residential use.
While lower areas are a great place to build large malls, schools, and more.

Topographic Maps for Project Planning

When you are planning to construct a building somewhere elevated and remote,
it can be difficult to get at the materials you need. But with a topographic map,
you will be able to plan out a route that makes sense.

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For example, if you are building a log cabin on a mountain that doesn’t have any
established roads, a topographic map can help you plan a route through the
forest.

Topographic Maps for Transportation Planning

One of the biggest building challenges we face as a society is trying to offer

transportation opportunities to everyone. With a topographic map, municipalities
are able to plan routes that make sense with the geography of their area.

In addition, topographic maps can provide information for building highways.

They are a great tool for selecting a preliminary route and getting an estimate for
how much it would cost to cut into the land.

Topographic Maps in the Military

The military uses topographic maps to understand the areas they are fighting in
and create pathways to defeat the enemy. They can move troops to avoid steep
climbs and conserve their energy when traveling on foot.

With a high-quality topographic map, military personnel can also predict the
moves of the enemy before they happen based on logical reasoning. They are also
useful in selecting the placement of military encampments because they can
locate flat land near natural resources like water in an unfamiliar area.

Topographic Maps for Geological Survey and Environmental Impact

One of the most common uses for a topographic map is as a geological survey.
They can preserve the our nation’s forests from development by maintaining a
record of the use of the land and the way deforestation changes it.

In addition, they can design firefighting systems that will work in case of an
emergency fire outbreak. They can predict the behavior of a potential fire and
help you design an plan on how you can reach the fire in that area and put it out.

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A final use for these maps in a geological survey is exploring for mineral deposits.
They can see where minerals have been dug up before and assist planners in
coming up with an idea for where they want to mine next.

Land Features

The shape of the contour lines can tell you the shape of the landforms in a
particular area. For example, concentric circles show a peak, with the smallest
circle marking the summit. Contour lines that are close together indicate that the
land is very steep, while contour lines that are spread apart show that the land is
relatively flat. Contour lines that encircle two peaks -- or two sets of concentric
circles -- can indicate the presence of a saddle, or gap, between the peaks.

USGS Maps

Topographic maps of the entire country have been produced by the U.S.
Geological Survey, which began surveying land to create such maps in 1879.
Today, the USGS has created more than 54,000 maps, which form the basis of
most commercially available topographic maps used today. USGS topo maps also
show features that you would see on regular road maps, including highways, dirt
roads, towns and structures. The maps also show power lines, rivers, glaciers and
mines.

Orienting the Map

To match a topographic map to the landscape around you, which will allow you to
identify features such as mountains and rivers; it's important to make sure the
map is oriented correctly. You can quickly orient the map by using a compass and
the "compass rose" found on the map, which will have an arrow pointing north.
Line up the compass needle, which points north, with the arrow on the compass
rose, turning the map if necessary.

E Methods of Topographic method

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The main general methods to prepare topographic maps are listed below

1 Ground Method

Is done by means of total station or theodolite (stadia tacheometre), as well as

with levels, tapes. This method is economic and suitable for relative small areas

2 Photogrammetric method

The photogrammetric method is the application of terrestrial photogrammetry to

trench logging, and may be required for very large, irregular fault exposures that
cannot be accessed everywhere. The method was developed in the late 1980s by
Fairer et al. (1989) and Coe et al. (1991), using analytical stereo plotters. Twenty-
five years later the method now utilizes 3-D digital technology, but many
principles remain the same. The overlapping photographs are analyzed in
commercial 3-D photogrammetric software. These programs were designed for
mapping open-pit mine walls (typically 25-m high and inaccessible) and the
structures exposed on them, particularly faults and joints. Photogrammetric
logging has many advantages in smaller trenches also and may soon replace 2-D
logging.

3 Data from satellite

Much of geomorphology depends on accurate topographic data. Satellites have

transformed our ability to capture such data from planetary surfaces over the last
2 decades. Truly global datasets were only first released in the late 1990s; in
1997, a 5 arcminute dataset (roughly 10-km-wide pixels at the equator) was
released, followed in the same year by a 30 arc second dataset (GTOPO30;
roughly 1-km-wide pixels at the equator). The widespread use of global
topographic datasets for geomorphic applications began with release of the
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission's (SRTM) 3 arc second product in 2004 (roughly
90 m wide at the equator). SRTM data allowed, for example, the extraction of
river profiles, slope maps at the hillslope scale, and floodplains. In the last decade,

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improvements in both the resolution and quality of topographic data have
accelerated rapidly. Global 30 m data was released in 2009 (ASTER), followed by
commercial 5 m (ALOS World 3D) and 12 m (Tan DEM-X DEM) products in 2016.
This chapter gives an overview of the history of satellite-derived topographic data
products. It discusses the different instruments used and techniques available for
generating topographic data from space. It then reviews the accuracy and
availability of topographic datasets and discusses the implications for geomorphic
research. Finally, it discusses the potential for future satellite missions to improve
global topographic information.

F Contour, contour interval and horizontal

equivalence
Contour

Contours are imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation above
mean sea level. A map showing the landform of an area by contours is called a
contour map. The method of showing relief features through contour is very
useful and versatile. The contour lines on a map provide a useful insight into the
topography of an area. Earlier, ground surveys and levelling methods were used
to draw contours on topographical maps. However, the invention of photography
and subsequent use of aerial photography have replaced the conventional
methods of surveying, levelling and mapping. Henceforth, these photographs are
used in topographical mapping. Contours are drawn at different vertical intervals
(VI), like 20, 50, 100 meters above the mean sea level. It is known as contour
interval. It is usually constant on a given map. It is generally expressed in meters.
While the vertical interval between the two successive contour lines remains
constant, the horizontal distance varies from place to place depending upon the
nature of slope. The horizontal distance, also known as the horizontal equivalent
(HE), is large when the slope is gentler and decreases with increasing slope
gradient.

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Contour interval

Contour Interval The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on

a given map is fixed. This vertical distance between any two contour lines in a
map is called the contour interval (C.I.) of the map

Horizontal Equivalent

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G The relation between contour interval and scale,
Horizontal equivalence and scale
The relation between contour interval and scale

Horizontal distances in the real world. Because topographic maps incorporate the third (vertical)
dimension of the earth’s surface, they also have a vertical scale.

This scale is listed on a topographic map as the contour interval. The contour interval is the
vertical distance represented by consecutive contour lines on the map. In general, the smaller the
scale of the map (remember, small scale maps show a larger area of the earth’s surface) the
larger the contour interval will be. For example, the contour interval on a 7.5 minute quad is
commonly 40 feet, while on a one or two degree sheet it will often be 100 feet. In order to make
topographic maps more useful, there are exceptions to this rule of thumb.

In very flat areas, such as the plains of the mid west or the Snake River Plain, contour intervals
of one hundred, or even forty, feet may not be very useful as they will be very widely spaced. In
areas such as these, supplemental contours are often added at five or ten foot intervals
(supplemental contours appear on USGS topographic maps as dashed lines). Similarly, in very
steep mountainous areas the contours may be more widely spaced to avoid clustering of lines
into unreadable masses. The contour interval used on a topographic map is printed below the
scale in the map legend.

Regardless of the contour interval chosen, you will notice that there are at least two types of
contour lines on a topographic map. Thick contour lines, called index contours, have elevations
printed on them periodically over their length. Between each index contour are four intermediate
contours that are thinner lines than the index contours. The elevation change between the
intermediate contours is what is given in the map legend. So, if the contour interval listed in the
map legend is forty feet, each intermediate contour represents forty feet and the elevation change
between index contours is 200 feet. On many topographic maps these will be the only types of
contour lines shown.

However, as mentioned above, some maps will have supplementary contour lines representing
smaller vertical distances. If supplementary contour lines are used, they will be dashed lines and
the supplemental contour interval will be listed below the regular contour interval in the map

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legend. A final type of contour that may appear on a topographic map is a line representing a
closed depression (such as a sinkhole or a crater at the top of a volcano). These contours will be
hachured (they will have small tic marks perpendicular to the main contour line), with the tic
marks pointing downslope.

The relation between horizontal equivalence and scale

– Topographic   Map Cuts and fills are man-made features that result when the
bed of a road or railroad is graded or leveled off by cutting through high
areas and filling in low areas along the right-of-way A vertical or near
vertical slope is a cliff as described previously, when the slope of an inclined
surface increases the contour lines become closer together. In the case of a
cliff, the contour lines can actually join, as shown in Notice the tick marks
shown in this figure. These tick marks always point downgrade. A
topographic intermediate  scale, following  criteria: Large scale:
Intermediate  scale: Small scale: The   designated map  is  called or small
scale either large scale, by  the  use  of  the 1 inch= 100 feet or less any scale
from 1 inch= 100 feet to 1 inch= 1,000 feet 1 inch= 1,000 feet or more.
contour interval varies with the purpose and scale of the map and the
character of the terrain. shows  the  recommended  contour intervals that you
may use to prepare a topographic map.

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H methods of contouring
There are mainly two methods of locating contours:-

(1)Direct Method and

(2) Indirect Method.

Direct Method: In this method, the contours to be located are directly traced out
in the field by locating and marking a number of points on each contour. These
points are then surveyed and plotted on plan and the contours drawn through
them. METHODS OF CONTOURING

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Indirect Contouring: In this method the points located and surveyed are not
necessarily on the contour lines but the spot levels are taken along the series of
lines laid out over the area .The spot levels of the several representative points
representing hills, depressions, ridge and valley lines and the changes in the slope
all over the area to be contoured are also observed. Their positions are then
plotted on the plan and the contours drawn by interpolation. This method of
contouring is also known as contouring by spot levels

Direct Method Indirect Method

Most accurate but slow and tedious Not so accurate but rapid and less
tedious
Expensive Cheaper
Not suitable for hilly area Suitable for hilly area
During the work calculations can be Calculations are not required in the
done field
Calculations cannot be checked after Calculation can be checked as and
Contouring when required
I accurate Representation of relief
The important methods of representing relief features are hachures, contours,
form lines, spot heights, bench marks, trigonometrical points, hill shading, layer-
colouring, and so on. Each method has its own merits and demerits in depicting
the relief of the land.

Hachures are small lines drawn to represent slopes. The lines are drawn thicker to
represent steeper slopes and thinner for gentle slope. The slopes above 45° is
depicted completely in black colour.

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Contours are imaginary lines connecting places having same elevation above
mean sea level. They are drawn in brown colour.

Form lines are like contours representing features that are not actually surveyed.
They are shown by broken lines.

Spot heights are heights of places surveyed and they denote the actual height
above mean sea level. They are shown in maps as dots with their respective
values written beside it.

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Bench marks represent the actual height of a tall structure like a tall building,
pillar, bridges or any other object of permanent nature. They are marked with the
letters BM with the respective height.

Trigonometrical Stations are points included in the triangulation survey and are

marked in the map with a triangle with the actual height of the place.

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Hill Shading (levels of gray) is a method of representing relief on a map by
depicting the shadows that would be cast by elevated areas if light wre shining
from a certain direction.

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Layer Colouring is a method showing relief in layers and each layer is given a
different colour. Physical maps in atlas and wall maps use this method to show
relief features. Ocean depth is also shown in various shades of blue. There is an
international recognition for colours used in these maps. Accordingly blue
represents water bodies, green for plains, various shades of brown for highlands
and white for snow covered peaks.

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Contours
Contour is universal method to show the relief. The unit of measurement of
contour is generally metres above the mean sea level. Contour has an advantage
that it does not hide the other features drawn on the top sheet. Reading contours
is a skill that helps us to understand the actual landscape. The skill can be
obtained by understanding the salient features of contours. They are as follows:

•            Contours are drawn at regular intervals in brown colour. Generally 20m

interval is followed in 1:50,000 and 100m interval in 1:250,000 top sheet.

•            Every fifth contour is a dark line to enhance map reading.

•            The value of contour is printed by breaking the contour line and also given at
the edge of the top sheet.

•            Generally contours never cut or cross each other. In case of water fall and
cliffs contours almost ouch a same point or a line. In over hanging cliff the
contours cut each other.

Figure 10.10 gives the general features shown by contours.

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Drawing Cross Section from Contours

The following figure shows the way two adjacent hills are shown by contours.

a) Two adjacent hills shown by contour

Drawing cross section of the contours allows one to know the exact
landform depicted in the topo sheet. 

Drawing cross section involves selecting a section within the portion of the
contour, marking the intersections of these selected contours on suitable vertical
scale and joining these points to identify the land form. Generally closely spaced
contours indicate that the slope is steep, and widely spaced contours indicate

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that the slope is gentle. The following pictures show contours and cross sections
of a hill and a depression.

Steps to be followed to draw contours and the cross section:

a.        Draw the contours in brown colour.

b.        Draw a line AB for which the cross section has to be drawn.

c.         Below the contour draw required number of horizontal lines of equal distance
and interval (2mm) to represent all the contour values given in the diagram

d.        Write the value of all the contours in such a way that the lowest value of the
contour forms the base line and the values increase according to the contour
interval given in the diagram.

e.         Draw vertical lines from each intersection point on the line AB with the
contours to the horizontal line representing its value.

f.          Join all these points to identify the feature shown.

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g.        Shade the feature in black to complete the cross section.

General instruction to identify features shown in contours:

•            A hill is shown by circular contours with height less than 1,000 m.

 •            A plateau is an elevated land represented by innermost contour roughly

rectangular in shape and closer outer contours. The height may generally vary
from 300m to 600 metres. If a plateau is enclosed by mountains, it is called inter
montane plateau and when it is formed in the foot hills it is called piedmont
plateau.

 •            A ridge is an elongated and steep sloped high mountain with two or more
peaks shown by elliptical contour lines. A narrow low depression between two
peaks is called Col. Saddle is similar to a col but higher, broader and gently sloping
from peaks of a ridge.

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•            A valley is a long depression with steep slope formed by the vertical erosion
of the river within the stretch of upland. The contours bend sharply across the
river in a ‘V’ shape with the apex pointing towards higher elevations.

•            Spurs are projection of land from higher to lower ground. Contours bend

smoothly with the apex of the ‘V’ pointing towards lower ground.

•            A waterfall occurs when there is a sudden difference in height of the river

valley A waterfall is a place where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of
steep drops in the course of a stream or river. 

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It is represented by contours meeting at a same point on the hill slope. The
difference between the value of the highest and the lowest contour touching the
same point gives the height of the waterfall.

•            A cliff is a steep sloped exposure of a valley or coast. If it is near sea we call it
sea cliff.

•            Gorge is a very steep valley at higher elevations formed by river erosion. It

can be identified by closely converging contours in the river course.

•            A volcano is represented by closed contours with the innermost contours

having lesser values than the surrounding, denoting the crater depression.  

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J Characteristics of contour
The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a
contour map are as follows:

1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to
be uniform.

2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of
slope and varies

Inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform
slope; closely for steep

Slope contours and widely for moderate slope.

3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the
normal of the contour at

That point. They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such
lines.

4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings.

5. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and

overhanging cliffs are the

Exceptions).

6. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff
is an exception).

7. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan.

8. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of
the map.

9. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill. A set of ring
contours with higher

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Values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, and depicts a
depression (without an outlet).

10. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines
in U-shape cross a ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The
concavity in contour lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and
towards lower ground in the case of valley.

11. Contours do not have sharp turnings. Characteristics of contour

Part two
2

1
3

 1) 1. It is Valley, because it has “V” shape.

2. It is a trough

3. It is a Ridge because it has “U” shape.

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