Feb.

2011

AC DRIVES
I- INDUCTION MOTORS STARTING & SPEED CONTROL
1. Starting Codes of 3- Phase Induction Motors
Induction motors are self-starting i.e. they are started by simply plugging them into a
3-phase power source. However in some cases, the starting current may be high
enough to cause a dip in the system.
Dip … voltage reduction due to the inrush current.
(Ex: starting a fridge causes the lights in the house to dim momentarily.)

Wound-rotor motors present no starting problem since the external resistance can be
increased so as to secure a smooth run- up operation.

Squirrel-cage motors are generally capable of starting at full-rated voltage but the
starting current may be high depending on the motor rated power and design.
(Starting current may be reduced by reducing V, but this may reduce the starting
torque which is proportional to VTh2 ).
1.1- Code letters:
To estimate the rotor current at starting all squirrel cage motors now have a starting
code letter on their nameplates. The code letter sets limits on the amount of current
the motor can draw at starting conditions. These limits are expressed in terms of the
starting apparent power (KVA) as a function of the horsepower (hp) rating.

Table of NEMA code letters for starting induction motors

Nominal Code letter Locked rotor KVA/hp
A 0 _____ < 3.15
B 3.15 _____ < 3.55
C 3.55 _____ < 4
D 4 _____ < 4.5
E 4.5 _____ < 5
F 5 _____ < 5.6
G 5.6 _____ < 6.3
H 6.3 _____ < 7.1
J 7.1 _____ < 8
K 8 _____ 9
L 9 _____ 10
M 10 _____ 11.2
N 11.2 _____ 12.5
P 12.5 _____ 14
R 14 _____ 16

1
 S 16 _____ 18
T 18 _____ 20
U 20 _____ < 22.4
V 22.4 and UP

To determine the starting current, the rated voltage, horsepower, and code letter are
read from the nameplate.
- The starting reactive power (KVA) : SST = hp x Code letter factor.
S
- The starting line current is expressed as: I l = ST
3.Vt
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ex: A 10 - hp, 230 - V, 3- phase induction motor is marked with code letter G. What
is the max. starting current which may be expected at 230 V?
KVA
From the Table: Code G ⇒ = 5.6 ÷ 6.3
hp
KVA
For upper limit ⇒ = 6.3
hp
Then: SST = hp x 6.3 = 10 x 6.3 = 63 KVA.
63000
IST = = 158 A
3 ⋅ 230

Ex: What is the range of the starting current of a 15-hp, 208-V, 3-phase, code-F
induction motor?
Code F ⇒ 5 ÷ 5.6
S ST = 15 × 5 = 75 KVA
The lower limit: 75000
I ST = = 208 A
3 × 208
S ST = 15 × 5.6 = 84 KVA
84000
The upper limit: I ST = = 233 A
3 × 208
∴ starting current I ST = (208 ÷ 233) A ⋅ (range),
------------------------------------------------------
1.2- Induction Motor Starting Circuits (Across the line)
A typical full-voltage or “across-the-line magnetic induction motor starter” circuit is
shown in Fig.1. Having the disconnect switch shut, and when the start button is
pressed, the relay (or contactor) coil M is energized, causing the normally open
contacts M1, M2, and M3 to close. When these contacts do close, power is applied to
the induction motor, and the motor starts. Contact M4 also shuts, which shorts out the
starting switch, allowing the operator to release it without removing power from the
M relay. When the stop button is pressed, the main M relay is de-energized, and the
M1-3 contacts open, disconnecting the motor from the supply and causing it to stop.

2
(The disconnect switch is used only for long term or protective shut down of the
system).
The above magnetic motor starter circuit has several built-in protective features
including:
a. Short-circuit protection
b. Overload protection
c. Under-voltage protection

Fig.1: Across- the- line starting

a. Short-circuit protection for the motor is provided by fuses F1, F2, and F3. If a
sudden short circuit develops within the motor and causes a current flow many times
larger than the rated current, these fuses will blow, disconnecting the motor from the
power supply and preventing it from burning up. However, these fuses must not burn
up during normal motor starting, so they are designed to require currents many times
greater than the full-load current for a short period before they open the circuit. This
means that short circuits through a high resistance and/or excessive motor loads will
not be cleared by the fuses.

b. Overload protection for the motor is provided by the devices labeled OL in Fig.1.
These overload protection devices consist of two parts, an overload heater element
and overload contacts. Under normal conditions, the overload contacts are shut.
However, when the temperature of the heater elements rises far enough, the OL
contacts open, de-energizing the M relay, which in turn opens the normally open M1-3
contacts and removes power from the motor.
When an induction motor is overloaded, it will be eventually damaged by the
excessive heating caused by its high currents. However, this damage takes time, and
an induction motor will not normally be hurt by brief periods of high currents (such as
starting currents). The damage will occur only if the high current is sustained. The
overload heater elements also depend on heat for their operation, so they will not be
affected by brief periods of high current during starting, and yet they will operate
during long periods of high current, removing power from the motor before it can be
damaged.

c. Undervoltage protection is provided by the controller as well. Notice from the

figure that the control power for the M relay comes from directly across the lines to
the motor. If the voltage applied to the motor falls too much, the voltage applied to the

3
M relay will also fall and the relay will de-energize. The M1-3 contacts then open,
removing power from the motor terminals.

1.3. Methods of Starting

If the starting current is very high, then the applied voltage has to be reduced since the
current is directly related to the voltage (Ohm’s law). The starting torque is
proportional to the square value of the applied voltage since according to Thevenin
parameters:
3VTh2 . R2
TST =
ω S [( RTh + R2 ) 2 + ( X Th + X 2 ) 2 ]
T
V

Tst
05
.V
05
. Tst

To reduce the applied voltage, the following methods can be used:

a) Series-Resistance starting:
Three resistors are inserted in series with the stator wdg during starting and are
gradually reduced as the motor speeds up (smooth operation).

V ll

Vm

b) Autotransformer starting:
This method leads to even more current reduction depending on the turns ratio
and on whether the motor is Y or Δ - connected. (not as smooth due to the
contacts and more expensive).

4
 c
VR

1 1 1

2 2

3 3

Im
Motor Terminals
( Yo rΔ )
Starting sequence:
close 1 & 3 ⇒ reduced voltage.
contact 3 is closed to develop a Y- connection.
- As the motor accelerates, contacts 1 & 3 are opened and “2” is closed ⇒ full
line voltage is now connected.
- To stop the motor, open all contacts.

c)Y -Δ starting:

A Δ-connected I.M. can be started with its terminals switched to

1
Y-connection. This leads to a voltage (and current) reduction by (0.58) of
3
1
its value. Consequently the starting torque will be reduced by .
3

5
 (1) (2)

Y − Starting Δ − Operation

d- Other methods:
Split wdg starting: using 2 identical wdgs in the stator with dual voltage rating.
For starting: 2 wdgs are connected in series.
For running: 2 wdgs are connected in parallel.

1.4. Effect of Rotor Resistance on I.M. Starting

Wound-rotor designs have the rotor winding terminals available outside the machine
through brushes and slip rings.
At starting, an external variable resistance (rheostat) is usually connected across the
rotor winding terminals thus providing high starting torque (to encounter inertia) and
low starting current (to avoid voltage dips). As the motor accelerates, the external
resistor is gradually reduced down to zero (at rated speed) thus allowing high-
efficiency operations at low slip values.
Based on the torque expression:
R
3VTh2 ⋅ 2
1 s
T= ⋅
2ω s ⎛ R2 ⎞
2

⎟ + ( X Th + X 2 )
2
⎜ RTh +
⎝ s ⎠
and at constant V and f, T is affected by changes in the rotor through the expression
R2
only. Therefore, if both R2 and s are doubled, the following observations are
s
made:
R
(i) 2 is unchanged and therefore all stator parameters such as current, power factor,
s
and air gap power are unchanged. The full load torque is also unchanged.

6
(ii) Doubling “s” means the rotor speed is reduced thus increasing the relative motion
between rotor and stator. This increases (almost doubles) the induced voltage (E).
(iii) The rotor frequency (f2 = s.f) is doubled leading to doubling the value of the
reactance ( X 2 = 2π . f .L2 ) and the impedance (Z2).
E
(iv) The rotor current I 2 = would remain unchanged.
Z2
(v) Reducing the rotor speed means less mechanical power is developed (P=WT), and
more copper loss being conceded ( I 22 ⋅ R2 ) due to the increase in R2 (R2 is doubled
with “s”).

To examine these effects numerically, use will be made of the following illustrative
example:
Ex: A 500-hp wound-rotor induction motor, with its slip rings being short-circuited,
has the following characteristics:
Full-load slip: s = 1.5%
Full load rotor copper loss: PRCL = 5.69 KW
Slip at max. torque: sTmax = 6 %
Rotor current at maximum torque I2Tmax = 2.82 I2fl
Torque at 20% slip = 1.2 Tfl
Rotor current at 20% slip = 3.95 I2fl
- If the rotor resistance is increased 5x, determine:
a- The slip (s’) at which the motor will develop the same full-load torque.
R
To keep the torque unchanged, 2 must be kept constant ⇒ s’=5xs = 0.075.
s
b- The total I2R loss in the rotor
Rotor current is unchanged whereas R’2 = 5.R2
⇒ P’RCL = 5 x 5.69 = 28.45 KW
c- The new slip at max. torque
Since s Tmax is directly related to the increase in R2, then:
sTmax = 5.5Tmax = 0.3
d- The starting torque
The starting torque corresponds to a slip S = 1, then the new Tst will be the same as
the torque defined at a slip of 20% ⇒ T’st = 1.2 Tfl
e- Rotor current at starting
Similarly, rotor current at starting is the same as that of 20% slip
⇒ I 2 = 3.95I 2 fl
'

Example:
A 220-V, 3-phase, 6-pole, 50-Hz wound rotor I.M. develops an internal
torque of 180% with a line current of 190% at a slip of 5% when operated from rated
voltage and frequency with the terminals of the Y-connected rotor winding being
short-circuited The resistance measured between any 2 terminals of the rotor wdg is
0.18 Ω and is assumed constant. What resistance should be inserted into the rotor wdg
so that the starting current will be limited to 190% of the rated value?

7
Solution:

s(%)
T S't

TSt
s (%)
s
I1 R1 X1 X2
I2

Iφ
R2
V E1 Xφ
s

0.18
per-phase rotor resistance is: R2 = = 0.09Ω
2
Since the required Ist is the same as that at rated operation (both are 190% of rated
full-load value)
⇒ The air gap voltage and I φ are also the same for both conditions.
⎛R ⎞
At given condition: E1 = I 2 ⎜ 2 + jX 2 ⎟ … (rated)
⎝ S ⎠
At starting: E '1 = I ' 2 (R ' 2 + jX 2 )
I ' 2 = I 2 ⇒ E '1 = E1
R2 0.09
Since ⇒ R' 2 = = = 1.8Ω is the required new total rotor resistance
S 0.05
R ext = R 2 − R' 2 = 1.8 − 0.09 = 1.71Ω

8
II. Solid-state Induction Motor Drives
The continuous developments in the power electronics and semiconductor switching
devices, accompanied by a consistent drop in their prices, have lead to a world- wide
spread of induction motor drives. These drives can provide optimum speed control so
as to improve efficiency of the energy conversion process in which the electric drive
is used.
Various devices used for this purpose are built using the pulse width modulation
(PWM) technique, a process of modifying the width of pulses in a pulse train (wave)
according to a certain control signal.
Its principle of operation can be expressed as shown in Fig.2:

Drive Induction
Comparator Filter
(transistors) Motor

Fig.2: Typical induction motor drive

In reference to Fig.3, two signals are fed to the comparator, a reference signal and a
carrier signal.

Reference
signal to the
transistor to
Carrier make it conduct
or open

+ comparator
-

Fig.3: PWM layout and connections.

The amplitude of the carrier wave can be adjusted by means of a potentiometer. In the
comparator, the 2 waves are compared and the transistor (drive) is turned on when the
carrier is greater than the reference, as shown in Fig.4.

9
 Carrier
Reference

Fig.4: PWM operation.

The width of the pulse can be varied by changing the shape of the carrier using the
potentiometer.

10
PWM principle is to switch the input voltage ON and OFF many times during each
half cycle and to vary the frequency and the duration of the ON pulses in relation to
the OFF. The aim is to stimulate a sinusoidal shape for the voltage supplied to the
motor. PWM are used to control the:
a) Frequency at a constant voltage, fig.5.

11
Voltage at a constant frequency , fig.6.

12
b) Voltage and frequency, both variable (most desirable), fig.7.

13
2.1. Voltage and Frequency Patterns:

a. Variable Voltage Control

The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of
terminal voltage. Speed control is therefore achieved by varying the terminal voltage
until the torque required by the load is developed at the desired speed. Since one
cannot allow the terminal voltage to be more than the rated value, this method allows
speed control only below the rated speed. If the stator copper loss and the friction,
windage, and core losses are ignored, the converted power is:
Pconv = Pg (1 − s )
This power decreases but the rotor copper loss increases with the increase in slip.
Consequently, the motor efficiency is very poor at low speeds.

b. Variable frequency control

The synchronous speed is directly proportional to the supply frequency.
120 f
( ns = ). Hence, the synchronous speed and the motor speed can be controlled
p
below and above the normal full-load speed by changing the supply frequency.
The voltage induced in the stator E is proportional to the product of the supply
frequency and the air-gap flux such that:
E
E = K .φ . f ⇒ φ = K ′
f
Induction motors are designed to operate at the knee point of the magnetization
characteristic to make full use of magnetic material and simultaneously to avoid
saturation. Therefore, the increase in flux will saturate the motor. This will increase
the magnetizing current, distort the line current and voltage, increase the core loss
and the stator copper loss, and produce acoustic noise.

While an increase in flux beyond the rated value is undesirable from the consideration
of saturation effects, a decrease in flux is also avoided to retain the torque capability
of the motor. Therefore, frequency control below the rated frequency is generally
accompanied by reducing the machine phase voltage V along with the frequency f in
such a manner that the flux is maintained constant, (constant V/f control). Above the
rated frequency, the motor is operated at a constant voltage because of the limitation
imposed by the stator insulation or by supply voltage limitations.

Control Patterns
Since loads connected to an induction motor can vary in size significantly, then
patterns of V & f (V/f) would vary accordingly. In what follows, are the three main
patterns:

a- Standard Pattern:

„ at small frequencies, (R>>X) inside the motor windings, therefore, it is necessary

to have V=const i.e. (V/f)↑ so as to ensure having sufficient Tst at the lowest
speeds.

14
„ V=const for f >frated with no effect on saturation.
V

Vrated

f
0 frated
(50 or 60 [Hz]
Hz)

Fig.8.a: Standard operation

b- High Tst loads:

V changes linearly with f

„ Shallower curve for f<30Hz. i.e. output voltage will be higher than (a)
„ Has higher Tst, but also has higher saturation which is affordable for short
starting periods.
V

Vrated

f
0
frated [Hz]

Fig.8.b: High starting torque

c- Low Tst loads: (soft - start loads)

„ Voltage changes parabolically for speeds below base speed (frated)

„ Voltage lower than in (a) or (b) (below frated giving lower Tst

15
 V

Vrated

f
0
frated [Hz]

Fig.8.c: Low starting torque.

2.2. Operating Modes

Electric drives can operate in different modes depending on the direction of rotation
and the power flow. In reference to figure 8-d, the following operating modes are
observed:
• First quadrant: Motoring operation only in one direction (forward),
• Second quadrant: Regenerative braking, the torque is reversed (braking) while the
motor is still rotating in the same (forward) direction.
• Third quadrant: Reverse motoring, both speed and torque are reversed, but the
power is still in the same (forward) direction.
• Fourth quadrant: Plugging, torque and speed have opposite directions (normally
because the speed direction is reversed), leading to a braking condition.

Fig.8-d: Torque- speed quadrants

2.2. DC Link in Adjustable Speed Drives:

Adjustable speed drives of ac motor requiring variable V, variable f from a fixed V -
fixed f source can be designed using an intermediate dc link. In such systems, ac
power is converted into dc and back to ac of different voltage and frequency.
Evolution of Dc link and drives could be briefed as shown in Fig.9:

16
 Fixed V&f Variable Variable Variable Variable IM
a- source Transf. V ac
Diode rectifier
V dc
Inverter
V&f (ac)

Transformer output is controlled according to the desired frequency level of

the output ( V/f = const)
fixed
Fixed V&f V& f Variable Variable Variable IM
b- source
Diode rectifier Inverter
f Transf. V&f (ac)
dc link

Phase
Controlled Variable V
Fixed V&f Variable IM
c- source
Thyristor Inverter
V&f (ac)
Bridge dc
Rectifier

Fixed V&f fixed V Variable Variable IM

d- source
Diode rectifier
dc
Chopper
V dc
Inverter
V&f (ac)

Instead of thyristor bridge of (c), a combination of diode rectifier and

chopper would provide variable dc voltage

Fixed V&f fixed V IM

e- source
Diode rectifier
dc
PWM Inverter (ac)

Waveforms to the motor are closer to sine waves (more attractive)

Fig.9: Developments in ac drives

17
2.3. Solid State Control Methods

Solid- state control methods used in association with induction motors are rotor slip
energy recovery, ac power motors, and motors with inverters and cycloconverters.

2.3.1- Rotor Slip Energy Recovery:

In the steady state analysis of induction motors, it was mentioned that a fraction s of
the air gap power is wasted in the short-circuited rotor circuit. The lower the rotor
speed (higher s) the higher is the loss.
In Fig.10, the energy at rotor frequency has to be converted into energy at the supply
frequency before having it injected back into the supply.
wound rotor
induction motor

Ir
I
Diode Rectifier
ac→dc

Smooting
Vr
choke

Inverter
dc→ac

Fig.10: Schematic of rotor slip energy recovery.

The diode rectifier receives the power out of the wound rotor winding through the
brushes, Fig.8. The smoothed output (Vr) is applied to the DC terminals of an inverter
while the AC output from this inverter has the same frequency of the supply. The 3-
phase power from the AC terminals of the inverter is then fed to the induction motor
supply. This method is applicable but usually very expensive and could be a part of
long-term investment. A further advantage of this system is that it allows closed-loop
speed control of the induction motor. That way the slip energy recovery process can
be classified as one method for speed control besides the other four. A schematic of
this system is shown in Fig.11.
I0

+ I0
I + Ia Induction Ir Diode VDR
Power Σ Inverter Transformer
Motor Rectifier

α
(
Current Speed
Signal )
Gating
Signals

Tachogenerator IT-IR

VT
VR IR IT
Reference VR-VT Speed
KT Σ Σ
Signal + Controller + -

Fig.11: Speed control using rotor slip energy recovery.

18
The current feedback signal (IT) is obtained from the current transformer connected to
one of the AC lines of the inverter. At normal operation, the speed signal is obtained
from the motor through a tachogenerator coupled to and driven by the motor. The
control process can be briefed as follows:
- If an increase of speed is requested then the signal reference voltage (VR) is
increased.
- VR is compared to the existing tachogenerator voltage (VT) and the difference (VR -
VT >0) is fed to the speed controller.
- The speed controller generates a current reference signal (IR) greater than the
existing value (IT).
- (IR-IT) is fed to the gating circuits which call for a lower inverter input voltage
(VDR) for the given output current (I0).
- As (VDR) drops, the rotor current increases and this increase is reflected in an
increase in the stator current to compromise the increase in power demand.
- As (Ia) increases, the developed torque will increase and the motor will accelerate.

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2.3.2- Squirrel-Cage Motor with AC Power Controller:
Introduction of impedance into the lines that supply the stator of an induction motor
reduces the terminal voltage of the motor, particularly when it is loaded. The
introduction of controlled semiconductor devices into the supply lines by a power
controller also provides control of the effective terminal pd in somewhat the same
way as variable impedances.
Apart from providing speed control, power controllers may be used for starting large
squirrel-cage motors for by this means the current drawn from the line can be held to
a reasonably low value.
Control of the ac input power to the induction motor can be achieved by variation of
the point in the cycle at which the thyristors are triggered (turned on), without the
need for changing the supply voltage. This delay in the firing angle leads to an
effective value of the voltage (or current) being lower than the rated one. As a result
the motor speed will drop.
Q1
Induction Motor
Ia I'a

R L
Q4

Ib Q3 I'b
N n
R L
Q6

Q5

Ic I'c R L

Q2

Fig.12: Ac power controller on induction motors

Looking at one phase: Q5 and Q2 of Phase ‘C’ of Fig.12:

If the triggering delay angle of Q5 & Q2 is α=60° for example, then 2 conditions may
arise, in reference to Fig.12:
i. If the load is purely resistive then the load voltage and current waveforms
would be as shown, i.e., with instantaneous rise when α= ωt.

20
 Q5

Vm sin ω t Q2 R

α π ωt

Fig 12: Output Waveform of an AC Power Controller.

ii- If the load consists of an inductance and a resistance, which is how an induction
motor is represented, then there would be no instantaneous rise. Instead, the
current (or voltage) would increase almost exponentially from zero and also the
inductance would extend the current beyond point ωt=π, i.e., almost pure
sinusoidal waveform is still feeding the motor but the input power (area under the
curve) is less. Optimum operation occurs when the current of one half-cycle
would be prolonged until the beginning of the other half-cycle exactly, so that the
circuit would behave as if no thyristors are present. This optimum operation
occurs when:

⎛ ωL ⎞
α = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠

Where α is the angle beyond which the waveform would become discontinuous.
Therefore for a continuous waveform, the triggering angle would vary from zero up to
α.
For values beyond this limit, the waveform would still have a fundamental component
of continuos wave but the higher harmonics would be more significant.
This method does not affect the frequency and therefore the v/f ratio is reduced which
means that the motor will not be operated with optimum saturation level.
Furthermore, the motor would be operating at much higher slip leading to more losses
inside the motor since the synchronous speed of the motor is not changed. The
resulting torque - speed characteristics are similar to those of voltage control method,
Fig.13.

21
 Τ

Torque

n
Speed (rpm)

Fig. 13: Torque - speed characteristics

AC power controllers, normally used for class D motors, result in a drive system of
poor power factor. This could be avoided by having a high rotor resistance, which
leads to:
- an increase in the slip value at which the torque is max. (shift of curve
leftwards)
- starting current reduction and power factor improvement.
Schematic of a simple closed loop control system bases on an AC power controller is
shown in Fig.14.

Three phase ac
Induction Motor
power controller

Mechanically
Gating (trigerring) Coupled
signal
ω

Tachometer

Controller Logic VT

Speed Reference signal

(gives the desired speed value)

Fig.14: Closed- loop ac power controller.

22
2.3.3. Squirrel-Cage - Motor with Inverter:

In reference to Fig.15, the inverter drive set has the following characteristics:
a. The inductance in the DC link provides smoothing whereas the capacitance
maintains a fixed value for the DC link voltage.
b. The output voltage from the inverter is usually a square wave with higher
harmonics and the armature current may, as a result, have peak pulses. These
peaks cause additional losses and heating. This could be avoided by motor de-
rating.
c. The stator current peaks are inversely related to the motor leakage reluctance, and
hence motors with high leakage reactances are usually used in association with
inverter drives.
d. These inverters have problems at low frequencies because the DC link voltage
would not be sufficient to commutate thyristors. Minimum operable frequencies
are 5 Hz and higher.
e. General applications are for low and medium- power industrial drives in ratings
up to 200 KVA.
The following schematic, Fig.15, shows a combination of semiconductor converters
required for such variable-frequency, variable-voltage control (open loop).

Voltage Control Frequency Control

Filter

controlled rectifier Induction

Vo Inverter (dc → ac)
(ac → dc) Motor

Fig.15: Open- loop inverter drive.

The voltage control of the rectifier ensures that the voltage from the rectifier (V0) will
vary with the frequency according to the above characteristics. The drive does not try
to make an instantaneous jump form one speed to another due to the motor inertia;
instead special circuits are added to ensure a smooth acceleration or deceleration. The
drive also contains devices to protect the motor against short circuit, overheating, and
under voltage as discussed earlier.

The output line voltage from a typical three-phase inverter can be resolved using
Fourier analysis into a fundamental component and a set of higher odd harmonics (3rd
harmonic will have a sum of =0 in 3 phases)
4 π π 1 π 1 π
Vab = ⋅ cos ⋅ V0 [sin( wt + ) + sin(5wt − ) + sin(7 wt + ) + L]
π 6 6 5 6 7 6

23
The fundamental of which has an amplitude value of:

4 3 2 3
Vab max = ⋅ V0 = ⋅ V0 = 1.1V0
π 2 π
The rms line value is:
Vab max 2 3 6V0 6V0
Vl = = V0 = ⇒ Vl = = 0.78V0
2 π⋅ 2 π π

The corresponding phase value fed to the motor is:

V
Vφ = l = 0.45V0 .
3

2.3.4. Cyclo-Converter:

A cycloconverter is a system of switches that convert directly ac power from a

constant - voltage, constant-frequency supply to a variable - voltage, variable -
frequency output without the need for a dc link. Analysis will be conducted for a
square wave ac voltage but it could be extended to cover sinusoidal waveforms. To
clarify the cycloconverter operation, consider the following circuit:

Group 1

π
(a) Thyristors T1 and T2 are on ∂ m = (π − α ) π
α
for a number of half cycles then
T3 and T4 will be on after a α

π
delay of 2 half cycles.

Group 2

(c) Notched Output Voltage

T1
Group 1 T1 Conducting
v1 T2
i1
v Load

v2 T3 T2 Conducting
Group 2
T4

24
Limitations:
To avoid overlap and higher harmonics in the output, cycloconverters are used
to generate only 1 3 of the supply frequency.

III. PWM Voltage Source Inverter for Induction Motors

The difficulty with most 6- step inverters is that their performance at low speeds
is not reliable. The stepping nature of the rotating stator field causes the torque to be
applied in pulses rather than smoothly. PWM is the most widely used method of
improving the low speed performance of DC link inverter systems. The principle is
to use high speed switching to enable the motor current waveforms at low speed to
be more sinusoidal and hence lead to a smoothly rotating magnetic field in the motor.
Also, the inverter is controlled so that the output voltage is variable and of pulsed
wave, instead of the square wave, which tends to be more sinusoidal. This leads to
good performance at low speeds as well as high and the ability to control the motor
accurately even around zero value.
PWM drives cost has been reducing steadily with the drop in prices of large scale
integrated circuits and microprocessors, so that this system is nowadays often
employed for general purpose drives at various speeds. PWM use has increased due
to the availability of faster switching devices like transistors and gate turn- off
thyristors (GTO’s).

3.1. PWM Drive System

The elements of PWM drive systems are generally similar to those of the 6- step
system with the exception that the mains convertor can be a diode rectifier only, and no
control is required from the input side of the DC link. PWM systems are, in general,
voltage source DC link systems as shown in Fig.18. A constant DC link voltage is used
and all the control is done via the motor inverter operating in PWM mode. The circuit
also includes a DC link reactor as a means of reducing the level of high frequency
currents getting into the input circuit and to force these currents to flow in the DC link
capacitor. The reactor is not needed to smooth the DC link voltage because the diode
rectifier already produces a good and steady DC level and some manufacturers
dispense with this reactor for economy reasons.

The DC link capacitor is used to provide a path for the currents which flow through
the feedback diodes in the inverter. When the inverter operates at high frequency, large
AC ripple currents flow in this capacitor and it has to be correctly selected for these
conditions.

25
 Fig.18: PWM drive system

Control over the drive, in all respects, is now carried out via the inverter alone and
most PWM pattern generating systems include inputs to enable independent setting of
voltage, frequency and phase sequence so that the correct conditions for the motor can
be produced.
If the frequency to the motor is reduced suddenly the motor can regenerate the load
energy into the inverter and the DC link rises in voltage due to the energy being fed
into the capacitor via the feedback diodes. To guard against this possible increase in
DC voltage which could quickly damage the semiconductors it is usual to include a
DC voltage measurement that will cause increase in inverter frequency if a high DC
voltage is detected. This prevents the motor slowing down too quickly. If fast
slow-down is required then some means of absorbing the regenerated energy on the
DC link is required.
PWM inverter systems in general, provide superior performance to the six- step
alternatives since:
1) The range of speed control is much wider and operation at and around zero
speed is quite satisfactory.
2) Low frequency torque pulsation does not occur in the output and hence
there is less chance of exciting mechanical load resonance.
3) The current waveforms in the motor are always very near to sinusoidal
leading to more economic and quieter performance.
4) The diode input rectifier means that the input power factor is always high
irrespective of the speed and load.
5) In multi-drive systems it is possible to connect a number of inverters to the
same DC link to allow transfer of regenerated power from some drives to help
feed other motoring drives.
The major disadvantage, however, is the increased complexity and the increased
difficulty in protecting these systems, and in the losses due to the frequent switching.
(max. freq. is around 150Hz).

26
3.2. Performance and Application

a. In general PWM system can provide very high quality performance over a very
wide speed range. With the larger number of voltage pulses per half cycle, even at
low speed, the current waveforms can be very near to a sine wave and very smooth
performance near zero speed is obtainable. These improved performance capabilities
can be achieved by employing very high quality and highly specified semiconductor
switches. There is also the very complex and variable voltage waveforms produced by
the inverter that may make the system difficult to understand.
b. Because of the high specification of the inverter switches the operating voltage of
these systems has up to now been limited to the range up to 500 volts AC, but with
the increasing use of gate turn- off thyristors (GTO’s) for PWM systems operating
voltage capabilities are increasing.
c. Being a voltage source system for induction motors, this drive is not affected by the
precise parameters of the motor connected to it. Therefore, it is possible to supply a
number of motors from the same drive as long as they are all required to operate at the
same frequency. In such cases load sharing is not seen to be a problem due to the
inherent slip of the induction motor and the ability of the inverter to provide the
currents which the individual motors may demand.
d. Most PWM pattern generators allow for the reversal of the output voltage
waveforms so that electronic reversal of the motor can be used if needed. This is
achieved simply by reversing the direction of modulation of the inverter switching at
the most satisfactory point in the cycle.
e. The inverters used in this system are usually fully capable of accepting power from
the motor and feeding it back into the DC link but this facility may not be used and it
may even be prevented to avoid over-voltages on the DC link. If no special
arrangements are made to absorb or feedback regenerated power then the energy will
be dumped into the DC link capacitor causing its voltage to rise quickly. When
regular motor braking is required with a PWM drive system, then either switched
resistor will be included to dissipate the energy or an additional feedback thyristor
converter will be included to pass the power back to the AC mains.
f. The system efficiency is relatively good as far as motor losses are concerned, the
motor current is much nearer to sinusoidal than most of the other DC link systems and
hence the conductor losses are very near to those occurring under sinusoidal
conditions. The voltage waveform applied to the motor does contain a substantial
harmonic content and this does increase the iron and stray losses in the motor by an
amount that will depend on the frequency of inverter switching.
g. One of the important features of PWM drive systems is the direct result of having a
supply side diode rectifier to give a constant DC link voltage. The result is that the
power factor of the input current to the drive is always high and it does not vary with
the speed of the drive. Drives of this type will have an input power factor of around
0.95 per unit.

27
4. Induction Motors Braking

Braking methods of induction motors can be divided into the following categories:

1. Regenerative braking.
2. Plugging or reverse voltage braking.
3. Dynamic or rheostatic braking.

4.1. Regenerative Braking

1 3VTh2 R2
Tst = .
ω s [( RTh + R2 ) 2 + ( X Th + X 2 ) 2 ]
1 3VTh2
Tmax = .
2ω s RTh + RTh2 + ( X Th + X 2 ) 2

R2
and: STmax =
R + ( X Th + X 2 ) 2
2
Th

These equations provide expressions for starting torque Tst, STmax and Tmax, and
expressions are valid for the full speeds range, i.e. below synchronous speed (s > 0),
speeds above synchronous speed (s < 0), and also for negative speeds (s > 1). Figure
19 shows the speed-torque curves for all the three ranges of speed.
The operations for ωm > ωs (or s<0) and ωm < 0 (s > 1) produce negative power and
therefore correspond to the braking operation.
With a positive sequence voltage across the motor terminals, the operation above
synchronous speed gives the regenerative braking operation (portion BAE). In
regenerative braking, the motor works as an induction generator, converting
mechanical energy supplied by the load to electrical energy, which is fed to the
source. Thus the generated energy is usefully employed. It should be understood that
if the source cannot accept energy then the regenerative braking cannot be used. The
operation of the motor in regenerative braking can be explained as follows.

Operational Concepts

When the motor runs at a speed greater than the synchronous speed, the relative speed
between the rotating stator field and the rotor is negative. The rotor induced-voltage
and currents have directions opposite to those under the motoring operation. The
resulting stator currents will also be in the opposite direction. Thus, the power flows
will be from the motor to the source and the motor works as an induction generator.
The magnetizing current required to produce flux is obtained from the source. It may
be noted that the machine cannot regenerate unless it is connected to a source.

For regenerative braking to take place, the motor’s speed should be greater than the
synchronous speed. When the motor is fed by a fixed frequency source, regenerative
braking is possible only for speeds greater than the synchronous speed. When the
motor is fed by a variable frequency source, the source frequency can be adjusted to

28
give a synchronous speed less than the motor speed for any motor speed, i.e. by
reducing the motor frequency, we get a synchronous speed less the that of the rotor,
and hence regenerative braking can be maintained until zero frequency or zero speed.

Fig.19: Torque- speed characteristic

When regenerative braking is employed for holding the speed against an active load,
care should be taken to restrict the operation in the region between the synchronous
speed and the speed for which the braking torque is the maximum. That is, on the
portion AB in Fig.19 for which 0 > s >-sTmax. For slips more negative than –sTmax,
(portion AE), the braking torque reduces drastically, leading to runaway speeds
because the faster the motor runs, the lesser will be the braking torque. This
restriction on the slip range must also be observed when braking against an active
load by varying the supply frequency.

When holding an active load by regenerative braking, a short duration dip in the
supply voltage or a momentary increase in the load torque may shift the operation to
the unstable region. In such a situation mechanical brakes may be used to assist the
regenerative braking to prevent runaway speeds. Alternatively, capacitors may be
connected in series with the motor to increase the braking torque. If one is using a
wound-rotor motor, the rotor resistance may also be increased to increase the range of
stable operation.
The developed braking torque can be calculated by using the negative sign for the
slip. The shaft torque is obtained by adding friction windage and core loss torque to
the developed torque.
It may be noted that for the same absolute value of slip, the braking torque is higher
than the motoring torque. Since the braking speeds are also higher, the regenerated
power is much higher than the motoring power.

29
4.2. Plugging

• An induction motor operates in the plugging mode for slips s>1. This takes
place when the motor is moving backwards relative to the rotating stator
magnetic field. (segment CD, Fig. 19).

• Since the motor is running in the reverse direction to that of the stator mmf,
the developed torque provides the braking operation, or plugging, to stop the
motor, and to accelerate it in the opposite direction.

• The electrical power generated by the conversion of mechanical power

supplied by the load and inertia, and also the power supplied by the source, are
dissipated in the motor circuit’s resistances. Thus, this is a highly inefficient
method of braking.

• The motor can be braked by changing the phase sequence of the motor
terminal voltages by simply interchanging the connections of any two motor
phases. This will reverse the direction of rotation of the stator field.
• The motor torque is not zero at zero speed. To stop the motor, it should be
disconnected from the supply at or near zero speed.
• An additional device will be required for detecting zero speed and
disconnecting the motor from the supply. Therefore, plugging is not suitable
for stopping, but rather for speed control, and for reversing the direction of
rotation.
• Because of high values of slip (nearly 2 at point D), the equivalent rotor
resistance R2/s has a low value. In the case of a wound-rotor motor, external
resistors are connected in the rotor to reduce the current and increase the
braking torque. The value of the external resistor can be chosen to provide the
maximum torque for s=2. As ‘s’ falls, the resistance can be varied to brake and
reverse the motor at the maximum torque.

4.3. DC Dynamic Braking

In dc dynamic braking, the motor is disconnected from the ac supply and

connected to a dc supply. The ways in which the motor can be connected to a dc
supply are shown in Fig. 20. Connections “c” and “f” provide uniform loading for all
the three phases but complicate the switching operation within the motor 3- phase
winding. Connections “a”, “b”, “d”, and “e” are generally used because of the simpler
switching operations. The flow of direct current through the stator windings sets up a
stationary magnetic field. The relative speed between the stationary stator field and
the moving rotator is now negative. Consequently, 3-phase voltages of reverse
polarity and phase sequence (compared to the motoring in the same direction) are
induced in the rotor. The resultant three-phase rotor currents produce a rotating field,
moving at the rotor speed in the direction opposite to that of rotor, thus giving a
stationary rotor field. Since both stator and rotor fields are stationary and rotor current

30
flows in the opposite direction, a steady breaking torque is produced at all speeds. It,
however, becomes a zero standstill due to zero rotor currents.

Figure 20: Stator connections for dc dynamic braking

Since the dc current flowing through the stator depends on its resistance which is low,
a low voltage dc supply is required. This is obtained from the ac supply by a step
down transformer and a diode bridge. When controlled braking (braking with variable
torque) is required, a thyristor bridge is used instead of the diode bridge. When quick
braking is required, to produce large braking torque, the stator current can be set as
high as ten times the rated value. But then either the supply must be removed or the
current must be reduced below the rated value soon after the motor stops, otherwise
the motor will be overheated.

31
5. Variable- frequency Synchronous Motor Drives

Speed control of synchronous motors could be conducted using the devices

described in association with induction motors such as ac power controllers, inverters,
and cycloconverters. Due to the unique relation between stator frequency and the
rotor mechanical speed, synchronous motor drives have the following features:
i- Since they can operate at a synchronized speed, they are used for applications
where very precise motor operation and accurate speed control are required.
ii- Due to the field excitation adjustment capability, synchronous motors can
operate with optimum power factor conditions.
iii- On the other hand, synchronous motor are subject to loss of synchronism if
significant load changes occur, and if the load angle exceeds the 90o angle set as its
stability limit.

32
6. Dynamics of Induction Motors Starting

• The proper choice of an induction motor requires a knowledge of its starting

duty and the voltage dip it may cause to the system especially in the case of
large induction motors operating in industrial complexes.
• Insufficient torque at starting may expand the run-up period and cause motor
heating due to the long lasting inrush current.
• In general, the torque developed by the motor is used to:
1. Encounter the coupled load torque, including friction and windage (Tl)
2. Accelerate the whole system (motor and load) i.e.

dω m
T = Tl + J ⋅
dt
Where T torquedeveloped
Tl load torque
J momentof inertia
t time
ω m machinespeed (rad / sec)

Therefore, the difference Τ−Τl=ΔΤ is the torque available to accelerate the rotating
mass i.e.

dω m
ΔT = T − Tl = J ⋅
dt
dω m
⇒ dt = J ⋅
ΔT

The time required to reach the operating speed ωm is :

ωm
1
t=J⋅ ∫ ⋅ dω m
0 ΔT

(t is the run up time).

• This equation could be solved numerically or graphically in association with

other equations that describe the motor performance. The magnitude of the
supply current remains large until the speed increases up to the rated value.
The speed - time curve could be typically illustrated as:

33
 Fig.21: Speed variation with time during acceleration.

Run- up Period Calculations

If the motor is not connected to a load (i.e. T1=0), then:

dω m
T = J.
dt
The high IST will normally last until the motor reaches a speed that corresponds to
sTmax, then it starts to drop down to rated value.
Since the slip drops as speed increases, T can be expressed in terms of the slip such
that:
ds
T = − J .ω s .
dt

The –ve sign represents the drop in ‘s’ as the motor accelerates.
From which, the time needed to reach sTmax is:

St max ds
t = − J .ω s .∫1
T

If the stator resistance is neglected (R1=0), then according to S.S. analysis:

R2
sT max = , ( R1 = 0 ⇒ RTH = 0)
2
RTH + ( X TH + X 2 ) 2
R2 R
⇒ sT max = ⇔ 2 = X TH + X 2
X TH + X 2 sT max
2 R2 2 R2
3.VTH . 3.VTH .
1 s 1 s
T= . = .
ω s ( R + R2 ) 2 + ( X + X ) 2 ω S ( R2 ) 2 + ( X + X ) 2
TH TH 2 TH 2
s s

34
 Also,
1 3.VTh 1 3.VTh2
Tmax = . =
2ω s RTh + RTh2 + ( X Th + X 2 ) 2 2ω s R2
sT max
R2 R
2.ω s . 2
3.VTh2 .
T 1 s sT max
=> = * *
Tmax ω s R R 3.VTh2
( 2 )2 + ( 2 )2
s sT max
T 2
=
Tmax 1 1
s.sT max .( 2 + 2 )
s s T max
T 2 2.s.s
=> = = 2 T max2
Tmax s s sT max + s
T max
+
s sT max
TST 2 2.sT max
Also, = =
TMAX 1 1 + s 2 T max
sT max +
sT max
2
=> T = TMAX ( )
sT max s
+
s sT max

Hence, the time needed to reach sTmax is:

ST max
ds − J .ω s ST max
s s
t = − J .ω s . ∫ = ∫ [ s +s
T max
].ds
1 T 2 .T max 1 T max

J .ω s 1 − s 2 T max
t= [ − s T max . ln( s T max )]
2 .T max 2 .s T max

35