Tissue and Histology  Have no blood supply of their own

(avascular) and depend on diffusion

Tissues
from the capillaries in the underlying
 Groups of cells that are similar in connective tissue for food and oxygen.
structure and function.
Characteristics of Epithelium
 They usually have a common origin in
an embryo and function together to
carry out specialized activities.
The basement membrane is composed
a mixture of proteins and carbohydrates
The structure of each tissue type is
that function as a filter and as a barrier
related to its function, and the structure
to the movement of the cells.
of the tissues in an organ is related to
the organs’ function.

Functions of Epithelia
Four Main Types of Tissues  Protecting the underlying structures.
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

 It covers the external and internal

surfaces throughout the body.
 It also forms most glands.
 Functions include protection,
absorption, filtration, and secretion.

Functions:

 Except for glandular epithelium,

epithelial cells fit closely together to
form continuous sheets.  Acting as a selective barrier for
 It has free or apical surface is exposed movement of many substances.
to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of  Secreting substances.
an internal organ.  Absorbing Substances.
 If well nourished, epithelial cells
regenerate themselves easily.
 The basal surface of epithelium rests on
a basement membrane, a material
secreted by both the epithelial cells and
the connective cells deep to the
Classifications of Epithelia
epithelium.
  Each epithelium is given two names.  Cuboidal cells are shaped like dice.
 The first indicates the number of cell
layers it has.
 The second describes the shape of its
cells.
 The terms describing the shape and
arrangement are then combined to
describe the epithelium fully.

Layers of Cells

 Simple epithelium is composed of one

layer of cells.


Columnar cells are shaped like columns.

1. Simple Squamous
 This type of epithelium usually
 Stratified epithelium is a combination of forms membranes where filtration
more than one cell layer. or exchange of substances by rapid
diffusion occurs.

Location: Lining of blood vessels and

the heart, lymphatic vessels, alveoli of
the lungs, portions of the kidney
tubules, linings of serous membranes of
the body cavities (pleural, pericardial,
peritoneal)

 It forms the walls of capillaries,

Shapes of Epithelial Cells
 Squamous cells are flattened like fish
scales.
2. Simple Cuboidal
where nutrients and gases pass
between the blood in the capillaries
and the interstitial fluid.
 Simple squamous epithelium also
forms serous membranes, the slick
membranes that line the ventral
body cavity and cover the organs in
that cavity
.

Location: Common in glands and their

associated small tubes called ducts. Can
also be found in kidney tubules, choroid
plexuses of the brain, lining of terminal
bronchioles of the lungs, and surfaces of the
ovaries.
3. Simple Columnar
Location: The Goblet cells (produce
lubricating mucus), the digestive tract from
the stomach to the anus.
Keratinized stratified
epithelium, the cytoplasm of
cells at the surface is replaced
by a protein called Keratin, and
the cells are dead.
Location: Keratinized outer layer of the
skin; non-keratinized, mouth, throat,
larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior
urethra, and corneas.

 Epithelial membranes that lines

body cavities open to the body
exterior are called mucous
membranes.

6. Transitional
 Appears cuboidal when not
stretched and squamous when
the organ/tube is stretched
with fluid.

4. Pseudostratified Columnar
 Single layer of cells; cells are tall
and thin and reach the free surface
while others do not.
 Often has cilia.

Location: linings of nasal cavity, nasal

sinuses, auditory canal, trachea, and
bronchus.

5. Stratified Squamous
 Several layers of cells that are
cuboidal protects against
abrasion, forms keratinized
(dry) non-keratinized (moist).
 Location: Lining of the bladder, ureter, and  Reticular fibers are very fine, short
superior urethra. collagen fibers that branch to form
a supporting network.
 Elastic fibers are able to recoil
themselves after being stretched.

Ground substance is the shapeless

background against which cells and
collagen fibers can be seen when using
a light microscope.
Connective tissue cells are named
according to their functions. Cells
whose names contain the suffix -blast
(germ) produce the matrix; cells ending
in -cyte (cell) maintain it; and cells
Connective Tissue ending in -clast (break) break it down
for remodeling.
 it binds structures together,
Also found in connective tissue, are cells
forms a framework and support
associated with the immune system
for organs and the body as a
such as macrophages and mast cells.
whole, store fat, transport
substances, protects against
diseases, and helps repair tissue
damage.
 It is characterized by an
abundance of intercellular
matrix with relatively few cells.
 Able to reproduce but not as
rapidly as epithelial cells.
 Most connective tissues have a
good blood supply but some do
not.

Extracellular Matrix Components

 Protein Fibers
 Ground Substance
 Fluid

Types of Protein Fibers

 Collagen fibers are a glue- Hallmarks of Connective Tissue

producing fibers, which resemble
 Most Connective tissues are well
microscopic ropes, are flexible but
vascularized except for tendons and
resist stretching.
 ligaments which have poor blood
supply, and cartilages are vascular.
 Made up many different types of cells
plus varying amounts of a non-living
substance found outside the cells,
called the extracellular matrix.
B. Adipose
 Contains large amounts of lipids
for energy storage.
 Pads and protects parts of the
body and acts as a thermal
insulator.

Location: Predominantly in
subcutaneous areas, mesenteries,
Functions of Connective Tissue
mammary glands.
 Enclosing and separating other tissues.
 Connecting tissues to one another.
 Supporting and moving parts of the C. Reticular
body.  Forms the stroma
 Storing compounds and insulating body (bed/mattress) of lymphatic
organs to conserve heat. tissues.
 Transporting gases, nutrients, enzymes
Location: spleen, lymph nodes,
hormones, and cells of the immune
bone marrow, and liver.
system throughout the body.
 Protecting against toxins and tissue
injury.

Classifications of Connective Tissues

I.Connective Tissue Proper

1. Loose Connective Tissue (fiber is

lesser than ground substance)
a. Areolar
b. Adipose
c. Reticular

A. Areolar
 Has extracellular matrix consisting
mostly of collagen fibers and a few
elastic fibers.
 “Loose packing” material of most
organs and other tissues.

Location: Widely distributed throughout the

body.
 B. Dense Regular Elastic
 Capable of stretching and
recoiling.

Location: blood vessel walls, vocal

cords, ligaments between the
vertebrae.

2.Dense Connective Tissue ( fiber is greater

than ground substance)

a. Dense regular collagenous

b. Dense regular elastic

A. Dense Regular Collagenous II . Supporting Connective Tissue

 Composed of collagen tissues 1. Cartilage (semi-solid matrix)
that are closely arranged to one a. Hyaline
another. b. Fibrocartilage
 Withstand great pulling forces c. Elastic
due to great tensile strength
and stretch resistance.

Location: tendons, ligament, dermis of A. Hyaline

the skin, and outer layer of many blood  Covers the ends of bones where
vessels. they come together to form
joints.
 Forms smooth, resilient
surfaces that can withstand
repeated compression.

Location: Cartilage rings in the

trachea, costal cartilage.
B. Fibrocartilage
 In addition to withstand
II. Supporting Connective Tissue
compression, it is able to resist
pulling or tearing forces. 1. Bone (solid matrix)
 Forms smooth, resilient surfaces a. Spongy
that can withstand repeated b. Compact
compression.

Location: Disk between the vertebra,

1. Bone
knees, and temporomandibular joints.
 Composed of osteocytes sitting
in cavities called lacunae. These
pits surrounded by layers of a
very hard matrix that contains
calcium salts in addition to large
numbers of collagen fibers.
 Because of its rock like
hardness, bone has an
exceptional ability to protect

C. Elastic
 Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its
original shape when bent.
 Forms smooth, resilient surfaces that
can withstand repeated compression.

Location: External ear, epiglottis, and

auditory tube.
and support other body organs.

III. Fluid Connective Tissue

1. Blood
2. Hematopoietic Tissue
a. Red Marrow
b. Yellow Marrow

1. Blood
 Blood is unique because the
matrix is liquid, enabling blood
cells to move through blood
vessels.
 2. Cardiac Muscle
 It is the muscle of the heart.
 Under involuntary control.
 Also has striations with one
nucleus per cell.
 Cylindrical in shape but shorter
than skeletal muscle cells.
 Intercalated (connected) to one
another.

Muscular Tissue

 Main Characteristic is its ability

to contract, or shorten, making
movement possible.
 There are three types of muscle
tissue:
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac Muscle
3. Smooth Muscle 3. Smooth Muscle
 Forms the wall of hollow organs
and also found in skin and the
1. Skeletal Muscle eyes.
 Attaches to the skeleton and  Controlled involuntarily.
enables the body to move.  Smooth muscle cells are
 Described as voluntary. tapered at each end, have a
 Has protein bands which causes single nucleus and are not
it to be striated. striated.
 Skeletal muscles cells tend to be
long and cylindrical, with
several nuclei per cell.
Nervous Tissue

 Found in the brain, spinal cord, and Cellular Basis of Life

ganglia.
Cell
 Consists of neurons and supports cells.
 The neuron or nerve cell, is responsible
for receiving and conducting action
potentials or nerve impulses.
 Irritability and conductivity are their
two major functional characteristics.
 Neuron is composed of three parts; cell
body, dendrites, and axon.
 Cell body contains the nucleus and is
the site of general cell functions.
 Dendrites and axons are both nerve
cells processes (extensions).
 Dendrites usually receives stimuli.
 Action potentials usually originate at
the base of an axon.
 Neuroglia are the support cells of the
nervous system, they nourish, protect,
and insulate the neurons.
 The basis structural & functional unit of
living organisms.
 Determine the form and functions of
the body.
Average sized cell is one fifth the size of
the smallest dot you can make on a
sheet of paper with a sharp pencil.
Living cells are about 60 percent water,
which is one of the reasons water is
essential for life.
Three Main Parts of the Cells
 Plasma Membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus

Plasma Membrane

 Also known as Cell

Membrane.
 The outermost component
of a cell.
  
A fragile, transparent
barrier that contains the
cell contents and separates
them from the surrounding
environment.
 Cell membrane is a double
layer of phospholipids
molecules.
Extracellular Substances
 Substances outside the cell.
 Na+ and Cl- are found in
greater concentrations
extracellularly.
Intracellular Substances
 Substances inside the cell.
 Substances such as
glycogen, and potassium
ions (K+) are found at
higher concentrations
intracellularly.
Nucleus
 The “headquarters”, or the control
center of the cell.
3. smooth
A large organelle that houses most of a
cell’s DNA.
 The site of ribosome formation.
Nuclear Envelope
 A double semi permeable membrane.
 Allows some but not all substances to
pass through it.
Nuclear Pore
 Opening that is made up of fused
nuclear membrane.
Nucleolus
 One or more small, dark staining,
essentially round bodies called
Nucleoli.
 Site where cell structures called
ribosomes are assembled.
 The nuclei of human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Chromatin
 Tangled spread out form of DNA
inside nuclear membrane.
 Thread coils and condense to form
dense, rod-like bodies called
Chromosomes during cell division.
Cytoplasm
 The cellular material outside
the nucleus and inside the
plasma membrane.
 Cell-like fluid inside the cell.
Two Major Components:
Cytosol
 Aka Intracellular fluid.
  The fluid portion of cytoplasm
surrounding the organelles.
 Constitutes about 55% of total cell
volume.
 75-90% water plus various dissolved
and suspended components.
 Dense particles consisting of two sub-
units, each composed of ribosomal RNA
and protein.
 Free or attached to rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
 The site of protein synthesis.

Organelles Found at two

locations:
 Aka little organs.
 Specialized structures within the cell  Free in the
that have characteristic shapes and cytoplasm.
perform specific functions.  Attached to
rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Membranous network of
flattened sacs or tubules.
 Externally studded with
ribosomes
 site where building
materials of cellular
membrane are formed.
 Site of protein synthesis.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Membranous
system
tunnels and
Mitochondria sacs.
 Rod-like, double- membrane structures.  Free of
 The powerhouse of the cell. ribosomes.
 Inner membrane folded into projections Functions:
called cristae.
 Site of aerobic  Lipid synthesis
respiration (the  Fat metabolism
“burning” of  Detoxification of chemicals within
glucose) cells.
 Site for ATP synthesis. Golgi Apparatus
Ribosomes
  A stack of flattened  The “stomach” of the cell.
membranes and  Responsible for autolysis of
associated vesicles injured cells.
close to the ER.
 Packages, modifies,
and segregates Centrioles
proteins for secretion
from the cell.  Paired cylindrical bodies, each
 Forms new cell membrane components. composed of nine triplets of
 Packages Lysosomes. microtubules.
 Aka centrosome.
 A specialized zone of cytoplasm close to
the nucleus, where microtubule
formation occurs.
 Also known for directing the formation
of the chromosomes during cell
division.

Cytoskeleton

 Acts as a cell’s “bones and muscles”.

 Determines cell shape, supports
organelles, and provides the machinery
for intracellular transport and various
types of cellular movements.

Lysosomes

 Membranous sacs containing acid

hydrolases (powerful digestive
enzymes)
 Vesicle formed from Golgi complex.
 Sites of intracellular
digestion.
Microfilaments
  Small fibrils formed from protein sub-
units that structurally support the
G1 Phase
cytoplasm.
 Most involved in cell motility and in  The interval between the mitotic phase
producing changes in cell shape. and the S phase.
 Lasts 8-10 hours.
 Metabolically active.
Intermediate Filaments
 Replicates most of its organelles and
 Smaller in diameter than in cytosolic components including
microtubules but larger in diameter centrosomes but not its DNA.
than microfilaments.
Go Phase
 Strong, stable, rope-like
made up of fibrous sub- Cells that remain in GI for a
units. very long time.
 Provides mechanicals  Perhaps destined never to
support to the cell. divide again.
 Most nerve cells are in the G0
Phase.
Microtubules
S phase
 Made up of
repeating sub-  The interval between G1 and
units of the G2.
protein tubulin.  Lasts about 8 hours
 Determines the  DNA replication occurs.
overall shapes
of a cell and the
distribution of organelles. G2 Phase

 The interval between the S

Cell Division phase and the mitotic phase.
 Lasts about 4-6 hours.
 The series of changes a cell goes  Cell growth continues.
through from the time it is formed until  Enzymes and other proteins are
it divides. synthesized in preparation for a
cell division.

Two Major Periods:

1. Interphase (Metabolic)
 Cell grows and carries on its usual
metabolic activities.
 The longer phase of the cell cycle.
 Consists of three phases.
 GI, S, and G2
  Replication of centrosomes is Metaphase
completed.  The chromosome align in the center of

2. Cell Division
 Period where cell reproduces
itself.

Mitotic Phase

 Formation of two identical cells.

 Consists of a nuclear division
(mitosis) and cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis) to form
two identical cells.
 Mitosis is divided into four the cell in association with the spindle
stages: Prophase, Metaphase, fibers.
Anaphase, and Telophase.
Anaphase
Prophase
1. Early Phase
 The chromatin condenses to form
 The Chromatids separate and was called
visible chromosomes.
Chromosome.
 The centrioles divide and migrate to
each pole of the cell.
2. Late Phase
 In late prophase, the nucleolus and
 Each set of chromosomes has reached
nuclear envelope disappear.
an opposite pole of the cell, and the
cytoplasm begins to divide.
  Prevents microorganisms from entering
the body.

Telophase
 The chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei.
 The nuclear envelopes and the nucleoli
form.
 The cytoplasm continues to divide to
form two cells.
2. Sensation
 The integumentary system has sensory
receptors that can detect heat, cold,
touch, pressure, and pain.
3. Vitamin D Production
 When exposed to ultraviolet light, the
skin produces a molecule that can be
transformed into vitamin D.
4. Excretion
 Small amounts of waste products are
lost through the skin and in gland
secretions.

Skin

 Aka as the cutaneous membrane.

 Covers the external surface of the body.
 Covers an area of about 2 square
meters (22 square feet)
 Weighs 4.5-5kg
 7% of total body weight.

Cytokinesis

 The division of the cytoplasm.

 Usually begins during late anaphase and
completes during telophase.

Integumentary System

 Consists of the skin and accessory

structures, such as hair, glands, and
nails.

Functions of the Integumentary system:

1. Protection
 The skin provides protection against
abrasion and ultraviolet light.
 Two Major Tissue Layers: Stratum Lucidum

A. Epidermis  Present only in the thick skin of

 The most superficial layer of the areas such as fingertips, palms, and
skin. soles.
 Layer of epithelial tissue that rests  Consists of 4-6 layers of flattened
on the dermis. clear, dead keratinocytes that
 Stratified squamous epithelium. contain large amounts of keratin
 Avascular and thickened plasma membranes.

Keratinization Stratum Corneum

Stratum basale Stratum Corneum 1. Most superficial stratum of the

epidermis.
2. Consists of 25 days to 30 layers of
flattened dead keratinocytes.
3. Cells are continuously shed and
replaced by cells from the deeper
strata.

a. Dandruff
 Excessive sloughing of stratum
corneum cells from the surface
of the scalp.

Stratum Basale b. Callus

 Increased number of layers of
 The deepest stratum. the stratum corneum due to
 Consists of squamous cuboidal or friction in the skin.
columnar cells that undergo mitotic
divisions about every 19 days.
c. Corn
 Thickened stratum corneum
Stratum Spinosum over a bony prominence that
forms a cone shape structure.
 Superficial to the stratum basale
 Appear to be covered with thorn-
like spines.
 Consists 8-10 layers.
 d. Psoriasis
 Common and chronic disorder
in which keratinocytes divide
and move more quickly than
normal from basale to
corneum.
Two Major Tissue Layers:
Dermis
 Composed of dense collagenous
connective tissue.
Stretch Marks
 Form of internal scarring, can
result from the internal damage
to the dermis that occurs when
the skin is stretched too much.
Melanin
 The group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair, and
eye color.
Pheomelanin – yellow to red pigments.
Eumelanin – Brown to black pigments.
 Provides protection against
ultraviolet light from the sun.
 Produced by melanocytes.
Melanocytes
 Irregularly shaped cells with many long
processes that extend between the
epithelial cells of the deep part of the
epidermis.
Freckles
 Caused by increased melanin
production.
Albinism
 A recessive genetic trait that causes a
deficiency or an absence of melanin.
Vitiligo
 Partial or complete loss of melanocytes
from patches of skin that produces
irregular white spots.
Sun tan
 Ultraviolet light in sunlight stimulates
melanocytes to increase melanin
production.
Linia Nigra
Hormones such:

 Estrogen
 Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Chemotherapy induced hair loss
-Cause an increase in melanin
production during pregnancy in the  It interrupts the life cycle of rapidly
mother. dividing cancer cells, such as the hair
matrix cells of a hair.
Subcutaneous Tissue

 Aka hypodermis
 Loose connective tissue, including Glands
adipose tissue that contains about half
1. Sebaceous Glands
the body’s stored lipids.
 Simple, branched acinar glands.
 Attaches skin to underlying bone and
 Produces sebum- an oily, white
muscle and supplies it with blood
substance rich in lipids.
vessels and nerves.

2. Sweat/sudoriferous Glands
Adipose Tissue
 The cells of these glands release
 Functions as padding and insulation. sweat, or perspiration, into hair
follicles or onto the skin surface
through pores.
Hair

 Present on most skin surfaces except

two major types of sweat glands
the palms, palmar surfaces of the
fingers, the soles, and plantar surface of Eccrine sweat glands
the feet.
 Main function: help regulate body
 Hair growth takes up to 2-6 years.
temperature through evaporation.
 Resting stage takes about 3 months.
 Simple, coiled tubular glands.

Insensible Perspiration

 Sweat that evaporates from the skin

before it is perceived as moisture.

Sensible perspiration

 Sweat that is excreted in larger

amounts and is seen as moisture on the
skin.
 Emotional Sweating / Cold Sweat

 Sweat in response to an emotional

stress such as fear or embarrassment.

Two main types of Sweat Glands:

Apocrine Sweat Glands Integumentary System as a diagnostic aid

 Simple, coiled tubular glands but have Cyanosis

larger ducts and lumens than eccrine
 A bluish color to the skin caused by
glands.
decreased blood 02 content.
 Sweat glands do not begin to function
 An indication of impaired circulatory or
until puberty and responsible in body
respiratory function.
odor.

Accessory structure of the skin
Nail
 A thin, plate, consisting of layers dead
stratum corneum cells that contain a
very hard type of keratin.
Nail body
 Visible part of the nail.
Nail root
 Part of the nail covered by skin.
Cuticle
 Stratum corneum that extends onto the
nail body.
Jaundice
 Yellowish skin discoloration.
 When the liver is damaged by a disease.
Burns
 Injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold,
friction, chemicals, electricity, or
radiation.
Partial- thickness burn
 Part of the stratum basale remains
viable, and regeneration of the
epidermis occurs from within the burn
area.
 Subdivided into: first- degree Burns
Second-degree burns, full-thickness
burns.
First degree burns

 Involves only the epidermis.

 Red and painful
 Slight edema may be present.
 They can be caused by sunburn or brief Skin Cancer
exposure to a very hot or very cold
 Most common type of cancer.
objects.
 Most often is associated with exposure
 They heal without scarring in about a
to ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun.
week.
 Predisposing factor: fair- skinned, older
than 50 years.
Second degree burns

 Damage both the epidermis and the Three main types of skin
dermis.
1. Basal cell carcinoma
 Minimal dermal damage: redness, pain,
 The most frequent type.
edema, and blisters.
 Begins with cells in the stratum basale
 Minimal dermal damage: wound
and extends into the dermis to produce
appears red, tan, or white.
an open ulcer.
 MGT: surgical removal or radiation
therapy.
Full thickness burn

 Aka third degree burns

 The epidermis and the dermis are 2. Squamous cell carcinoma
completely destroyed.  Develops from cells immediately
 Usually painless. superficial to the stratum basale.
 Appear white, tan, brown, black, or  If untreated, the tumor can invade the
deep cherry red. dermis, metastasize.

3. Malignant Melanoma
 Rare form of skin cancer that arises
from melanocytes.
 The melanoma can appear as a large,
flat, spreading lesion or as a deeply
pigmented nodule.

Skeletal System
 Consists of bones, as well as their
associated connective tissues, which
include cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments.
 A joint or an articulation, is a place
where two bones come together.
 Joints can be classified into two,
movable and immovable.
Functions of the skeletal system:
1. Support
 Skeleton serves as the structural
framework for the body by
supporting soft tissues and
providing attachments points for
the tendons of most skeletal
system.
2. Protection
 The skeleton protects the internal
organs from injury.
3. Movement
 Skeletal muscles attach to bones;
when they contract, they pull on
bones to produce movement.
4. Storage
 Bone tissue stores about 99% of the
body’s calcium which is released
into the blood to maintain critical
minerals to other parts of the body.
 Aside from calcium, the bones also
store triglycerides through the
adipose cells found in the yellow
bone marrow.
5. RBC production
 Many bones contain cavities filled wit
red bone marrow, which produces
blood cells and platelets.
red bone marrow is also seen in the
spongy part of the long bones while the
yellow marrow is located at the
medullary.
In adults, red bone marrow is
commonly found in the flat bones while
yellow bone marrow is seen inside the
long bones.
Collagen
 Ropelike proteins.
 For the toughness.
Proteoglycans
 Polysaccharides that are attached to
core proteins.
 Attracts water molecules.
 For the resiliency and smoothness.
Ligaments and tendons are made up of
mostly collagen while the cartilage I
mixture of collagens ad proteoglycans.
Bone Categories
Long bones
 Length is greater than the width
 Bones of the upper and lower limbs.
Short bones

 Width is approx.. equal to the length.

 Bones of the wrist and ankles.

Flat bones

 Have a thin, flattened shape.

 Skull, ribs, sternum, scapula.

Irregular Bones

 Shapes that do not fit readily into the

other 3 categories.
 Vertebrae and facial bones.

Medullar Cavity is the largest cavity

located in the shaft of a long bone.
These spaces are filled with soft tissue
called marrow.

Yellow Marrow

 Consists mostly of adipose tissue.

Red Marrow

 Consists of blood forming cells and is

the only site for blood formation in
adults.

As a person ages, red marrow is mostly

replaced by yellow marrow.
In adults, red marrow is confined to
Epiphyseal plate some axial bones and in the most
proximal epiphyses of the appendicular
 Aka growth palate. bones.
 Is where the bone grows in length.

Periosteum
when bone growth stops, the cartilage
of each epiphyseal plate is replaced by  Made up of dense connective.
bone and becomes an epiphyseal line.
  Consists of two layers and contains Compact Bone
blood vessels and nerves.
 Has a solid matrix.
Endosteum  Forms most of the diaphysis of a long
bone and the thinner surfaces of all
 Made up of thinner connective tissue
other bones.
membrane.
 Lines the medullary cavity.

Spongy Bone

 Consists of many small, marrow-filled

spaces in between the trabeculae.
 Located mainly in the epiphyses of long
bones. It forms the inferior of all other
bones.

Bone Histology = Builds bones

Osteocyte = Bone cells

Osteoclast = removes/crushes existing bones.

The trabeculae adds strength to a
bone without the added weight
that would be present if the bone
Osteoblast were solid mineralized matrix.
 Deposits calcium into bones.
 Decreases blood calcium level.
Bone Ossification

 Process of bone formation.

Osteoclast  In fetuses, it involves two
 Removes calcium from the bones. processes: the
 Increases blood calcium level. intramembranous and the
endochondral ossification.

Bone Histology

Intramembranous Ossification.
 Osteoblasts began to produce bone in
connective tissue membranes.
 Occurred primarily in the bones of the
skull, most of the facial bones,
mandible, and middle part of the
clavicle.
 Started at ossification centers that fuses
as they enlarge.
Endochondral Ossification
 Bones development from cartilage
models.
 Occurred to bones at the base of the
skull and most of the remaining skeletal
system.
 Cartilage cells enlarge, die, and get
replaced by osteoblasts.
Bone Growth
 Appositional growth resulted from an
increase in bone width.
 Elongation of the bone happens in the
epiphyseal plate through endochondral
classification.
Step 1: chondrocytes divide and arrange to
form stacks of cells.
Step 2: chondrocytes mature and enlarge.
Step 3: chondrocytes die and calficy.
Step 4: dead chondrocytes are being
replaced by osteoblasts.
Bone Remodeling
 Involves removal of existing bone
by osteoclasts and the deposition of
new bone by osteoblasts.
 Responsible for changes in bone,
shape, and size, the adjustment of
bone to stress, bone repair, and
body fluids.
Insufficient amount of calcium
deposits in the bones causes it to be
weak and prone to pathologic
fractures- non- injurious form of
fracture.
A bone fracture is a term to
describe a break in the continuity of
the bone.
1. Open fracture
 Aka compound
fracture
 Broken bone
protrudes through the
skin.
2. Closed fracture
 Aka simple fracture
 Skin is not perforated.
3. Complete Fracture
 The fracture totally separates the
two bone fragments.
4. Incomplete Fracture
 Aka Greenstick Fracture
 One side of the bone is broken and
the other is only bent.
5. Comminuted Fracture
 Bone breaks into more than
two fragments or small pieces.
Axial Skeleton
 Consists of the bones along the
axis of the body.
 Composed of the skull, the
vertebral column, and the
thoracic cage.
Appendicular Skeleton
 Consists of the bones of the
appendages (arms and legs) and the
girdles (shoulder and pelvic) that
connect them with the axial skeleton.
The Skull
  It consists of 22 bones: 8 forming the
braincase and 14 facial bones.
Abnormal Curvature
 The hyoid bone and 6 auditory ossicles
are associated with the skull. Kyphosis
 A suture is a joint uniting bones of the
 Posterior curvature; hunchback.
skull.
 The mastoid process is the point of Lordosis
attachment for neck muscles involved in
rotation of the head.  Anterior curvature; swayback.
 The zygomatic process forms a bridge Scoliosis
across the side of the face and provides
a major attachment site for a muscle  Lateral curvature; s – shaped.
moving the mandible.
 At foramen magnum, the spinal chord
joins the brain. Joints
 The sella turcica contains the pituitary
 Joint or an articulation is a place where
gland.
two bones come together.
 Hyoid bone provides an attachment for
some tongue muscles.
 Attachment point for important neck
Classification of joints
muscles that elevate the larynx
(voicebox) during speech or swallowing. 1. Functional
 Based on degree of movement.

2. Structural
Vertebral Column
 Based on the type of connective tissue
 In adults, usually consist of 26 individual it has.
bones. Grouped into 5 regions: 7
cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic
vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 1 sacral Functional classification
bone, and 1 coccyx bone.
1. Synarthrosis
 Vertebral bodies are separated by
intervertebral disks which are formed  Non movable joint
by fibrocartilage.
 The vertebral foramen is large opening
that forms the vertebral canal, where 2. Amphiarthrosis
the spinal cord is located.  Slight movable joint
 The first cervical vertebra is called the
atlas because it holds up the head.
 For nodding and slight tilting from side 3. Diarthrosis
to side.  Freely moveable joint

Structural Classification
1. Fibrous joints
 Consists of two bones that are united
by fibrous tissue and that exhibit little
or no movement.
 Subdivided on the basis of structure as
sutures, syndesmoses, or gomphoses.
a. Sutures
 Fibrous joints between the bones of the
skull.
 Some part of the sutures are called
fontanels that allow flexibility in the
skull during the birth process.
 May be reinforced by additional
collagen fibers forming the
fibrocartilage of the internal vertebral
disk.
3. Synovial joints
 Freely movable joints that contain fluid
in a cavity surrounding the ends of
articulating bones.
 Most joints that unite the bones of the
appendicular skeleton are synovial
joints.
 Lines the joint cavity and produces
synovial fluid that acts as a lubricating
film around the joint.

b. Syndesmosis
 Fibrous joints in which the bones are
separated by some distance and held
together by ligaments.
 Example is fibrous membrane
connecting most of the distal parts of
the radius and ulna.

c. Gomphoses
 Consists of pegs fitted into sockets and
held in place by ligaments.
 The joint between a tooth and its
socket.
2. Cartilaginous Joints
 Unite two bones by means of cartilage.
Only slight movement can occur at
these joints.
 Located in the epiphyseal plates of
growing bones, and between the ribs
and sternum.
The language of the Anatomy
Body Position
 To describe body parts & positions .
 The body is assumed to be in a standard
position called Anatomical Position.
Reclining Position
Pronce Position = Face down
Supine Position = Face up
Directional Terms
  Parts of the body relative to each Kasi si shoulder is malapit kay elbow.
other.
Distal = Far from the trunk.
 Left and right are still the same.
Ex: the elbow is distal to the shoulder.
Superior or Cranial = up or above.
Kasi si mas malapit si shoulder sa trunk.
Ex: Head

Inferior or Caudal = down or below.

Ex: Feet

Anterior = is front

Ante = before

Back = Posterior

Post = after

Dorsal = back

Medial = inner side or towards midline.

Lateral = outer side or away from the midline.

Intermediate = more medial and more lateral

structure.

Superficial = more external or more towards

the body.

Deep = more internal or away from the body

surface.

Ipsilateral = structures located at the same side

of the body. Basic Anatomical Terms
Contralateral = structures are located at the Cranial = Skull
opposite side of the body.
Facial = Face

Limb Specific Directions Cephalic = Head

 Terms that are only used when Frontal = Forehead

pertaining to extremities.
Temporal = Temple
Orbital/Ocular = Eye
Proximal = Structures near to the trunk.
Otic = Ear
Ex: the shoulder is proximal to the elbow.
Buccal = Cheek
Nasal = Nose Digital or Phalangeal = Toes
Oral = Mouth Pedal = Foot
Mental = Chin Dorsum = Top of Foot
Cervical = Neck Hallux = Great toe
Sternal = Breastbone Occipital = Base of Skull
Axillary = Armpit Scapular = Shoulder Blade
Thoracic = Chest Vertebral = Spinal Column
Mammary = Breast Dorsal = Back
Brachial = Arm Lumbar = Loin
Ante- Cubital = Front of Elbow Gluteal = Buttocks
Anterbrachial = Forearm Perineal = Region of anus and external
genitals
Abdominal = Abdomen
Olecronal or Cubital = Back of Elbow
Umbilical = Navel
Dorsum = Back of hand
Coxal = Hip
Popliteal = hollow behind knee
Inguinal = Groin
Plantor = Sole
Pelvic = Pelvis
Calcaneal = Heel
Pollex = Thumb
Body Planes
Manual = Hand
 Imaginary flat surface that pass thru
Carpal = Wrist body parts.
 Pertains to the cut.
Palmar or Volar = Palm
Digital or Phalangeal = Finger
Sections
Pubic = Pubis
 An image or view of the body or one of
Femoral = Thigh the organs.
 Pertains to the view.
Patellar = Front of Knee
Crural = Leg or Shin
Planes divide the body in various ways
Torsal = Ankle to produce sections.
 than the right angle (90
degrees).
Types of Planes

1. Sagittal Plane
2. Frontal or Coronal Body Cavities
3. Transverse Plane
Cavity means an empty space inside a solid
4. Oblique Plane
object.

Sagittal Plane
Body Cavities
 A vertical plane that divides the body
 There are two sets of
into right and left side.
internal body cavities
called, the dorsal and
a. Midsagittal Plane
ventral body cavities, that
 Divided equal into left and right.
provide different degrees of
protection to the organs
b. Parasagittal Plane
within them.
 Divided into unequal sides.

Dorsal Cavity
Frontal or Coronal Plane
 Has 2 subdivision which are
 A vertical plane that divides the body
continuous with each other.
into anterior (front) and posterior
(back).
 The cut runs from right to left or vice
1. Cranial Cavity
versa.
 Space inside the skull.
 Houses the brain.
2. Spinal Cavity
Transverse Plane
 Space surrounded by the
 Horizontal plane that divides the vertebrae that protect the
body or an organ into superior spinal cord.
(upper) and inferior (lower)
portions.
 Aka as cross sectional or horizontal. Ventral Cavity

 Has 2 major subdivisions

separated by the
Oblique Plane
diaphragm.
 A diagonal cut that passes
through the body or an
organ at an angle other 1. Thoracic Cavity
 Protected by the rib cage.
  Continuous heart and lungs.  Contains the teeth and tongue. This
 Contains 3 smaller cavities cavity is part of and continuous with the
and the mediastinum. digestive organs, which open to the
exterior at the anus.

A central region called the mediastinum

separates the lungs into right and left Nasal Cavity
cavities in the thoracic cavity.
 Located within and the posterior to the
The mediastinum houses the heart,
nose. The nasal cavity is part of the
trachea, and several other visceral
respiratory system.
organs.

Middle Ear Cavity

Ventral Cavity
 Carved into the skull.
 Has 2 major subdivision separated
 Medial to the ear drums.
 by the diaphragm.
 Contains tiny bones that transmit sound
vibrations to the hearing receptors in
the inner ear.
2. Abdominal pelvic Cavity
 Further divided into 2.
a. Abdominal Cavity
b. Pelvic Cavity
Synovial Cavity

 Found in movable joints.

Abdominal Cavity
 Contains synovial fluid.
 Protected by the abdominal wall  To not cause friction towards the joints.
made up of muscles.
 Organs inside includes stomach,
liver, intestine, pancreas, gall Serous Membranes and Cavities
bladder, and other organs.
Serous Membrane
Pelvic Cavity
 Slippery, double-layer membrane
 Located inside the pelvic bone. associated with body membrane,
 Contains reproductive organs, cavities that does not open directly to
bladder and rectum. the exterior.
 Covers and lines the organs such as the
c
lungs and heart.
Other body Cavities

a. Parietal Layer
Oral and Digestive Cavity  Thin epithelial that lines the
walls of the cavities.
  Lines the abdominal wall, covering the
inferior surface of the diaphragm.
b. Visceral Layer
 Thin epithelium that covers and
adheres to the viscera within
Peritoneal Cavity
the cavities.
 Contains a small amount of lubricating
serous fluid.
Pleura Membrane  Normal: 5 to 20 ml
a. Visceral Layer
 Clings to the surface of the
Retroperitoneal asa likod ng
lungs.
peritoneum, hindi nasa loob.

b. Parietal Membrane
Retroperitoneal Organs:
 Lines the crest wall, covering
the superior surface of the  Kidneys
diaphragm.  Adrenal glands
 Pancreas
 Duoderum
c. Pleural Cavity  Ascending and descending colons
 Filled with a small amount of  Portion of the abdominal aorta
lubricating serous fluid.  Inferior vena cava
 Normal 20 to 10 ml.

Pericardium

Parietal Layer

 Lines the chest wall.

Peritoneum

Visceral Layer

 Covers the abdominal viscera.

Parietal Layer