R K Bali Navigation

(CPL/ TPL
GENE · L NAVIGATION
AIRCRA I, U ·ENT
- RADIO NA ~IGATION
INCLUDES
XL a CZ!U so;~
More than 1800 Questions and Ans

lved Examples
Five Sample Quest ion Papers
► Latest ICAO Flight Plan
P RT I EN RAL N VIG TIO
(' l. 'rht. ·01 r Sycte 1 / 3
2 The -.:..art 12
/I I 21
4 ..
e; . rect s
I j st E t urface 47
7. and C mpa e 60
•
-- /',,
8 .. 86
I
/
nln, navigaf on (DR) 0
10. a e e t Of DR Elements 126

1. Mea •u e entl _D et · m"nation Of Ten1perature 14G
12 t Of Element 160
l 3~ n-flight vigatio /
14. Ma . , And Ba]a c - Aero planes
] 5. . n nee /
1 .
II
PART II : AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS - . \
1. Air Data Systems (Pressure Instrun1ents) 5
2. Altimeter ,2 0
j
3. Asi -Air Speed Indicator (ASI) · 301

, 325
I
4. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) I

I
G. Gyroscope 331
6. Magnetic Compass ,
I 359
7. Radio/Radar Altimeter (R_a dalt) 370
8. Power Plant And System Monitoring Instruments
9e Basics Of Electronic Displays
PART Ill: RADIO NAVIGATION
1. Basic Radio Th.3ory 415
2. AI>F I NDB 429

3. Track And Drift Questions 440
4. Very High Frequency Direction Findi.ng ·station 449
5. VOR/RMI/ADF Related Question~

,· , ~ ,. . .'' ./
463
6. Holding, Radial Intercept_, Bearing_To Plot 4 76
7. ILS (Instrument LandJp.g Sy~:t;·e,~ )- .

• ' I" ,1, ~ , :,
488
8. Radar 502
9. Global Navigation Satellite .Systems (GNSS) 516
10. Summary of Navigation Aids and Instruments 525

viii
RT IV: SAMP E PE s
1. Samp e Paper 1
2~ Sample Paper 2
3. Sample Paper 3
4, S.ample Paper 4
5. Sample Paper 5
eequator
the plane
Jar to the of the orbit, atmosphere.
the whole year round and there Although •taet,~n,
angle of 23.5° to the celestial in from the a
e seasons duri course of worthwhile to consider wb
I/
of the sun a he celestial
' eel quator and
"i
"°""
Pole
•
Twilight Period is Divided in Three Parts
C - Civil twlllght used In flying sun o0 -&0 below horizon a/

N - Nautical twlllght sun &0 -tJO below horizon ✓
A - Astronomical twtlight sun 12°-w below horizon ✓
Visible Horizon: Atmospheric refraction cause, an observer to o

which are actually below his sensible horizon. Horizon wh"cb ~-~~e~lo~.J!!IIIJl1!:·,
horizon is called visible horizon.
Sensible Horizon: Horizon which is visible to naked e
atmospheric refractions is called sensible horizo d it is a
spirit level senses sensible horizon. ~---..;;;._;;;:.:..:...~::.;~~Ni
The centre of the Sun is approximatel
ummer Nit-Winter horizon.
•Winter NH-Summer
and utumn).
mer/winter~
capr1com (22nd Decem
le of Cancer (21st lune
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION .,;?'THE SOLAR SYSTEM
....
.....
e of any hea ml bod ri e above the visible horizon it i ·

.....
.....
oonrise, Sunri e). And when it goe below vi ib~e horizon WmdllO
a_.t
~ 1· .ht I
y: . .i o n et unset).
rel ted to en ible horizon.
in n , un et and twili ht in air a~manac table are in LMT.
0
-:..
.I ......
~
~ ->
, tm -p heric Refracti n causes the sun rise to occur earlier and the -.) YEAR: A period of one civil year is defined as ~e tim_e ta.ken for a p l_a n t t •
u . ·1 tu occur lat r.
-
.__,.., describe one orbit around the sun. For the earth, th1.S orbn takes approx.unatc
365.25 day. A leap year every 4 years corrects for the fraccional quarter o · a da v
$ > of orbit time.
D The sun is continuously

above the horizon
-u
::::,
- ....;
Ci
This familiar leap year correction i , however, not quite exact. There · a
further correction needed which will lose 3 day every 400 year. This :<: achi!: 'Pct
by suppressing 3 leap years every 4 cemmj~s. Every century ear is c1as ifie
The sun is con-tinumtsly ~
bel()w the horizon
,---r,
~ an ordinary year of 365 days, except when the century number i di i ible l, · · GO
in which case it is classified as a leap year. So 1700,1800, 1900 \ ere not leap year
Civil twillight e:r:ists all
while 2000 was a leap year.
//Ill ~iighl (the sun is never

' 11wre than 6° below the
hariwn ♦ Transit: Time taken between the sun's appearance o erhead a
meridian of longitude and the next transit over the same meri an 1
foon doe not emit H S own light, shining ins Lead by reflecting
-. ! called a day.
l t. D~p ·1 ding on Ll1e relati e p itions of the Eanh, Sun and Moon, var ying Appare~iar day: It is the time interval elapsed ben een two
Ill 0 ( Lhe Junar u rface appear to be illu minated. successive transits of tru e sun over an observer meridian (vari
; ·; ' rtvoiurion of moon is completed in 29 ½i days , called syn odic
11c b etween 23:44 - 24: 14 h rs). Length of a da varie not becaus-=- the
period./ speed of rotation varies or because of the tilt of the a.::i , but h ecause
tii) Bc.:came of direction of rotation of earth and di rection of revolution of thS, o rbit is not symmetrical.
o n i. ·a.me. Therefore there is one day in a month when there is no ♦ Mean soiar day: I t is measured with resp ect to imagina sun hich
moo n set and one day there is no moonrise. "Waxing" means growing goes arou~d eat th over equator at a constant eloci . Thi · u ed
11
~w<l '1 ,,J. ning1' means shrinking. 11 Gibbous is swollen on one side. because , length of ap p arent solar day is not constant (_4 h:-s.
··en:. c1.·1Y" is chr; figure of :noon de fined by a convex and concave edge. l
ay m~ ises or sets a _Qroxim te y 50 m in~ lare._
6 7
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
PART I • GEN ERAL NAVlGATION
date Is the earth clo est to the sun Z ribe · n)7
Sidereal day: It is time interval elapsed between two succe sive lran i Q4. At w hat approx i ma te
♦
of a fixed point, other than su n, in space or two successiv transit of a) End of June
a First Point of Aries over an observers meridian (23: 56 hr ). The star b) Beginning of July
chosen for thi definition is First Poin t of Aries. c) Beginning of January
♦ The equation of time: difference between appar.ent and mean solar a
What is the highest latitude listed belo a~ w hich th e s,.:>
<la. - QS.
of 900 above the horizon at some time durmg the ye ?
♦ Mean su~: It is a fictitious b ody. It moves with constant speed along the
celestial e uator. ·
a) 230 V 4s° C 66
ill ri e abo 't th
♦ 66.6° N /S: sw1 do~-s 'not ri .e ,in winter of the hemisphere. Q 6. Which is the highest latitude listed below at which the u n
♦ 64.5° N/S: sun do~s not set in summer of the hemisphere. r h or izon and set every <lay7
c) 66°
• 60.5° N/S: su n does not go 6° below··h orizon in summer, there is
continuous twilight between sunset and sunrise.
a) 72° b) 68°
Q7. The angle between the plane of the ecliptic and the pla e
f e a or
L-:::.- - ~ - - - ~ - : - - - - ~ ~ ---i4 :. approximately:
a) 66.5°
.......... ....... .. ......... ....................- ....... : ................................... . ............ ;..• ·.......... !. .,....... : ........................... ...... ... ......... ......... . b) 23 .5°
c) 27 .5°
Q8. In its path around the Sun, the axis of the Earth h a an i ncli natio
a) of 66° 33 ' with the plane of the path.
b) varying.between zero and 23° 27 with the plane of the p at
Questions · c) varying with the season of the year.
Q9. The mean sun:
a) ls only of interest to users of astronomical navigation.
Sun will appear at same latitude: b) Moves with constant speed along the celesti al equator.
. a) Once.a year , b) Twice a year c) Once a day c) ls the middle position of the sun .
Q 2. Seasons are due to the: · ·r/y c.(o ,,,. QlO. T he direction of the Earths rotation on its axis is such at:
a) Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun
b) inclination.of the' polar axis with the ecliptic plane ~
_
/
I.-1 /./
t1
a) Observed from the point above the orth Pole the rotatio is
b) Any point on the surface of the Earth will move east\
c) Earth's;rotat!on on its polar axis c) Any point on the surface of the Earth will move ,es rard..
Q3. At what approximate-date ls the ·earth furthest from the sun (ayhelion)? . Qll. When the length of the d ay is measured with reference o eo
a) .Beginning of January VVV"'- apparent sun:
b) End 'of December a) Toe length of the day will be the same once ve , mC\n
c) Beginning_o~ July b) The length of the day will vary with the la 'tud of
c) The length of the day will wary in th cours , of th ye .
9
::/ .._
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
PART I ~ GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q19. What ls the reason for .seasonal changes in climate? . ..
Q12. All eavenly bodies rise · Earth' · ,axis is ,inclined to the plane of its orbit round the Sun.
a) Because the s spm , · .
aJ ln Lh~ Eas t. . >tween the Earth and the Sun vanes over a year.
b) Because the dista nee.~. . . . .
b) 111 lhe est. ' b'tal peed round the sun varies according to the time of the
c) Because the Earth s or 1 s
c) Some in the East and some in the West depending upon the hemisphere. year, I ,
throughout the year, have different

Q13. The ter m Aphelion is used to describe: Q20. The main reason that day an d ~ i, ht,::s ·
j'
a) The relative position between the earth and the moon. duration, is due to the?
b) The situation when the distance between the sun and the earth is at its longest. a) Q,Relative s~~ of the sun•al~9g the.~)iptif . . ~
c) The reiationship betwe~Q the length of the day and.the length oft4e night. · _9j 'i~qf
iiµllipn 'of-1h~ eclip~c, ~}lie·-eq~~~r., , t~ • : r
Q 14. C ivil twilight ls defined by: · 'c) ·Eaith's·rotation. :::'.{,:, ~ -;., . "_ ?~. .....
a) sun altitude is 18° below the celestial horizon
b) sun altitude is 12° below the eelestial horizon
c) sun altitude is 6° below the celestial horizon
Q J 5. T he duration of civil twilight is the time:
a) needed by the sun to move from the apparent height of 0° to the apparent height of
60 6 7 8 9 10 n 12: ;i3 14 15 16 17 1.8 19 20
Q: l 2_ 3 4 5 ; ·r·-
b) between sunset and when the centre of the sun is 12° below the true horizon .
b b a b ·a ; I?; a C a· b C C a C b a ·b
c) between sunset and when the centre of the sun is 6° below the true horizon A C C C
Q 16. Atmosphtric refraction: ,,,

a) ca use tl.Je sunrise to occur earlier and the sunset to occur later.
b) causes the sunrise and the sunset to occur earlier.
c) -;a uses the sunrise to occur later and the sunset to occur earlier.
Q17. The time~ given for sunrise, sunset, morning and evening twilight in the air
Mlmunuc:
a) are given in UTC.
b) are given in stand~d time.
c) are given in LM.T.
Qrn. Civil twilight is defined by:
a) sun upper edge tangential to horizon.
b) sun altitude is 6° below the celestial horizon.
c) sun altitude is l 8° below the celestial horizon.
10 II
THE EARTH
Chapter
'I
Earth Rotation: When viewed from North Pole, ea r th ro tate an ti r Ind 1 ·1s c·
Earth rot.ates from West to East.

Viewed from South Pole, earth rotates clock wise. Earth rotate from East o
West.
Latitude: The angle subtended by short arc of meri dian fr0m cr1uJtor ro
the point to be ident~fied.
Parallels of Latitude: A parallel of latitude is an imagin ar , line th,lt ji_n
points of equal latitude; it is a small circle that lies p ar allel t th (
Eq~ator, therefo re, isalso a parallel of lati.Lude ; the o nl one whir. h i·- a
circle). Parallel oflatitude are used to define posit.ion in terms of lawude ._
Earth is·
Cor-
<)blate Com re s~clSph~r~_id./ Ellipsoid_.
. . - - -------
t Whole degrees of parallels of latitude are numbered fr m 1 to '- T . · r~h <Jr
Q
South of the Equator. Since parallels of latitude are p arallel to the Equat r a nd
"atio: For navigation~ purposes, the Earth is assumed to be a r run East/West they cross all meridians at ri ht an les and are th erefore rhumh
perfp
a~
1
ity, it is slightly flattened at the poles and can be described
spheroid. The E·a rth' s· polar diameter is approximately .L Imes . .
1uatorial diameter. When considering the full diameter '-' P■ rallelof
H
and can be disregarded for the purposes of practical Latltu'"
"152.meters 3432 nm w
""meters 3443 n·m
b) ~stm _., between the polar diameter and
c) sun altituo" , ·mount of flattening. The ratio is
obtained by satellite shows that
The definition of latitude given above is b a ed on th e ceme · of th - < r t h ,
· mass being in the Southern
namely it is the smaller ~Q.gle betwe~IJ !-he line j QLti.ing the pc :.nt to the c nt r n l
the Eat~ ~ ~--e_!~~-e o_f the Equator. This l Geocentr{c La-. 1de, f(er-:- 11 <;!" I '
- _:-=: =-=-- .
10 13
- -
t "' ~ •• .... ~ ..... , , ~ ~ , )! •' ~~:• .. ,,~ H•~'I.
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION THE EARTH
Ea th is actt1all .an oblate ph ro1'd , a d1·f:i·i 1· n Lcl fim1·t ion ·

of Lat1cu
. d can b us cl Meridians are used to define the angular difference of a position from lhe
· n e l v Geo d et.le (or G h · . 1
.-1me Meridian whi h i refcrr d to a longitude. Whole degrees of meridians
·· · _ -· eograp tc) Latitude, represented by the smaller angle
O
_ e normal (90°) to the meridian at the point on the spheroid and the pt numbered· from 0° to 180° an are fa e e · east or west of the 0° meridian of
' r1 . of th e equator h , I l' d 1
~ _ . , . .· t nor ~1 .. 111 not n e sa rily pass thr ug 1 the center :ngitude (the Prime Meridi~n). _Fo_r e~er meridia~ there_i~_an_~~-t i-mer~ian
11 1
'
1
li t___ 1: __t; rn id ~,:-. dl u tr ted u~ th~ diagram below. Note that the ·hap s used in that lies geometrically ~ppos1_te (in. o_ther words 180 of long1tu~e removed).
Ln _c.. 1<1 :r~,_rn .ii t · " agg rated tor illustration purpose and the real pheroid is men'd'1an t o ether •·' v1't fj rms a comnlete crreat c1rcle.
....,.,a.r , n 1 ' 1 T l
- =i=- - i::.:. - - - - -
1 LH.. h L u. t 1 n a ' p h r then h )wn. The latitud platted · · I
( i · 1, • on nav1ga t1on c 1a rts are
·. -c~u : u - i-l llt II k . The n axi"!um difference between Geocentric and Geodetic
. \ll ud e~ occu r at approx 45 N/S a.n d is about 11.6 minutes of arc.
---Th I
they wil~
150°E.
:i:k •
gitudes ofa meridian and its ·anti•meridian wilJ always add up to 180°;
0 be in opposite hemispheres. Hence the anti-m_
.
eridian of 030°W is
- ----- -
NP Gratitcule: is che net work of meridian and paraJJels of latitude on a map or
chart.
Great Circle: A circle whose plane divides earth into two equal hemispheres
is called great circle. - - ·-
Geocentric toter' d
~•UcCcoler
SP
Lo gi ud : T h_e angle ~u~tended at the center of the earth by sh orter arc of

1h : e[JU fo r from Pn me meridian ,tt) the point to be identi fied.
Properties o GC · .
-
_/
(i) Shorter arc ofgreat circle is the shortest Distance between two points
w on the earth.
(ii) Its radius, diameter and center is .s ame as that of the earth.
(Hi) On e~r~~-s~r[a~e it appear~ as a straight line . ✓✓
(iv) Only one great circle can be drawn between two given points unless
they are diametrically opposite. In such .case infinite no. of GC can be
, c ,·id ia.ns . A rne ridian is a semi-great circle between the North and South drawn. · A -
JJ<Jk s. 1t is ~1 line j oi ning poin ts of equ al longitude and crosses the Equator at right (v) Radio signals fo llow great circle path (shortest path).
dngl es. All meridians define the directions ofTrue Nor th and South. Small Circle: A Small Circle ·is ariy circle on the surface of the earth other
~ Th e Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian is the semi-great circle passing than a Great Circle. In other words, t~e rad ius and center of a small circle are
tJ1 rnugh the pol and also passing th rough Green wich, in London; it is also different from that of the ea_rth. ,· -
known, th erefo re , as the Greenwich Meridian and defines a longitude of 0° East Rhumb Line: A line which cuts all the meridians_at equal_ ~gle is : all:_~
( 11 c or West. The Greenwich anti-meridian lies at 180° East/West.
I◄ IS
THE EARTH
PART I • GENEAAl NAVIGATION
rhumb line. Rhumb line properties are: whereas the cl 12.t between A and C is 70°.
Where two points are in the same hemisphere, the d'la.t is Lh · dil ·r ·n -
- (1) A.long a rhuni_b line an NC a
follows c ~ t direction~~
between the two points. • _,.,.--
(2) _ It is not the shortest ~ista~ce qetween two given points.
Differe~ce of longitude (d long), which is_Difference/cha1:1~e of Longitud
(3) ~J' rhumb line spirals up towarqs nearest ~le.
also known a change of longitude (ch Ion~), 1s the angular d.illerf> nr ·. h · ,v ~ :1
tw o longitude angles normally expressed _in degrees and m.n ~' ot · rr . 1g
ASIMllEO GREAT esents three positions at different longitude but at the sam \au uck . Poin t t
- CIRCU! repr o · h' 1 h dl
is at 030°w, point B is at 030°E and point C is at 070 E. m t ts ~xam~ et n
L between A and B is 60°, whereas the long between A and C ': 100 .✓
/'
L 70'E-
fC \
l Greewkh
Dl..onQ 100'
l ~ig: Rhumb line a~d Great Gircle Tracks on ,Lamberts Charts in Northern
lff'W Merldlen
(A)
o•
lBl
1
Hemisphere · . .
\ A Remember: ·
.
•
d' Long
I
!
~ G/C is ~~ays towards JP'?
.p ole. Great, cit.d e.is 3: curved line convex to
the nearer pole on· Mercator chart. Oh Lamberts and Polar Gnomic
charts G/C. is a _st~g~~ line. ...
'( ;
i,~(; .
.-,, --
~uM', L1,-Jf
CD lu f)<; \ ~t £~,~
Rhumb line is always towards equator. On a Mercator chart R/L is a
~ . ":-10\Lc ~ PoLE
straight line. On Lamberts and Polar Gnomic charts R/L is a curved .. ...................................................................................... ................................................................... .
·-· --···-. ---·-
line -convex·to the nearer ·p ole.
•
•
Equator is a rhumb line as well as a great circle.
Parallel 6f latit~d~ ar~ rhumb lines. An NC flying along latitudes flies
in true east-west direction or 090° CI) or '270° (T). ·
-- Frt fi H /
.- L,
• An NC flying along a·'meri'dian ~ flying a CC path and in True North-
South direction :or 000° (T) or I 80° (T). .
A>irrerence/c_hange of Latitude: c / !.- v "1. /
?iff~e~ce of la~~u~; .(cl ia~). which is als~ known as change of latitude (ch
lat), 1s the differen~e· ~etween two latitude angles normally expressed in degrees
and minute.s'of arc: Fig 'shows three positions·aedifferent latitudes h t1t at the same
longitude (that is to say, ·on the •same meridian). Point a' is at 40°N , point B is at
10°N and point-C .is at 30°S. in this example the cl lat between A and ·B is 30°, __..,,,
16
P( 8{1( ~?fHI
u t•
-----· · THE EARTH
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
The Jar:tb rotates .~bout ·it' S·;

Questions Q4.
~ Polar diameter
b) Equatorial diameter· .- . .
' .l. C ·lat t e d'long between pcsition A 1650\V and position B 103°W.Aircrart is c) Sometimes around the Polar and sometimes around the Equatonal diameter
fl ·ug fro 11 A to B. · · i1
•<
',;,
. dep~nding upon the-season .
1 11 ~. The l ·,o p ints are in same hemisphere. Subtract small number from large no.
QS. The cardinal points are: c AU the above. ·
165''-103° == 62°E. (See diagram below) b) South, East
a) , North, West·
emember that anti clock wise movement is East (090°) and clockwise
Graticule is the network of meridians and parallels on
i vt enl is West (270°). Q6.
a) Earth ·b) Maps . -,: · c) Both ·
When tw positions are in different hemispheres the situation is different.
The ma:iilmum difference between · geoceritrlc and geodetic latitude occurs at
Q7. - . 7 ,
Q2. Calc ula te the d'long between A 165°W and B 170°E.Aircraft is flying from A to abouf:
\ &o() a) o0 north and south (equator)
St· t c diagram bt'ow.
Th~ diffl:renc\; b~tween 165° and 180° is 15°.
w b) 90° north an4 south ,
c) 45° north and south
Q8. The ratio of the ellipti~ity of-the· earth is 1/29_7, if the major axis is 6956 km ~t
fhe differ0nce between 170° and 180° is 10°.
the equator, what is the ~inor _axis (p~les)?
Th~ d' l ,ng therefore is 25°W because the movement is clockwise.
a) 6879km. b) 6i6~km" , c)6932km.
Q9. A great circle is any cir¢le on ·.t be·surface of the Earth whose ·
a) radius is the same as that of the Earth
b) plane passes ~ough the center of the-~
090·· . <:) ·both.
l
QtO. The shortest distance between a9',y·two points on th~ Earth is defined by
Waij
a) - a straight \ine joining the two places on a map
_b) the shorter arc of the great pµ-clejoin:ing :the two places
Grecw~gg' Merlitleo Cr~w~~• Merldleo
-------------~.:.=:=.;:.::!!.!:.=_----1 ~) the rhumb lip.e"joµi~g llie two 'plac~s. - ¥ ,
Qll. A meridian -ts a . ~ ·- · -··

Q3. T h distance around the Earth along the Equator and around the meridian and
ur tcmeridian is · a) .Semi.great.circle ~ __ · .l --0) -"Line.j~ining places of the same latitude
, ) Exactly tbe same c) Semi great circle joining places of same longitude. _
i ) -::;;;::::,-
Jl;/ Along Equator is more -- -, Q12. For measuring latitude, the· datum used ~s
C-J Arnun<l th Poles (meridian and its antemeridian) is mor~. n) Equator b) Prime meridian c) the Pole.
Q13. Latitude is expressed !n degrees, minutes and seconds to th~ North or South of
a) the
Pole b) Equator c) Greenwich meridian
18
19
Q14. Rhumh line is a curved line on the Earth cutting su~cessive meridians at the
· ame angle. It Is Chapter
a concave to the Equator
b) convex to the Equator
c) som~times concave and sometimes convex to the Equator depending upon the
hemisphere.
./ ( /
Q15. The only Une on the Earth which.is both Great Circle and rhumb Une is: 1
a) meridians ~uator c) both.

Q16. The datum for measuring Longitude ls called:
, ) the Prime Meridian ~) the Prime Latitude c) the Equator
Q17. The maximum Latitude can .be as much as:
a) 90° b) 180° c) 360° Inclination between two meridians at given latitude is called convergen . It
Ql8. Parallels of ktltude and Meridians of longitude on the Earth is max at poles i.e. equal to d'long and is zero at equator and thPrP fnrr v;.irips ,,s
/I a) can be distinctly identified when map reading. Sin of latitude. ·
· b) are only imagifiary lines and so are not marked on the Earth.
c) Only global satellites can identify them on the earth.
Q19. Polnt A is 200J0'N and point B 41°30'S. If an aircraft is traveling from A and B
Earth Convergency(0) = Difference in Longitud (0 )
; of Latitude(0 )
Si
_r,.,1;1,., •he fo~·mula for departure distance , which is accural onl · ,,· 11f' n ,h ,.,
e
1
~
what is the d'lat'? ' two points are at the same latitude, in the case of earth convergen· , the l\ (1 p,,, r :-.
1
,' may be at different latitudes, and the formula for calcnb.ting earth ·nnver~r. nn·
Q20. Earth is a:
then becomes:
Planet b) Satellite c) .Asteroid.
Earth Convergency(0) = Difference in Longitude( )
0
? of Mean Latitude(0)
Answers
Conversion Angle: Angular cliff. between G/C and R/L is ca11ed conversinr , ng·le .
A:
: l 2 3 4
b a
5
C
6
b
7
C
8
C
9
C
10 11
b C
12 ]3 14 15 16
a b b b a a
17 18 19 20
b 62° a
_r
Conversion a11 gle is a function of convergency an 1s maximum c1,t pole~
Conversi~n~ngle = ½ Conv~rgency] /
£yult1o - LMiluD :· _ 1101
'/]/fl{ /',,11:. ro1 (),-1.' ,.- [_ I'" c7 1' '? c: . 4a'W

COHVER1110NAHOll! 20'
I
I
An!
20 21
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
PA_R_T_I-_G
___
EN...:.E;;;.;RA..:...:.:L:..:...:N::..;A:.:..V.:..:IG::.:.A.::T:..!.:IO::!..::N:.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
CONVERGENCY
th
. Lu onvergc::n Y b "tween the two meridian~ shown in Figure is 40° at
:..it tuck ~{ vN ( 00 _, sine 30). If the difference between G/C bearings is 180°, both points are at equator.e.g.270°-
0900 = 180° - - -~ -·
-i lie / l eat cir le Lra ck measured at C is 070u(T); mcc1surcd at D, ir i . l I oo(T) .
l ' .. }< 't t ,.< l · crack has change ~{ by 40°; due lo the convergeucy her.ween [he (ii) .
0-W \-\ 1ncr1dian and the 04QnE _
E /~
arth Convt!rgency on ercator Charts:
O'
IOI 1l01 1&o UOW W'N 060° 240°
If the difference between G/C bearing~ is >.1..~0°.!..!>oth points are in Northern

hemisphere. E.~. 245° ·_ 55° = 190° ~
_(Jiir __:-. - - --•-, _Cfr ~;,,J,e t -/ho,,,v-- If o

1
~He.: chat all rhumb lin~s _?n this proiectiq!} are shown _a~ strail!ht lines. All
rc:at Ci~dt: tracks (rlp<lrt from meridians and the equator) are sho~'n as curved
550 u
~ ncs ,.,:hi ch :, rt concave to the,equr1to1~ i.e. on the polar side of the rhumb line. &L ~
Lu·t~l cu,iverg~ncy i. only correctly shown on this projection a ~ the equator.
, · L .Lero u e:: g; ccs latJtude Earth c.:onvergency js zero (the meridian are parallel)
.ii1<. I du:; 1s correc tly ponraye d on the chart. At all other lalitucle Earth meridians
cu ii vcrge, but o.n the Mercator chart they are shown as parallel straight lines, 0 v
,· ·y/trdl( ·. , <11 Jaut ude.
. . /'7 eM --«ic(/11, I ·o, i, _!!,,
Wuen b,?d1 G/C bearings are given, to find the hemispher~ apply the following If the difference· between .. G/C ·bearings _is < 180°, both points are in Southern
dwm!J rule:
Hemisphere.e.g. '·235° - 065°~ f70° --· - - - - - - - - ·--- -
090° '-· IT ·IS NECESSARY TO.APPLY .THE CONVERSION ANGLE AT THE

_' POSITIQN WJ:IERE THE GJlEAT CillCLE.DJRECT_ION IS MEASURED.
- -,
....·~·......................................................................... ~:........... c4-......:.. ···"·.. ·················· .............................................................,
22 23
.,.......---
PAM I • G!!NEI\AL NAVIGATION C ON'IEJ\G ENC'T'
Questions Ql0. For northern hemisphere:

G/C bearing of B from A= 040° R/L be:u ;ng ofB fr r,rn , -= CM ~~
Qs l-9
Find R/L bearing of A from B, G/C bearing of A from B
Point A Point B GC Conv GCTk CA Rl. GC
Tk.ltA from track track
BtoA atA at B
btitude Longitude l.Atitude Longitude
S9"00'N
I OIOOOOW 6S°OO'N OIOOOO'E 050 ,,,
~I 47"00'5 12S"OOW 41°00'S 135"00W 300 A
t,i SS'OO'N ; I IO"OOW
I 7S'OO'N 01 O"OO'E
~
022 .
.J 7S'OO'N \ 010"001: 60"00'N 01s"Oow · fi
24S i) R/L beating of A from B = 225° ii) G/C bearing of A from R ,.. 2.\ '
"' 7S"OO'S
: 160"00W 6<JCOO'S i65°00'E i
m. ~
QU. G/C bearing of P from Q is 060''. C,\ = 8° in northcrn hel'T\ i~ , h"-c. L ,, ...
'° 7S' OO'N IOO'OOW SO"OO'N 025°00W l 128 (i) R/L bea r ing of P from Q. (ii)
rt , 7 j 't)l)'S .!
12(¥!Q{l'E SS' OO'S 150°00'E 203 (iii) R/L bearing uf Q from P.
6-, 50"CO'S
17c:/'00W 73oOO'S IJSOOOW 309 J
I
(J
SS°OO'S 1200CO'E 73"00'5 1700001: j 287 (i) R/L bearing of? from Q= 068°
Ans. ,, ,
(ii) G/C r ~aring ofQ frorr, :"' =- 2:,6°
(iii)R/L k:uing ofQ from?= 248°
Poh !tA PointB GC Conv'y GC,k CA RL G''-
TkatA from track •.rack
B to A at A at B
Q12. G/C bearing of A from Bis 130° conversion trngle = 6° in sc11tbrrn i,,,,....- ·,1·r-,·
Latitude longitude latitude longitude (i) R/L brg of A from B
59°00'N OWOOW 65'00'N OIO"OO'E 0500 067.6

(ii) R/L brg of B from A
,_
(iii) G/C brg of B from A
47°00'S 125o00W 41"00'5 135"00W 300" J 306.9'. 1
~~~O'N IIO"OOW 75oOO'N OIO'OO'E 130• 11~
~130.
~ 8
75°00'N OIO'OO'E 60°00'N 075°00'W ),ov
7s•oo·s 160000W 60"()_Q'S IWOO'E
7S"OO'N IOOOOOW SO'OO'N 025"00W
73°00'S 120"00'E SSoOO'S ISO"OO'c-
50°00'S 170°00W 73°00'5 !JS' OO'W
SS°OO'S I20"00'E 73°00'5 110°oo'E (i) 124° (ii)304° (iii)298°
24 25
, . . .- : . I. - . . .· • . '
PAR.TI • GENERAL NAVIGATION CONVERGENCY
QIJ. R/L br~ of X fro m y i 2 •oo• S
'• 1:1 'o uthcrn hemisphere.CA is 8° find G/C brg of Y ( ~ 16 . 'f]IC brg of X from Y 130°, G/C brg ofY from X 318°. Find (i) CA (ii) hemis phere
fr om X. I
~
I
1 _/ ,_:/ (iii) R/L brg of Y from X. . LJ,' l( /,j '
1
X
(ii) Northern (iii) 3l4°
(i) 4°
G 1C brg fo rm Y to X= 232° Ql 7. G.C. brg of A from B = 234°, G/C brg of B from A= 0'i6° Find R/L brg of R from
K'l brg ufY from X= 060° A.
Gt(' brg. ofY from X = 068° Ans.
~
Q1 4 . G/C hr ~ ofY fr om X = 048° R/L brg of Y from X= o:w
/ 4 Fi 1d
1i1 Con ,1 crsion angle (ii)
y
Hemisphere (iii) G/C brg of X from Y 2 0
.. \
~ -~ 234° - 18QO= 54o
~ ~ ~- d 66° - 54° = 12°
t}~ \ ~ - Convergency = 12~
~\,'--. CA=6°
~
\;; X R/L Brg of B from A= 060°

0
·
A and Bare on parallel of 3() N. G/C brg of B from A= 273°. Lu:!g?tude of A-=
1: J 'I" , ii) Southern hemisphere (iii) 210° 8° E, fmd long of B.
Vi :i. C , C' org of P fr om Q is 097°. R/L brg of Q from P = 275° Find G/C b rg of Q from
~
~ ·- [J
.
\ - Ans.
Convergency d long x sin lat f-
Q p
d long x sin c: )
12° d :.:)ng
A11~. Couvergccy =4° LongofB 4°W
G/C bearing of Q from P = 277° . 4° = 273°
26 27
rr
QZJ, The , fgle between th< t,ue great-d,ele tmk , nd the trne ch",nt,-line tm •I
Q19. A and B arc on parallel of 30°S, longitud~ of A is 12° E, G/C brg of A from B is joining the following points :
266° Find longitude of B. A (6O0St65oW), B (6O°St77°E J, at the place of departure A. is:
Ans.
a) [5 .5°
b) 5.2°
c) 7.8°.
Ql4. The average true course ofthe great circle is I 00°. -:- he t ru e co u r ~c of t be rl111 :•1h
line at point A is:
L
a) l00°,
CA = 4° Convergency = go
L go long x sin 300
b) 104°
c) l 07°
dlong 16°
Q25. What is u,e standard formula for convergcncy'?
Long ofB 28°E
a) convergency=dlat x cos mr:an latitude.
Q20. A and B are on parallel of 40°. G/C-bearfug of B from A is 096°. Longitude of A b) convergency--~dlat x sin mean latitt1de.
. =:::::-0 l 78° E. Find longitude-of~- .
,A convergency=dlong x sin mean latitude .
..._ Q26. An aircraft passes position A (60°00'Nl20°00".V) on rout e l o p n , i ti o q
B(60°00'Nl40°30'\\'). What is the great circle track on departur e fr,;,n . "
a) 261 °
b) 288°
Ans. R/L Track B from A is ef90° c) 279°
CA = 6° Convergency = 12° Q27. A great circle track joins position A (59°S141°W) and B (61 °S1 48°\V).
12° d long x sin 40°
What is tht! difference between the great circle track at A a nd B?
18° 40' dlong
a) it increases by 3°
163°20·w
b) it decreases by 6°
Q21. X and Y arc on parallel 45°. G/C brg ofY form Xis 262°. Longitude of X 3°
c) it increases by 6°
E, find long ofY. Q28. The rhumh line track between position A (45"00':'1010°00' \ \) a nd vn,i · 1111 B
Ans. CA = 8° Convcrgency = 16°
(48°3U' N0 1511 00 '\V) is approximately:
16° d long x sin 45°
a) 330
22° 37' d long ··
b) 315
19° 37 ' w
c) 345
Q22. G/C brg ofX from Y 300°.CA= 7° in "northern hemisphere. Find G/C br 0 fY
from X. g
'28 29
PART 1- GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q 29. Grea t circle from P to Q measured at P=095° Southern hemisphere Conversion

angle P - Q =7° \1/bat is the rhumb line track P - Q?
:1 J I 02
,: i I 09
~ T he k, ·eat circle track. X - Y measured at X is 319°, and Y 3l5° Consider the

'v fo llowi ng statc:ments:
a) ~e;uthern hemisphere, rhumb line track is 331°.
b) northern hemisphere, rhumb line track is 313°.
cJ !)ou them hemisphere, rhumb line track is 322°.
Answers
() : l ~ 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
·-
A: - . - - - - - - - - - ~
- - - - -. - - -
'.'! 2 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
06° C a C C C b a C
30
PART I- GENERAL NAVIGATION TIME
Sunrise (SIR) and sunset (SIS):

East Longitude West Longitude The Sun rises and sets at different times on, the same merid ia n . dc p<'ndin g
LMT = UTC + dlong dlong on th e d ec lina U·on of the Stm and th e Earthl y lautudt
. of the observe r. Th
• ti-mes
LMT=UTC - risted in the Air Almanac in LMT. so the conver 10 n 1rom
15 15 of the Pb enom e ' la are . ~
one to the other is very necessary knowled ge . '
Some problems include flight time. If such is the case, calculate tJ1e T/O time A Jew f 'mptes of conversions GMT/LM 'J':
in UTC. Then add the flight time to obtain the landing time UTC and ifrequired, ~ GMT1200hrs,thcnLMTat60°E ( 1200 + 0
~~)=I 600hrs(6ll arc = 4h r~1i1 :1cl
convert to LMT. ALWAYS WORK IN UTC.
.-
INTERNATION~ DATRLINE
- -·
. and LMT at.800W (1200 - ~~) = 0640 hrs (80° arc= 5 h 20 m time )
v6} What is the GMT and GD of a place in lo ngitu de ,J.6°25 'E 1-d 1en· I ~IT i::-
When traveling eastwards from Green wich , an observer would eventually. J4h 23m 15s and LD is 2nd June?
arrive at longitude l 79°59' E, ·where the LfvfT is about to become 12 h~urs more 46-5' in time = 3h 05m. 40s LMT and LD = 14h 23m !5 2nd Junr
th an UTC. Similarly, an observer traveling westwards from Greenwich would
GMT least = llh 17m 35s and GD still 2nd June
eventually arrive at l 79°59'W, where the LM:r is abou t to become 12 hours' less
then UTC. There is a full day of 24 hours djfference between the two observers, , d IfGD and GMT are 2nd Dec 2 lh 02m 24s, give LD and LMT Jt \ongi1ucl 1,
althou"gh they are both about to cross the meridian. 96°47'E.

When the anti-meridian of Greenwich is crossed, one day is gained or lost, 9504 7' in time = 6h 27m 08s GNIT least = 2 I :, 02 m 24 s 2n d D ' ( C; l)
depending upon the direction of travel. When traveling west, a day is lost (added); LMT = 03h 29m 32s 3rd Dec LD
when traveling east, a day is gained (subtracted) . .
The occurrences at specified Latitudes on the Green wich m eri dian
An imaginary line through the Pacific Ocean roughly corresponding to l 80° may be taken as the same for all longitudes.
Jrmgitu?e, t~ the east of whic!:) , by international agreement, the cal~ndar el ate is Sun rises at the same LMT on same latitude on sam e d ,n c ir n•~pccuw
one day earlier than to the west. ~
of Longitude .
\. " ,,·,--
'I~,('\ ~-{ ~ Therefore , find the LMT of the sunrise for th at '. atituc' ·~ and co nvert t r,
UTC fo r practical applications.
\
ZONE TIME
+I
-5
+6
,,.
-6
EA.RTD vn:WED '

FROM soum POLR:
33
• • ► ... , · , • -
_, ,,. ~--- e ~-' ;, ,~ . ~ ,}_
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION TIME
o't v\ \
r.1
Zone Time (ZT): 360° longitudes divided in to 24 time zones with each zon e Ans,
of l 5° starting from A to Z except letters I and 0. s.No. A LMT
LD
Zone Number (ZN): It is a number which is to be added to zone time I~ si-l.n
algebraically to find UTC. (1) ,W23'N 0100
1os0e 12/02
ZN = Longitude + 15 (ii) 28°N
When value is S 0.5-+ Use lower zone time 79°E
When value is > 0.5 - Use higher zone time. 42°42' N
Iii)
102•4s•w
ZT = UTC ± ZN (East+, West-) iv) ◄2° N
96"E
E.g. ZTat 75°E = 01 :00 hrs. Zone No. = 75+ 15 = 5 (v) 28° s
166oW
UTC = 0100 - 5 = 20 :00 hrs. ZT at 82.S0E = 12:00 hrs (vi) 45° N
135° E
Zo ne No. = 82.5 + 15 = 5.5 UTC = 1200 - 5 = 07:00hrs
Ans. (1) At 105° E = 01:00 UTC=l8 :00 hrs on 11/2 LMT B=L3:52 hrs on 11/2
·· · ·· · • ·· ····· · · ······· · ·· · · · ·· · ·· · ·· ··· · ···· · · · ·· ···· · · ·•• O,• • · ··· ····· · ···♦♦♦ · ··· · ·
B u A
Questions
62°W oo 105°E
0100 on 12/02
l. - 6 Fill iu the blanks·
S.No. A LMTLD UTCUD B LMTLD (2) At 79° E =14:00 hrs on 14/02, Diff. = 5 hr -16 min
(1) 42° 23'N 0100 23°45'5 ., (a) A o0 =08:44 hrs on 14/02 (UTC)
105°E 12/02 620\N
(b) Diff. =5 hr 29 min
(ii) 28° N 1400 2'1°N
Time at 82° 23'W =03:15 hrs on 14/02
79"E 14/02 82°23W
B U A
Iii) 42° 42' N 0251 300 N .,, /
102°45'W 27/02 71° 30' E
iv) 42° N 19.36 28' $ 14:32 )/ s2°23•w 79"E

96°E 01 Mar 01 Mar 1400 on 14/02
Iv) 2B•s 0704 35° S 18:04
I66"W IS i1ar 15 Mar (3) LMT at 77° 30' = Diff= 5 hr lO min
\viJ 45° N 1206 )O"S =02:51 + 05 :10 =08:01 OD 27/02

IJSOE 03/12 II0"W
Diff. = 6 hr 51 min LMT at l 02° 45' W = 20:00 hrs on 26/02
34 35
... .
PAR.T I • GENERAL NAVIGATION TIME
B u A Q?. LMT at A (42° 23' N 105° E) is 01 :00 hrs on 12102.Flnd TC and L 1T nt plt1 ce
B which is (23° 4S'S 62° W).
102°45'W 0251 on 27 /02 At !0S0 E LMT = 01 :00 At 0° Diff = 07 hr
77° 20'E it
? (i) Time 1800 UTC on previous day( 11 /2)
(4) (a) Di.ff= 6 hr 24 min (ii) At 62° W Diff =4 hr 08 min

LMT = 02:Q0 hrs c;m 02/03/04 ,
'/ ,
(b) . X 0 = western long. ,·

B U A
Diff. = 19:36 hrs- 14:32 hrs= 05 :04hrs . X°= 76oW
62°W 105° E
B u A
Timel3:52 previous day (11 12)
xo oo 96°E Q8. Observer's meridian 40°N 11° 20' E. LMT 13:00 hrs Find LMT at
14:32on0l/03 - 19:36 on 01/03 ·
(i) 060° N 121°2 1' E
(5) (a) UTC= 0704onl5/03 Diff. 11 hr4min (ii) 53°.S 110° 23'W
LMT at 1660 W = 20:00 hrs on 14/03 Ans. UTC =LMT -- d long/15 = 1300 - (11°20' / 15)
(b) Diff. = 1100 hr LMT at 165° E = 18:04 hrs on 15/03 Diff = 45 min = l 3:00 hrs - 45mts = 12: 15 hrs at 0° EfW (UTC)
(i) At 121° 2\'E 8hr05mi~
✓
B u A LMT = 12: 15 + 8:05 = 20:20 hr
(ii) Diff= 7 hr 21 min LMI = 12:15 - 7:21 = 04:54 hr.
166°W Q9. Mean time has been introduced in order to:
a) have one fixed time to be used within the border of a country.
18:04 on 15/03 0704 on 15/03
b) introduce a constant measurement of ti.me, independent of the daily variation in the
movement of the sun as observed from the earth. ·
(6) (a) LMT at l 35°E =03/02 Diff= 9 hr UTC 03120306
c) compensate for the irregularities of the speed of rotation of tbc earth around il i,
(b) Diff = 7 hr20 min LMTB 02121946 axis.
Ql~ n a/c takes, off from X (35° S 168'1 W) for place Y (32° S 164° lS' E) It flies for 8h
B U A d 20', time of departure Xis 2145 hr LMT 2nd June . Find ETA at ' in U\ l .
, I
1lO"W . l35°E X u y
03f21206
168°W 164° IS' E

2145 hr 2nd June
36 37
TIME
-- ns. Flies for 8 hr 20 min.
Ql9. I.S.T. and the LMT of a place can be the same only when
Tmt: 0f departure = 21 :45 hrs on 02/06
LMT at :,rrival at pla\.:c uf lkparlure a) the plact: is in India
y
21 :45 hrs+ 08 :20 hr~= 06:05 hrs on 03/06 b) the Longitude of the place is 82 deg. 30 min. East
LMT ,0 ,.
c) atl the above
UTC=06:05 hrs+ \68-,- \5=i7:17Hrson03/06 ' ·
("Q20. The LtylT at a place ~n India is 0400. If the-position of the place is 10 deg. N and
UvtTat Y= 17: 17hrs+ \64° 15 '-,- J5= 04:14brs f• 78 d~. East, the 1ST at that place will be
LM 'I at Y = 04:14 hrs 04 June. . J a)0400 b)041~ c)0342
. IDL from 150° E to 1oso w at 0000 UTC , at d es ti na ti" on f

·.
11. An
. a/c is .crossing ,'
,- . Q21. Mu1nbai's pos,itfon is 1_9 deg. OS mfn·N and. 73 deg. 0~ min. East. There is a place
aJ LMT 1s bebmd and date is ahead. b) Both LMT and date are behind ,, J -exactly North of Mumbai whose latitude is Zl deg. N and long. 73 deg, 00 min.
East When 1ST in Mumbai is 1200 hrs. then the 1ST at the other place will be
I.l
c) Date is behind and LMT is ahead
a) 1122 b) 1200 c) 1238
Ql 2. LMT at 55° 29' N 000° Eis 1200 hrs on 01 March. Find UTC at 23° 23' S180°E. , '
Q22. When GMT at Chennai 1300N 831T0E is 1100 hrs. The 1ST at Kolkatta 2000N
~-~: ~';~'<!_ ;,
~~ll~0'.,.~=7\UT(\=l~OY s ' \ ,
~80~n}Jl;n~ .
:1
8830E will be:
a) 1122 b) 1100 c) 1630
I
Q23. On the 27th of February, at 52°S and 040°E, the sunrise is at 024JUTC on the
~14. UTC at 92°30' Wis 0100 1u s. Find ZT. same day, at 52°S and,03S0W, the sunrise is. at:
Ans. ZT 92"30' + 15 = 6 a) 0243 LMT b) '0743 LMT c) 0523LMT
0
ZT=- 0 l :00 - 06:00 = 19:00'l!rs. Q24. The sun rises at S0°N and.02S E on the 25th January at 0254UTC. On the sa me
day what time does it rise at 50° N and 040°W?
Q 15.@ t 52° JO'E is 12:00 hrs. Find UTC and LMT.
a) 0254 UTC. b) 0714 UTC. c) 2154 UTC.
Ans . = 52°30'..,.. 15= 3
Q2S. What is the meaning of the term "standard..t ime"?
UTC = 09 :00 hrs LMT = 12:30 hrs ~ ,,- a) it is another term for UTC
Q l 6. At 10 hr 10 mlr at 160° E, difference between zone time and LMT will be -~},'\ b) it is the time set by the legal authorities for' a country or part of a country
Ans. a) Zone time will be ahead ofLMT by 20 min c) it is an expression for local mean time
fJ ) Zone time wi II be ahead of LMT by 40 min Q26. The local mean time at longitude 095°20'W at 0000UTC is:
c) LMT will be ahead of ZT by 20 min \ / a) 1738:40 same day
Q I 7. Find LMT, ZT and 1ST (82.5°E) at 30° N 90° E if UTC is 02 :00 hrs.
1\ns UTC = 02: 00 hrs, ZT = 08:00 hrs, LMT = 08:00 hrs, IST = 07:30 hrs
Q 18. Loca l Mean Time of a place is the time lapsed since the transit of the mean sun
j
%\
i "'l
j'
b) 1738:40 previous day
c) 0621 :20 previous day
Q27; What docs S h<,urs SO minutes and 20 seconds change oflongitude represent?
over · t1
a) 80° 05 b) 87° 35 . cps0 15
a) ,ts meri dian b) its antemeridian c) the prime meridian 1
J
38 39
· PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q28. The times giwn for sunrise, sunse~ morning and evening twilight in the air
almanac: ·
a) are given in UTC.
Chapter
b) are given i:n standard time.
.
c) are given in LMT.
Q29. A is at ~ongitude 01230E and Bis at longitude 04315E LMT in Bis 1749. What
is the LMT in A?
a) 1546 b) 1706 c) 1952
5
Q30. Consider the following stlltements on sunrise and sunset.
a) in May sunrise oec:urs later at 4500N than at 4500S.
b) in November sunset occurs earlier at 4500S than at4500N.
c) at equator sunrise and sunset occur at quite regular times throughout the year.
Answers
Q: l 2 3 4 5 6 7 .8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A: - - - . - - - - a . - C - - a - - b b b
Q: 21 2.2 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
True Direction: A direction which is measured with true on h , :,
A: b C C b b b b C a C
-
d irection. As a convention ,~Titlen as O (T).
Magnetic Direction: Earth's magnetic axis and geographic are not
in line. The direction in which a freely suspended magnet will pnm 1. o,i ed
magnetic north . An d the direction which is measured with Re.spec r ) ma ~.,e <:
north is called magnetic d irection written a O (M).
True north is the d irection toward the geograp h ic nonh pole. The- h
rotates around a line be tween the geographic north and outh pole . . o
can spin o n that bn e ,j ust as t e ear ife.
Magnetic n orth is slightl y different. Magnetic north i lhe direc IPn owa. ·<l
the magnetic north pole. T he earth's natural magnetic field p, es h ough th ·
north an d south magne tic poles.
Compas s Direction: Wh en a magnet i placed in A.IC in the fn rn~ ,,:· ( l'::· ,,,,,
J
t ◄I
'
,-.-----,,:,- -: -:---·
it ge affe 1_ed b ' magn c1jc.- field ' p re ·ent in the aircraft. The dir ction in whi h Isogonal Line : Lines j oining place o ::::--,~ ~:
<J ,.,.u-;-;.!:m!are
.l called isogonal lines .
com pas · p<., inter points is allecl om p ass north, writlcn as 0 (C) . Agooal /Agonic Line: Lin e join ing pl ____ ____ are called agonic lines .
S mbol s: Note:
nh l . A line drawn on a map _o r on_earth surface dep icts or shows true uirection.
l '
(' r lL' )
onh
(Ma g neLi
orth
(Compass) ¢ 2. Variation is give n on ma ps a nd char ts
Variation east - Magnetic least Variation west - Magnetic besl
Va riati on/ Magne tic Declinati on: MagneLic vanauo n is the difference Deviation: When a co m p;u;s is located near a m ctatlic, magnetic or electrical
be t\ ee n true north a:1d magnetic north . T h is is imp ortant because a compass object, it may not point in the corr~cl ~irection . T he differen~e b~tween the
porn ts toward 1~1agn~tt~ no rth , but m a ps and charts are made with respect to true direction ofrnagnetic north and the direction that the com pass pomts l.S known as
1101 rh . • fa _ne uc vanauon can vary tremendously from place to place, and can ma netic deviation . A comp ass located on an object such as a boat or airplane will
e,·e11 he rtf1 c1ed by such th mgs as mineral d e posits in the ground .
~ ---....,~...... "- . probably have some magnetic deviation.
M
1olfc
.Sl6°'lI
Angular d ifferen ce between m agnetic a nd co m pass north is called de viation .

If compass north is east of magnetic n or th, it is termed easterly devia tion (+ ) and
if compass nor th is west of m agnetic no r th its called westerly deviacion(-).
An gu lar difference betweeu true riorth and m agnetic n orth is called variation/ Deviation east - Compass least Deviation west - Compass best
DeclinaLion .
.\b g 11 e ll \.
l f rnagAetic north lies east of tru e nor th, ir is called easterly variation ( + ) and
ii 1t l,c~ west of t ru e no n h, its re n:ned as westerly va ri ation (-).
Va ria tion and it's changes are given on charts and maps.
£tt1f {.f-)
fA)Eft (-) .
it
CDM T
43
42
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION ---------------------------~-- DIRECTIONS
Q. 11. _ 14. (n) Find value rorn tbe information provided below
· "'W" has a (-) sign and .. E., has a ( +) sign alway
. ~ (a) draw diagrams for each situation.
C
272 2
D
60 W
M
2660
V
40 E
.T
2700
True Dev
-~ Magnetic
·······-·-···· ..···•········•······· .. ·· ... ·.......... _...... _ . . . . . ................. ...._....................... """ ................................................ ·.......... Var Compass
09<>° ff
Questions I) Joy./
27<1 268"'
27 ◄
0
·2)
22◄
0 ..~e I
-40
3)
Qs.1. - 10. Directions - fill in the blanks • All numbers are i n d egrees· 4 1
r/ _,/
D ~ v ·, 4} +60 300°
Hdt'(c) Deviation Hdg (M)

0
Variation Hdg4(T)
(a) Answers are in bold:
120 IOW ISE .,..,v
345 -7 Dev Magnetic
27E Compass True
◄E 132 · 24W
.,.,v Var
__ / I)
12W I •· 12W 220
2)
+10 ·7E 270
3)
:
1 16W :, JOO 16E
4)
,I /
030 IOE· 4E
000 ,ow rrw
3E , 2rS 6W •• ,J ...
v --- 1
220 .... - SW ,.......,,_,__ _:\',ar7\
Derfu•
Ans. ~ - -... 1 93<:\I
"4!!1.,__-- 086°C
HdtC Devfadon•· . Variation
120 IOW ISE
-7 27E
1\
4E 24W
-i
12W
+10 ·
f2W
7E ' DnJ.£
~1 \F
\laril°\Y
16Y'./ 16E "}'
,oe·:
228~1
,oyy 17W
· 224·1
3E 6W L
..... SW
·, .,,
45
en direction the pilot needs a:

Comp _ b) Protra tor c) [anual.
Chapter
~
6. ~I directio n ro be ollo\l cd b tween two point can be obtained if you
1 ( \
'.l;
1
1
pass b) Map
a · tion i the angular d ~fference at a place between True North and Magnetic
rth and e pressed in degrees to the East or West of:
c) Radio com pas .
_;,I
.
6 .
1 rorth b) Magnetic North c) Both.
8.
~ J
Dl:S.TANCE·s 01\f EARTH SURFACE
. , ... , . ·, . . ·. : . '. ~ _.. .
h1 1 ,n i direction is more than true direction

~1 t p nds upon the hemisph re.
, in.~ joining places of equal variation shown on a map/chart are called
· ) I ogonals b) Isobars c) Aclinic lines.
2 ·ne joining place of zero variation is called
a) an aclinic line b) an isoclinic line c) an agonic line.
-
I ): 2 :; 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
I
Nautical Mile: The le~gth of:arc which subtends l ' angle at the center of
I J\ : - - - - - - - - - - - - b a a a a C
earth.
L
(i) Length of nautical mile is measured with respect of geographic ,enter.
(ii) ( Length of nautical mile is_more at pol~s and less at equator.
1 nm = 60&01 (StandarQ at 45°) = 6040'(at equator) = 6170' (at poles
1° = 60 nm, l'= I nm ~
Kilometer / th part of distance from p_ole to equator.

1 000
I Km = 3,280' (' 1,000 m = 3280 1
lm = 3.28'
6080 3280
1 nm = 1.85 km 3280
1 km=
6080
= 0.54 nm
5280' -
1 statue mile = _ = 0.87 nm
6080
46
47
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION DISTANCES ON EARTH SURFACE
CalcuJ~ting GC (Great Circle) Distance: The great circle distance is along any Questions
great arcle drawn on the surface of earth, including meridians or along the
Equator.
. The unit of dis_tance_ most fre quently used in navigation is the nautical Units used for, measuri ng vertical distances (altitude, e1ev~tion a nd bdgh t)
mile (run). The relat10nsh1p between the-nautical mile and latitude/]ongitude is Ql.
are meters and feet. In India, feet l5 used. For horizontal distances units u ed
fundamental to navi tion . · .......~,..__,.._~,______,..__.___, ---- - ~ ..._,._ ..._,..._J
& meters. In India NMs are used above 2NMs and mete · for
.o are NMs. KMS -~
The ~autical _mile· is 'defined as the distance on the surface of the Earth along short distances.
a great circle which subtends an angle of 1' of arc measured at the centre of b) 45° Latitude C Poles
a) Equator
curvature of the Earth. ~=•-=:- :- , ,~ -_:_~ ~~=========
·• Q2. Kilometer is defined as:
a) the mean length of a 1/40000 part of the equator.
b) 0,454 nautical mile.
2420mm ~)/'a 1l!.QQ.90 part of the meridian lengt4 from equator to the pole.
Q3 . When de ling
.
with heights and altitudes in international aviation. we u~e the
~
following umts:
a) meter and feet.
South.P,ole b) feet, kilometer a.nd decimals of nautical mile.
c) feet and yard.
)
A meridian is a serrii-gre~'tt rcie; 1' along a meridian can be assumed to Q4. How many feet are there in a nm?
represent 1nm. T h erefore, 1° ofdumge oflatitude along a meridian is assumed a) 1000 ft
a distance of 60nm. ✓
o) 6080 ft
;f ,:
......__ Great
__ __ Circle
___ Distance
_ __ _ = Change
_ __ _ latitide
in __ __ in _
degrees
___ 60_
X_ nm_ __ • ··I
J~ ,,, c) 3280 ft
QS. A nautical mile is defined as:
Calculating Departure (Rbumb Line)·• Distance: The rhumb line distance is a) the average lenglh of a 1 minute arc of a meridian.
in the east/west direction, alon g a parallel of latitude. Rhumb line distance is also b) 1855 meters. .,,
caUed 'depar ture'. c) the average length of a 1' arc of longitude and a I' arc of latitude.
One degr~e change , of latitude along any. meridian always .represents a Q-6. How many feet are equivalent to 9, 5 km?
distance of 60 n m. One degree of change oflongitude will, however, only measure
60 nm at the Equator; this is because the Equator is the only parallel of latitude a) 57,760 ft
wh.ich is a great circle. b) 31,160 ft
Departure Distance-is in nautical m ile in east west direction at given latitude. ,c) 50,160 ft
Departure is maximum at the equator and zero at poles, var ies as function of Q7. In international aviation the following units are used for borizon t:i
cosine of latitude. a) meters, statute miles and nautical miles.
Departure is Rhumb Line Distance: b) kilometers, statute miles and nautical mil
Departure Distance (nm) Difference in long (min) x cos lat c) meters, kilometers and nautical miles.
Departure Distance (nm) d l~ng x cos lat
◄8 49
li.
PAT 1-
H SU FA E
id r th folio\ ·
:11 11gth l m·
vari' Ii It: , rn I s1ti u t p ili n be a , the rub in blan
b) l. 1 1H'I
f th arth, th length f I f , e · we ·t i quul B D Long
uth in lh 3-nk p s1li n n a p ·rfo t sphcr .
n itud
lJ .
m ters . c) 6076 fe t.
in 1 m.
b) 32 0 ft ) 6080 ft
Di tnnce- fill in the blanks: 21°00 1
21°00'N 0 16°17'E
~ 4'7°30'N 025°00'W
B
ltiud
i
Longitude Latitude
Gr at Cir 1 Distances
Longitude
D Lat Distance
(run)
ns.
A B
)- ~.l O' .., 012° 25'E

Latitude Longitud Latitude Longitude
45°00's 012°25'E
37"27':' 049°2l'E 43°21·s 049°2l'E
--- Rhumb Line (departure) Distances
1 °21 ' · 52°oo•N 21° 31'W 52°00'N 010°17'E

113°41\\1 05°17'N 113°47'W _,,, ' /
5v\1~5' 13°00'8
108°00'E 47°17'N 108°00'E
7. '" 7' 49°00 1S 49°00 1S 025°45'E
-:_--:;._~ s 035u45w 84°35'N 144°J fl' ~
·-- ( 21°00'N 0l0°43'E
l~ .
1
47°30 N
B D Lat Distan
(nm) Q21. A/C flyi ngfrom place X (27° 27' :,l 030° 24' E) to Y
1/l
La titu d e Longitude Latitude Longitude rbumb line Distance. ( .DE r.) ... (DLo ~ 1(61)'1( for- cd
Great Circle Distances Ans.
49°00 S 1
01 2° 25'E 45°00's 012°25'E
37°2 7'S 049!)21 E
1
43°2 1·s 049°2 l 'E
100211 11 3°47'W 05°17'N 113°47'W
53"i5'N 108°00'E 4 7°1 7'N 108°00'E
78U47' o35°45'W 84°35'N 144°15'E
D1long = 108° 47' E- 0300 24' E = 78° 23'
Dep = (78° x 60' + 23') x cos 27°27' = 4703
50
SI
DISTANCES ON EAR.TH SURFACE
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q22. An A/~ takes off from A (27° 13' N 024° 37' E) to IJ (27° 13' N 094° 37' W). Find . ~, .Departure = D long' x cos lat
dt:parture. . . 800 nm == D tung' x cos (45° 20' N)
1,,
Ans. D:long = 800 +- 0.7029 == 1138' == 180 58' ~

LongY = iso ss· - 100 os· = ooso 53' w // ,
lat long= 45° 20• N 08° 53' W I
· . ff f x 1320 48' S 178° 10' W) and flies on true ,,e tcrl · tr ack
. QlS. An AJC takes o rom \: ~
for 450 nm. Find lat long of Y.
Ans.
D'long = Q94° 37W :.- 024° 37 E = 119° 14'

Departure= D long in·mins .x cos lat= 119° [4' x 60 x cos 27°13 1
= 6361.93 , .
= 6362nm
Q23. An A/C takes off from X (39° 42' N 105° 20' •E) for Y (3!• 0 42' N 178° 35' E).
Find R/L Distance. D' long
= Dep = 450 = 450 + 0. 40 5 = 5:iS'
60xcos(lat) 60xcos(32°48')
Ans. = go 55' = 360° - (178° 10'W + 008° 55'W) = l T2n 55' E
LAT - LONG = (32° 48' S 172° 55' E)
Q26 .. An AJC takes off from (45° 40' N .176° 36' E) and flies on true track of 090° fo r
1480 kms. Find lat - long of destination.
Ans.
-D'long/ ~ 178° 35' E- 105~ 20' E = 73° 15'
Departure = D long x 60 x-cos lat = 73° IS x cos (39° 42')
·s, .• · . '= 4395 x cos 39° 42'= 3,381 .5 run
Q24. An ale takes off from place X (45° 20'N 010° 0S'E) and flies in R/L direction of
270° for 800 nm. Find lat,- long of-destination. Departure = D long x 60 x cos lat
Ans. 1480 kms = (1480 + 1.85) 4-ms = 800 nms
Ofllt10"tft
D 1ong 800 = 1go 04'
= 60xcos( 45°40')
Long -= 176° 36'+ 19° 04' = 360° .. 195° 40' = 164° 20'W
52 53
DISTANCES ·ON EARTH ~SURFACE·
PART I - .GENERAL NAVIGATION
•. , ~
.27 ~n A/C takes off from 10° N 175° E it flies in south~rly direction for 600 nm.
· ·. ·· . AJC fakes o{f frqm A (30~.S,.060~ E) and flies i~ ·north~rly dµ-ection t~r 600
. Q~9• A~_-.thereaftedu easterly ~irection,for 600 nm. Thereaft.~~ sou~berly direction
Thereafter in _easterly direction for 600 run. Thereafter in southerly direction
,f.,. : : :· ~=600 nrµ, thereafter_w-ester1y}lirectio~ for 600 nm. Find final position of A/C
fo r 600 nm. Fmd lat- Ion~ of destination.
An .
_. ·~J: :· ·:t_. ··: · in nm/ E~st or of starting pos1t10~.
17S"E
f;:r -
_:;r .. - -~ ·~·
175°W
10'8
175'W 10'8
{jIII(:t, ·.
-:~a\:/ -·.; .-♦--:_
• • • o
~:,r\,.·: ·.,,~:· Departure A= €00 nm, 600 = D long x cos (ZO)
,
lfllittt,~fEl~f~';3::o~::, 38' ~o ~ ros3~

FIR T P INT: QQO'>N 175° E, SECOND POINT: 000° N 175° W, DESTINATION: 10°s
11s 0 w
Q28. Two A/CA and B take off from X (53° N 004° E) for point Y (60° N 016° W).
,VC A flies due nortJ) till 60° latitude and then due west to Y. AJC B flies
x = 55; ~m
au west till 016° W tllan to Y. Which A/C travels shorter and by how many --:&.J'.·~::}h~;:;fore.':theMc tr:wels-west:fcr 600 nm, it will reach-47 run to the west of starting point
nautical miles. 1ff'Jt39._~ Departure::: 250. nin, D Ioug = 4° 50', find latitude.
A.n .. \ . .'. ~ s.. .
004' 004°E
·11 000'
16'W
IO'N -~Y,___.....,..1--4--11_n_se
.···--- -+----
B X
S3'N
.. '
Departure =·b 19ng,' ·x ~os lat ·:

250 = 4° SQ' X 60 X c·os·e
Oeparture A= D long' x cos ]at ;::: 20 x 60 x cos 60°·= 600 nm
250
Ueparturc B = D long' x cos lat =20 x 60 x cos 53° = 722 nm Cos e= 60 X 4°50'
A trav ds less by 122 run. 1
Cost lat = 0.86 = 30 J41' N/S
54 ss
P°A'R.T 1- GENERAL.NAVIGATION DISTANCES ON EARTH SURFACE
. . .. . . -_. .)l-!·· \:·.-: ·. >~_.r:-:.::,-·---:_~
- -------=:...;..:..;__---------------
Dlong x 60 x cos50°
An_~c tak~s·~O:from (48' _5'. N 001' W) a~d-flies on track ~70° for -2 brs 10 )·;./ ·\;>}:?::t··'.,, -.·-.:2,:x·s?9 =
mi!' and tben ~ters_Jts track to 360° and later,it alters its trackto 090!1, after · - -i~f~r_,,_,,}-,::<-,, · · ·· Dlong x 60 x cos0
ff)'lng for 1 hr 32 min,·it crosses the meridian by' low., If G/S oftheA/C ,vas ~~ ?-;:: . \~:·· :· _l.45 x,380 Cos5O° X 1.45
420 Kts throughout the flight, what was tbe flying time ·on.secoild leg.
(\ ~\,,~
-~f:~_'· ·_,,,·>'_'. · ... ·.~Cos
'.t: .· .
0 _:-:: 2
\~ v -f - e= 62° 13'
~ - ~tJ<~:.
>!(·:.r _ _. Difference between latitudes= 12°13'
1
f:v '.~i "ef : ,:" ,;:;c:= r:im = 1 hr 57 min
2.10 x 420 = D long'x cos 48° 5'
Drn <-\; Qi3.··Position A 45°N, ? E 0
Position B 45°N, 45°15'E
1.32 x 420 = D long' x cos 0 2

' } , . · ·•. _·i' Distance A-B= 280NM B is to the East of A
§: Required: longitude of position A?
2.10 X 420 Dlong x 60 ?< cos48°5'
"l . a) 51°5l'E b) 49°57'E c)
1.32 X 420 Dlong x 60 x cos0 Q34. An aircraft departs from position A (04°10'S178°22'W) and flies northward
cos 4805.' X 1.32 following the meridian for 2950NM. lt then flies westward along the p1 ra11e\ of
Cos 0 = 2.10 latitude for 382NM to position B. The coordinates of position B arc?
a) 45°00'Nl68°22W
e= 61° 46'
b) 53°20'N.l 72°38'E
Difference between 'tat.itudes = '13° 41' Distance = 13° 41' x 60 = 821 nm
c) 45°00'N172°38'E
11
Q35. What is the time required to travel along the parallel of latitude 60 b cl"'veen
Tir:1e = -:-~-~- = 1 hr 57 min meridians Ot0°E and 030°W at a groundspeed of 480kt?
~
Q32. A!l A/C takes off from (50° S .004° E) and flies on track of 090° for 2 hrs and a) 01:45 b) 02:30 c) 01:15
then alters its track to 180° and later it alters its track to 270° after flying for Q36. What is the longitude of a position 6NM to the east of 58°42'N094°00' , '?
1 hr 27 nun, it crosses the meridian·by 4° E. If G/S of the A/C was constant
a) 093°48 .S'W b) O94°12.O'W c) 093°53 . IIV
at 380 Kts throughout the flight, what was the flying time of the aircraft on
second leg? · Q37. The circumference of the parallel oflatitude at 60°N i appro\:im a{el_•:
Ans. a) 18706nm b) 34641nm c) 10 00nn
~
Q38. Positi.o-·t A 00°Nl00°E Position Bis 240°(T), 200NM from A. \Vh , t ·s

position of B?
a) 0 l 0 4O'NO97°O7'E
b) 01 °4O'N1O l 04O'E
2 x 380 = D long' x cos 50° 1 c) 01 °40'S097°07'E
1.45 x 380 = D long'x cos 0 2
56 57
i Ll'
,,,. , , .,
.....
PART i • GENERAL NAVIGATION '.i
.
Q 47. An•a1rcra1., ~t a t (.otitude
.. 02°-20'N trscks l801 (T) for 6-SSkin. on -compl~tron ofthe.
Q39. An aircraft flies a great circle track from 56°N070°W to 62°NI10°E. The total flight the latitude will be: ·
distance traveled is?
o10,8 b) 03°so'S c) 04°30'S
aj 04 .
a 1040nm b) 5420run c) 3~20nm
· 48 . The "d~partu re e ob tween positions 60°N160°E
· and 60°N "X" is 900nm. what.
·
Q40. Position A is located on the equator a ♦ iongitude 130°00'E. Position B is located Q · d e of "X"?·
1 is the longitu
100. M from A on a beariog of 225°(T).The coordinates of position Bare:
q,, 170
ow b) 145°E c) 175°E
a 0 16 11 ' L ll49'E
-. · "ti 60oNoosow tracks 090°(T) for 315km. on completion of
b) r l 11 l l'1 13 1 ll'E Q49. _An aircraft afpos~ on . .· .
"') I 0 l i' 13 1°1l 'E
the flJght th~ longitude will be. - ·
a) 000~40'E . b) 0020~0W c) OOD°l5'E ..
Q·H. Jf an aeroplane was to circle around the Earth following parallel 60°N at a ~· · ,t_o ,be ma d. e ,-,1ro.~ "A·.,.._ 49°St80~E/W- to ''b". 58°S180°E,W:. the dista~cc
_ _ _, ground speed of 480kt. In oi:-der to circle around the Earth along the equator QS0. A flightis · ·· ·
·n t h e ame amount of tim~ it should fly at a ground speed 'of: · inkilometers from "A.'' to -''B" is.approx:Jm~tely:
· a) 1222. b) 1000 c) 804
5 b) 240kt c) . 960kt
Q 2. In ord r to fly from position A (10°00'N030°00'W) to position B C ,
30''00 ' 1 r050°00'W), maintaining a constant tru~ course, it is necessary to fly:
J , rhu 1b line track ✓
rJJep y qx6 o
Answers
900 ::::. .<;,40
h) Lroi 1 hl li ne plotted on a lambert chart
•1 t 1c gn!al-circ]e route GvX ~60 I .1 t' 15!2. -:; J
O
, ~
-
Q,JJ . An aircraft departing A(N40° o·o• E080° 00') flies a constant true track of 270° Q; 1 2 3 4 ,5- 6' 7- . -8-~ ·g . 10 'H ~12 13 . 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
at a ground ~peed of 12~kts. -W hat are the coordinates of the position reached , •. ...
·,' <;,
~
A: a b a p C a -c ·a - - -
I•
- - . - - . .
in 6 HR? _/ n _ • _ , ,~ ,• / o C C
1
aJ 40° 00' E060° 00'. . ~ - -t ?u

O
' V•~ ~ 5 L, o', ,.
b) 40° 00' E064° 20' . . G 'X. ~ 4 °

O ~. ;
cj 40r, 00' E068° JO' . u 80 e1 . - 15 °~ 0 '> ::::. 6t/' ~ ¥j ,

Q: 21 22 23 24 ,25 26 ' ~7-' ,2·s 2,9 ._ 30, 31, 32 33 34-_ 35 36 37 38 39 4-C
V I
Q44 . Po ition A 60°N020°W, Position B 60~N021 °wand Position C 59°N020°W. What A: - . . - - - - . - - ,

~
- - C C b a C C C a
arc, re pccHvely, the distances from A to B and from A to C?
aj 60nm and 52nm d~ ~ , ~ ; f·~ 6 0 ,C Cffibo -==- 3oNH · -rte~~ )
«
b) 52nm and 60nm cA
J0 nm and 60nm
~~
_/7;-.
-:o I" ; I y:__ Go X £es 59 ,:S___J
o v ;- 11.A 1. _t..---
60 V Vl
· •
(~k~J )
Q: 41 42 '43 44 4!f' '46 ·47
,,. :( : - _;
-4g· 49 .-50
•"'· ;_ - '
-
CUl-aj- - ' ) I A. (:)Q "";. 6a /\),-, l: v() (._, ') Q.) C 91,ZJ._..,Q,{_:\ A: 'C a b C b ·a b' -: a a b
Q45. A~• uirc_raft a_t Jatitude 10°North flies south at a grounds~eed of 445km/h. what ( e,~ c,i~lf~ ) . ,,
\
1
111 be its latitude after 3h?

a) 03°50 S
1
b)
( ~rv1 /H
02 OO'S
~ OJ 54 kn) .
c) I2°I5'S
~- ;i
<
~t
~
~ x \&oX, . _60 ,< ~ 6.o0 , c ,Io> ~.o.o / ~ to/loo
-4,w
Q46. 1 n uircraft at latitude 1o0S flies north at a GS of 890km/h. what wilJ its
lat'tu Je ue uftcr 1.Sh?
I Sf7~J_ -::. :1 X \ ~ 'X (, OX ~\ 0
~ ~bof<:tl
;,i J 0~ OO'N b) J2°15'N c) 22°00'N (i~ o~
58 59
lli'-- , " .... ~ - -
General Principles: Magnetism is a property which may be possessed by COJlcluded therefore tha t the an g l P n r ''' P ' ' ,_._ . · _r- • _ • -:-;-:-; ; -.
. .:.
irnn. steel and a few other chemical elements such as nickel, cobalt and certain lO a ma,x1nn11n 1'f goo
· at
, the fl1 ,"1fTfJ
,, I• I I' p r• I(
· . ( ' .,,,. _ ,!,( , __ '
may also be use to escribc rlip ) .'I rlin·, t [Je ~'lt ".'-i L: JJ '1!-,,,.'
special alloys. The main properties of a magnet are: ·
700N/700S du e to rlip.
♦ The ability to attract material made of iron and other magnetic
materials;
At MagnM.lrt .~ dr. l'M m e.r;., ••1
♦ When freely suspended.it will tend .to align in an approximately North- •~ parpon<fl::t11z: , '" t:-:o (1:,1«. .
~~~t~t:~=~~=~;;:::~:
1' 1t\inoth:- r. 10 l .. ..,
•: •
ri.l -~ ~;
~
L..::r lo 1f\r() r-rv
;> M,"11 -'l.,. ;
_., I. - ·••sr-••
t: ~:~on:~~~r:t~: ~~::: 1: t:~d of the ~ ' M('f .,-! ':"t• ' '
magnet. The end which is north-seeking is called the North (or red) "'
/ Jr.le and the end which is south-seeking the Sou9J.--(o blue\ ole; . A.
♦ Li e poles repel, unlike poles attra§} . i<f'S- S f;;- r'!,.)J(. , fJ O!<.._ ~ ~ -
♦ he strength of the atti;acting or repelling for&:..bet;✓ee~~magnets ' ~
decreases as the square of the distance between thev . ;, ~
I
·,
'
Terrestrial Magnetism:
\
.
·-~--~
Oaiog,•p "},- , ·
. .
♦ Earth possesses a Magnetic field similar to that of a magnet. 'lovtt, p -,., "
- -------------
♦
♦ Earth's magnetic field behaves as if there is a very p owerfu l magnetic
bar located at the <;:enter of the earth. /4p is zero -tt. magnet i1~ e wrnror. l\,[?. :--:. im um <:1(1° ,,r CH' ,e" .
Earth's magnetic pole is not co-located with Geographic North . It is \/1SOCLINA1. - Li i~es ,i0i'l;.., g j.:O~nts o f E q1.1 0l .(p . . e
also not stationery. It rotates around 1rue North slowly. It k'1kes appx.
960 years for one orbit. At present it is located 750 nm from the True vACLINAL - Lines joining points or Zero c1 · p .
Pole in North Canada. · '-'ISOGONAL- Lin esjoining places o f equal ·a -i :Uil'n. l ~: · .-l'i1. •',, •· ;
m netic and geographical poles.
---
V AGONJC LINE - Lines j o in ing: places o n il q i i<t ' io11 .
60
61
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION MAGNETISM AND-COMPASSES
_ ~ir~ctiv~ Force. The force that causes the alignment of the magnet with the .r1;, Aircraft Magnetism
Earth fiel ~ 1s known as the directive force and it is given , by convention, the
· .=pr e tat! e letter H. it i the horizontal component of lht total force present Hard Iron And Vertical ~oft Iron
· r · µr · med by the letter T) at an y location. \,/1Hard Iron: They are difficult to magnetize an·d once magnetiz~d, they tend
Ver~cal Component. The total magnetic force T may consistofboth horizontal ;;t
tb retain magnetism.
_ ✓Soft Iron: _They· are easy to magnetize but loose· their magnetism when
ud ·entcal co~ponent de~endi~g on location, the vertical component is given
th re1 entative letter Z. Figure illustrates the relationship between T, Hand z. "j· ·,.magnetic force is rernove~d·
t ;,<,
:~---
,;,
~ AJC Maretism·
H
~------u-----H
·i.
, r;J
l
Soft Iron
Angle of Dip ,
,%
,;,; HarJiron
gle ofmp (Temporary)
z ~ (Peramanent)
J[;;
k
z T .. ~ard Iron Compone~~.!. Tl}ey are- P;~r_m~n~:Qt ~ n ature an~ are acquired
1
.during manufacturing process que hammerag ·and earths magnetic fielc;l . It does
Z T n~t change with latitud~ .~r heading of a/c.- _
Directive Force Low latltude HI h latitude
~
l·
:soft Iron Component: It-is induced magnetism due to earth;s magnetic field.
~
t(
·It is not constant and changes with .latitude and ·heading of a/c.
Due to earthts m agne tic field
Vertical Soft Iron Compon~nt:. ~qfi iron magnetism in~uced in parts 0f the
~
aircraft structure by surrounding fields-the most i~portantof tbese being the earth.
1/ln 0= 0 = angle 05dip T, Hand Z are measured in micro- tesla (mT) T he earth's field has a vertical as well as horizontal component. However, again for
our purposes we will within the constrains of the sy1labus only consider vertical soft
T = H/Cos 8 iron (VSI) magnetism (Z ~s the vertical component of the earths field and H is the
T2 = z2 + H 2 horizontal component). The ~omponent Z .has an increasing affect with latitude as
the compass magnets try to follow the earth's flux lines therefore VSI magnetism
The Variation In.Directive Force : As can be seen from Figure, the p roportion
must also vary with latitude._H~nvever, Z is zero at the equato~,.where the horizontal
>f th ~ to tal force which is H mu st reduce with increase in magne tic latitude until
component H is' greatest, so no V&I ·magnetism is induced there.
· t 1. zero at the poles (where only Z is present). It can be concluded, therefore,
ll1at magnetic com p ass syste m give poor indications near to the poles and are The Resulting Magnetic Fieids:
ompl rely use]ess very close to the p oles. Components of Hard Iron Magnetism~
, .
Variation : In navigation, at a given place an d time, the horizontal angle Component~ 'P' - lt is p_e rmanent Jl)agnetism induced along longitudinal axis
bet , n the tru e north and magnetic north measu red ea t or west according or for e and aft axis. It -is positive when blue pole/ south seeking pole is induced
L< hether magnetic north Jies east or west of true north , also called magnetic ahead of compass. ·
cl clinatiun .
Compon~nt: '<i- It ·is peJ1ll.allent magnetism induced along lateral or
In cartography, the annual change in direction of th e hori zontal component a wartship axis. It is positive when blue pole .is induced right of co~pass.
o f th b rth 's m agnetic fi eld.
. Component : 'R' - It is permanent -magnetism along vertical/ normal axis
of a/c. It is positive when blue pole is beneath/ below.Effect of component R is
n egligible and can b.e ignored.
62 63
MAGNETISMAND COMPASSES
PAAT I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
., • W-r;, '.>•• • ~- • ~
l
,.f/ -~'- Cofficients B·and C :
' 1 {, • •
C
\~i- - -~ ._, -
.. J[•.t: '.
B
. -1: .• .
. ,, J Hard - Q
Hard - P
+· +
Soft Iron - fl
Soft -cZ
;_, '--·. · ·_ c oefficient 'B': Effect of component P and cZ are dealt together a ·in k
. ::, entiiy:c~led •coefficient B. Both P and cZ have similar effect on compass.
Components of Soft Iron Magnetism: · Deviation due to coeff. 'B' = zero When flying in N/S (000°/ 1800)
Component 'Cz': It is vertical soft.iron componenrin longitudinal axis.
[]
. Component-' F,z'(ltis vertical soft iron component along lateraV athwartships
axis.
Change of 'Deviation with ·Change of Latitude: Hard iron magnetism is
permanent and'does not vary' with ,magnetic'latitude but, the deviation caused by
hard iron magnetism increases with latitude because in high latitudes where H DEV ZERO
is weaker, the compass magnets are more ·easily deflect~d . The deviating effect of
hard iron magnetism varies with the hea~ing of an aircraft.
Deviation due to coff. 'B' = Max i.e. when a/c is flying in FJW (090°/ 270°)
Deviatfo~-due to Horizontal _Hard Iron Component = 1/H
. .
Vertical soft iron rp.apnetism increases when an aircraft moves to a higher
latitude becaµse _Z increases. The deviation caused by vertical soft iron magnetism
in higher latitudes is doubly increased because H is reduced. The deviating effect
of the vertical soft.iron component of coefficients Band C varies with the h ead ing
I· DEVMAX cc
of an aircraft. DevE -DevW
Coff 'B' = 2
Deviation <:}ue to Vertical·Soft Iron = Z/H= Tan Dip
Dev to any heading: Goff 'B' = B Sin0 (0=heading)
Change of Deviation with Change -in Aircraft's heading:
C~e.ffi.cien t 'C': Component Q and fZ are dealt together as single entity rnll ~
Coefficient 'A:: is a constant deviation and i~ ca used by constructional defects,
misalignment of lubber line and asymmetrically distributed horizon tal soft iron
coefficient C. Component Q and Fz have similar eflect on magnetic co mpa . . L --......::_
magnetism around the compass. If is calculated by taking the aver age deviation Deviation due to coff. 'C' Max when a/c flying in N/S or 000°/1 80° ;~ ul
on e1ght or more equidtstanf headin gs. This'is caused due to following reasons :
(a) Misalignment of lubber line which is called apparent coefficient 'A!.
(b)' Horizon at c~n\po'nent'· or soft iron' effect which gives d ev iation is called
real coefficient 'N.
Co.ff 'A' = r. Deviation;n 8 headings
I+ tiDEVMAX
---~3 ~~
Deviation due to coff 'C' Zero when a/c is flyi ng in FJW or 0~)0°/27 0°
65
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION MAGNETISM ANU l..Ul"Jr>'<c,.>i:.> .
► At any time when the compass or ,recorded deviation is suspec~. . '---..~ -

. • D · t' · the angular differenc,e between the compass md1cated
Deviation: ev1a 10n 1s . . . . N h) Tl ~
J
. h d' . fthe local magneuc-mendtan (Magnetic Ort . le ,.
din:cuon and t e irecu~n o_ t I e and correct for as must of this dev:
iation
; ; /t ~
DEY ZERO urpose of a compass swmg ts o ana ys - ,.) ._
p
DevN -DevS as poss1'bl e. · ' . . \ .:. . __, -
•';
( Deviation can occur as a result of hard iron and soft tron ~agn~sm,.r 1t1~ - -.,
2
-~ - ft and also as a result of misalignment of referen~e nes om w tc <.;:;: ~
De v t o any heading : Coff 'C' = C Sin0 (0 =heading) an a~rc1a_ - k fthe detector aliment in a remote sensing compass system. _ S?
,,readings ate ta en or o ~ ~
Nole: Deviation on hdg East / West is caused due to Coff 'B' and Coff 'A'.
Similarly Deviation North/ South direction is caused due to Coff 'C' and Coff'A'.
COMPASS SWING
Corrections For Deviation:
► Apparent Goff. 'N is adjusted by adjustment of l~bber hne.
.
► Coefficient 'B' and 'C' are corrected by micro adjusters/ screws. Once
~
~
l ,::s
found, coefficients B and c can be neutraliz_~d to so~e _extent by

T he process of aligning compass north with magnetic north is called compass setting up? lo~al magnetic.fi'eld, this 'correctmg device 1s called the
~ . micro. ,!djus1e.r. . . .. .. . - ·/ .
Landing compass: There are many procedures for measuring the magnitude ,, ► Goff 'B' is·adjusted•on easterly-heading. /
"f ti If' co-efficients affecting- an ai1-craft compass. Most of these techniques involve ... ·
;in accurate datum compass (such as a Medium Landing Compass), the reading of 'ff,:, . ~ coff •a· ii ucljimed cm nar thorJy he}lding.
~,·h ich is compared with the reading of the aircraft compass on various headings. ► R~sidual de~i~tion is corrected by providing a deviation card or
The Medium Landing Compass is a small portable bearing compass, having
~· compass card. ·
B C
a high degree of accuracy, which can be used for ground calibration of aircraft , i
co mpasses. It is designed to use on the ground and is fitted with a tripod and a i) Hard Iron ~ •Jong aixs 'P' Hard Iron ~ lateral aixs 'Q'
bubb le level. The horizontal compass card is read through a prism which forms
pan of the sighting head. ii) Soft Iron long axis Cz .Soft Iron lateral axis fa
Occasions when a compass should be swung or may require swinging: ... )
Ill B = DevE. 2-,DevW C = DevN - DevS
► On a acceptance of new aircraft from manufacturer. . 2
I ► When a new compass is fitted. iv) Dev = B sin hdg Dev = C Cos hdg
I ~ Every three months.
v) Cori'ect on 'east'. hdg . Correct on 'noTth' hdg
,
\
After a major inspection. .
► With any change of magnetic material in the aircraft. TOTAL DEVIATIQ~,ON ANY HEM)ING =A+ B SI~ 0 + C COS 0
\
► If transferred to another base involving a large change of latitude.✓ t. Errors Due to Dip: Ma'gnetic Dip causes acceleration_ / decelera tion and
I ► After a lightning strike or after flying in sta t.ic. Turning errors, as explaiiied,helpw. The.effect;of dip in direct reading compass is
'It <c' ' .· - --
► After standing on one heading for more than 4 weeks. countered by low center of glavity. .
1
·
► When carrying magnetic freight.
► ,.)Nhenever specifed inthe maintenance schedule.
[ ~ Acceleration-/ Decel~ratiqn Errors fJ J
1~ For the issue of a C of A Acceleration and deceleration errors are .fluctuations in the com as during
changes in SReed. In. the Northern Hemisphere, the com ass swings towards
1 ► Following a heavy landing.
f _e""-nof-fl1 dti~~ng acceleratto,;i, an towardsthe south during deceleration. 1h
66
/ 67
outec1r1y w,1c11 u ;:,111~ u 1L u u ...... L"- , ......... ._.. •• • b .__., .• . , .... ......... . ~
,~ •
•
' An acceleration _always ~roduce~,~ •apparent turn towards hie
magnetic pole which is physically closest.to the aircraft;
A deceleration al~y's produces an apparent turn towa_rds the
magnetic equator.
The memo~y aid;.APbE may help in :recalling this error.
(b) During a turn through the pole whic~ is ph y~icall~
· late when using the direct ·reading compass .

fr nm rh r
aircraft . th~ compa ss will be lively. Tt 1s th e refore nece~s,1 1. rr, 1n ll <'t" '
~ \ :Remember PU: Turning through Poie compass Under r ear! · anrl t 11 n ing Lhrou g!1
Equator compass Over reads.
J
· ·. · " ·, · :, . . . J_;'- ·,.. . There is no "l\,rning Error in East West Direction (i""\
Remember AP: Acceleration produces !1PJ?~i-e~t turn to the. ne~rest Pole and !. Nom,,,.a-~,... / 'V
Deceleration towards the Equator. . . . . .. .. . . . ~, ---• . . _1 .
~ ~
~t•~:
~ __.
. '-4---------'--~....::::;;__~-------'- •-
ere is no acceleration/Decele!"'ltion err~r; w~~n flying dir;~tly --]
north or south .~"".t
•~ '" ,c
"•"°lffll _ -OA--., \....)
~ 'V
'y , • :- ... j, D£SP'I.Acm
A ♦ ratla1.,. __
ngoneaJttrly.
C:~="<
TOWARl>S
~E
• Cud utlclock Card rotate., dock"1.ce
C'Clfflll!
or TUM - INER'nA
....~ , , , .
....... ....,d - . ___.. ... uder nada Tvmln9 from 1W to 22.-
. • Turn•te rlpt • Tum to ten Tllmlnv flvm oo• to ml'
- Turn tawardt il<,rtli - Tum towards 1>0rtb
To remember both Acceleration/ Deceleration e r rors anrl turni1 g rr:-, ·-- :
aren t turn to the neare st ole

SH
Turning_~ h Pole com ass Under re_ ds . In versely. deccele rati() n pr• rl:- c,·- •!w
A·l•nlfDI OD Wt rating on eu➔trk. · apparenLU.1rn to the Equator ano turnm -throu h E uator com as · o ·n e:-iu ·
/ Liquid Swirl: Id eall y the compass bowl wil l h ave a smor>t h int nr ·1\ ,11 ,·f.v ,·
-Cordtloc:k..t.e • Cud rolllta antlc!Ddtwlte
. • twler rtr..i · · • over reads .,,and be full of a low viscosity fluid . If these condi tions are n ot fu lly met. there _,,·ill
·• Turn to left · · - 1',r11 to rlgbt be a tena ency' for the liquid to be ·dragged aro un d the bowl dm:ing turn ~. O ner
1 • Tum tuwanl11out - Tarn toward, ,oath
in motion the liquid will continue to swirl under its own mom entu m . ··1i m 1\d 11
occur, this fluid swirl will carry with it the magnetic assembly, the reby displacing
it from its correct orientation. The displacement will therefore be in th e di rec1in
of the turn and a clockwise turn (135° t.hrough south to 225°) with liquid swi rl wi ll
result. in a clockwise turn of the magnets and an uncl er-readi.ng corn pa~.s.
~ TURNING ERRORS]
'.Turning errors ,are ..most apparent when turning to or from a heading of Depending on the hemisphere and the direction of turn , the eITect of liquids, ·irl
north or south~· This .er.ror increases. as the o es are neare magnetic dip
- will either incr.e ase or d ecrease the turning er ror. At the magnetic r quator liqu id
swirl would be the only source of any error i.n a turn .
68 69
' ..
PART f • GENERAL NAVIGATION : ··,.r ·.',_. ·· ~_.;_...;.....~-i-----:--..:.MA.:...;.:=G;.;.;;:N~ETii:..:.;S::.;.M.:..:.A..:.N..;.;;;0;..
· C~ . O~.. ~MP..;.;.'AS~·s~·es_ . ~~~---~..................,......-.
· ·"""."
Ke~ping Magnetic Materials Clear Of The Compass: .·t:r~r :' ·/

L>: ·,', ';·ead\n
1::iS ho\\'.e".er .heavii:ri hVlki~r and more ex()e'nsive. In' ild~itio* ,it caq o~y be
'stral~ht ~nd level flight,:as the tid·•rin~ ~as ~? be u~~l~ped an~ al_igned
. The compass should be sited such that no single item of non -electrical
t: 1urr:nenc
1
cau t s a compass deviation of more then l 0 • The sum of the~ deviations 1
if ·. ;:. \Vith the·noi:th-re_fer~nce before a reading can be·ta.k.en agamsr the lubber line:. 1
c. sc~ ~y all _ uch equipment must not exceed 2°. Similarly no single item of
ele n , 1 t:,.
- r.utpme t · · d wmng,
· · ·
·.)k:>- ·.... .:.~;he'-griff ring'compass also di~~ts f;om Hie 'verlic~f tatd c~~pa~fa.'in ·that -it
·!. _
0
· n • ~r its associate may cause a compass deviation of '1.{\; .< .•ach'iev~~ a gieater perioclicity by the addition of dampin·g wires 'which also rotate
more ~h.en l , and agam the sum of _ the deviations caused by all such. equipment . ·•j\,;. . thfo~gh 'the.compass .liquid. .. 't • . . . . ,,_ - .
nd wnmg may not exceed 2°. - ' ~~ ~ . . .
The:: Dirtct_ Reading Magnetic compass (DRC) is based on a-simple magnetic }}\' ~ ..-:.. .. DR/C mag~etic ~qmpass.-Hquid s~irle~ c~mpasg
1
~ e ~le ~~nd ~omts_ toward the no:therr~ end of the Earth,s magnetic field. It is
a1 '>_m sta Hed man ms~rument of d1mens1ons and. weight th~t makes it suitable for
~ ~ in c--ero planes. It _1~ a mand_atory requir~:nent that all modern· civil transport
-:,_~ :-./f1:1J•=ii
l·: ~'! '" ,--.,, I ~•.
Prop.erties of a compass/DRC:
_....;. ·
• , O 'j
________________
_, \, •
_,
,\ ~ l ~ ~ ~Jc1 n~ c.arry a dn ect readmg non-stab1hsed magnetic compass as a standby

Collar
d i c II m. m<~•~ator. The most com monly found direct reading compass is the 'E' ·
'P , ·tl!ch 1s illustrated belo~,. .S leeve . .. , 1 .
,. •• •· • # • "' ). . •
. .: , ~ , ·,
Magnets' 1
.._· · • • • _- · ·_· • , ·:_-- .-!-_ M~gnats
Instrument
Lamp
:-: •· · i~ ..• -- : • ..... ;~- ~ -Pivcitpoat ·
Fig. DRC magnet asse~bly suspens~on svstem
(i) Horizontaljty: A compass card sfr?\1ld- remain' horizontal with respect

to earth surface _when -moved away form magnetic equator, This is achieved by
following: -· ·. · . . · · . ; .. ,· ,· !· .• ·_ · ' : ·
FUklr Hole
Compensating
Magnet (a) Suspendi11:g mag·p.ets b_elow"pivot .poipt to reduce effect of dip. The
Magnetic comp.ias dippi~g effect of.earth's v.ert~cal component (Z) is oppo~ed by the
weight.of magnets: · .· · · · · · , ·· 1
THE VERTICAL CARD COMPASS. The vertical card compass - which is (b) By sl)ifting·piv9t poi'1t ~~.war.d~1.1~ar~·s t p'o l;. ;
aJso known as the B-type or E-type - is the direct reading compass in general use. (ii) Aperiodicity .(Dead }Jeai),: .J.f;a.,sti~pende,d., magnei is deflected from its
It is usually the main magnetic heading reference in light aircraft and the standby position ,of. equilibri\,m1 and teleaseq.,<it 9sci}laies Qetween positions on either side
cornpa s in larger aircraft. of the equilibrium position for ~orn~,tiII_le before ~orping to rest. The ideal compass
~oul~ stop _wit~out oscillation, when it ~dulq :b e s~id to be aperiodic. Aperiodicity
ft consist of a circular compass card attached directly to the magnet assembly.
1s atta1 ned m aircraft co~pass_es by:
T i~ , mbined unit is suspended in liquid within the compass bowl. A vertical
ll bber line on _th gla s window of the bowl, enables the heading to be read off (a) The bowl is filled wi_
th ,x:nethyl a\cohol.or a-silicone fluid, and damping
Lhe c mpa s card. filaments are fitted to the magnet system.
1 HE GRID RING COM;I>ASS. The P-type compass or grid ring compass is (b) Severa(~Jipn:p9W.~!ful n;i,agnets \ar:~, tis.eel instea~ q~ one large. one,
f u 1 I on oldtr aircraft. It is more accurate than the vertical card compass and is there by i11•~re~~~~g th,e r.~gh,~ng for.ce, ~nd reducing the ,moment of
ni r . 1:il>I .
inertia. · ·
70 71
MAGNETISM AND COMPASSES
(c ~he.- apparent weig_h t o~ the system is reduced by the buoyancy of the

liqmd, and t~at weight lS concentrated near the center.~by mounting1 reduce pj)ot workload by liminating .h e n d fi r ma nu~1 r .align own ,_vc '/ L' ·1
dose to the pivot.. The momen~ of inertia.is even further reduced. to .fifte en ·m inutes.
· (iii) Sensitivity: Needle should stay firmly fixed along the magnetic meridian . REMOTE INDICATION COMPASS/SLAVE GYRO COMPA. SI 7
T his is achieved by: . . , . ~: . . . MAGNETIC COMPASS
(a) increasing the pole strengths of the magnets. Drawbacks of Director Reading Compass:
(b) keep_ing pivot friction at minimum by using iridium for the pivot. • If suffers from turning and accelerati on er ror cau ed du to cl' p .
(c) this is ·suspended· in liquid wfiich· re_duces the effective weight of the
system and lubricates the piyot. :·\t<~t ·< ·_ ,: , ~- The ~agnet in a DRC is also susceptible l? leviati n clue I ' Tt l.
DRC - Serviceability Te~: ;.~¾·},;,:f· orawbac~-of DI:

♦ Check liquid is free· from bubbles, discciloratfon, _sediment. -~ ~i:' :(:\<:· ·i It. needno be aligned at frequent intervals .
♦
♦
♦
Examine all parts forJ~mjn()_
device functions positiyely. ,

~llY·-
Ens_u re that grid ring r'o~tes freely tnrough 360°, arid l hat locking
Test suspensio~ pf bt>w,l by inovi~g gently:fri-all q_i_

there is no metal to~m~tal fee~_Q.g~ > .
recti011s and that
.
,i~i1~::;
·:_;I•:',_:,:;,\·:.
::ff:::::::DICATlNG COMPASS:
Re~ote indicating compass utilizes the earth magnetic field to sen e
:I ::!-:·.<m,orth. The magnetic flux is used to p r ovide constant correction requ ired by C
ri- _rn _tir·
r
♦ Test for pi':1ot fyicti9n: deflect the•· magnei.,s ystem through 10-15° each : il ;:~~:i: ~~e~ent of compass to maintain a-magnetic no . reference. _
way, and note the·.·reading.on · return: -each should be,-within 2° of the .ff' · : ·Gyroscopic stabilization reduces the turning and acceleration err
~
other. · _·, ~ . .,,, .
,,,! -_;·-. __ , . _:-, - ,
♦· · Test for damping: deflect -system through-90\ 'hold for 30 seconds to ·~-'·-~ ,.·'~, :_~,: ·;,:·_·.'_.. ,:, . Since there is no magnet, you need to gi ve continuo us inp t t •. h~.,
-~, inagnetic north is, which is give_n by detection .
allow liquid fo -slftle ai:i,d time .its retur~ through 85°. The maximum
and· min:1mum times are laid. down in the rilanufacture's Instrument -~;:..
Manua( usu,ally ~bout 6.5 seconds to 8.5 seconds. ~r;
: ;~:
The Direction'1ndicator (l>l):

DI employs a ·. horizo~ulaxis tied·gyro and utilizes the princif?l<: ~f r~gidity to
indicate airc;raft's heading. A spinning rotor has_the p roperty of ngid1ty m sp ace.
Thus.once the _D I rotor attains "its:fitllspeed ·arid its axis is manually aligned wi th a
datum (true or n1agneticinorth} itf.w ilF~ominue to·p~int,in t ~.a t ~irection in sp~ce Slaving Control Comptn.sator tn.il
· during ,the.restofthe,flight: -Wheil the :a ircraft alters its heading tt does so relat1~e Pictorial Navlgatwn
to the-gyro axis. tliat· is,-- the ·. aircraft and the gyro ·case turn about the gyro axis. Indicator (HSI 'Ibp)
Remote Indicating Compass
Changes in headings are thus indicated instantaneously.
Working; It dbes not, h~ve:i~ own north s~ek~ng element and needs to be
DETECTOR UNIT:
aligned after -start and a1,~frequent-inter.vals .with DRC.
1
j
• It contains flux valve that senses the direction of eart 1,1_ nc iL fi

, Some more expensiv~ ~e~di~g i·ndicato!~ ar~ '~l~ved'_t~ a se.nsor (called a related to NC hdg.
~o1isly, s~ns~s. . the.~ea:th's mag~ett~ field, and ~
'flux ·gate'). The flux gate''.·c?ri~in_
servo mechanism . constantly ·c orrects ·the headmg•. md1catot. These slaved gyros
• NC sensing unit consists of 3 simple flu, al c n ctin~ re nt ·:-i i
point and spaced at 120° interval.
72_. 73
PAK.T I - GENERAL NAVIGATION MAGNETISM AND CZOMP,ASSES
The assembly is pendulously suspended o as to maintain horizo1~tal .· •· The compass may be detached from. the detecto~·unitby a ~h.nple
regardless of NC attitude. Normally at wing tip or near top of fin, to switch selection to work a.s a DI, so a i:iormal DI 1s not re~urr~d.
js< late it from aircraft de iation sources. The system can be readily used to monitor other equipment (e.g.
WORKING: autopi1ot, Doppler, R,MI, etc). .
1. The detector unit is mounted so as to remain horizontal (because it sense .R~peat~rs ~an also .b e made available to as many crew s~tlons or
in horizontal) in order 6 best sense the ·horizontal component of earth's system as desired.
m !,Hetism. 1 his is fixed so that one spoke is permanently aligned with NC
lon 1tudinaJ axis. -DISADVANTAGES OF THE REMOTE IN~IC4'(ING GYRO MAGNETIC
2. The secondar-y output of magnetic flux is given to selsyning unit. The ·coMPASS: ·. . , d.
ombinatiou of electro magnetic field reproduces a flux field identical to that · ·... The·disadvantages of a gyro m;;ignetic compass over a DI or direct rea mg
·en _d by selsyning unit. i~st~ument,are ~at i~ is:
SeJsyn Rotor - The null seeking rotor will always be at dghl angle- to the ·'. ►. Much heavier than a direct reading compass.
·el ·yn reproduced earth magnetic field. The pointer or card is attached to _rotor. Much. more expensive.
►
Electrical fo operation· and therefore suscepd?le to' electrical failure.
ADVANTAGES OF A REMOTE INDICATING GYRO MAGNETIC ~uch more complicated'than a DI or a direct reading compass.
COMPASS:
The advantag-es of a remote indicating magnetic compass over a DI or direct
r ;, 1din instrument are: . •·. ~ ..• • • •••• ;• .. •••• .. • •.. >• .. • • • •• .. •• .. •••• ...... •.. ,.,,. , ., ••••• , .......................... - . . . . . . . ..... .... .... ..... u•• .. ••••••-•••-••••.. ••••• •• ---• •• ••-,.•••• ••- ••-•--.-•••
... The DI suffers from real and apparent drift ~nd needs resetting
i.! fiigh~. In addi,tion, when resetting to the magnetic compass, the
airplane must b~ flown straight and level, whereas the detector unit
constanrly monitors the gyro magnetic compass.
The detector unit can be installed in a remote part of the aero plane,
well away from electrical c_ircuits and other influences due to airframe Questions _~
magnetism.
The flux valve technique used in the deteccor unit senses the Earth's The magnetic north pole seems to rotate around the geographical earth P-OJc, A
magnetic meridia11 rather then seeking it, which makes the system complete ro~tion ~es about:
more sensitive to small components of 'H'. · ·
~) l .degr~e ~~~h 5,,9..y~ar.. ,
► The unit provides a heading reference to higher magnetic latitudes
~ .I' I • .,
b) 3 .37 years.
than the direct reaqing magnetic ~ompass.
c) •Ldegree·each 2i67·
t, Turning and acceleration errors are mi11imized because: ..... w.-:,- ·-= . . -·· - . ~ .
1. The detector unit is fixed in azimuth. In the-areas close to the magnetic poles compasses are not to any use in air
navigation, 'Dlllihly because:
2. The pre.cession signals a[gning the compass are kept to a low value (typically
a) the horizon~ component of the.earths~magnetic field is too weak.
5°/minute).
b) the inclination is insuffident in these areas.
~\. Ther i · a roll cut out switch that isolates the precession system during turns at
0
c) the distance from the magnetic equator is too long.

bank angles of greater than 10°.
74 75
. ur •J I r,r

r
\
o,l •"J ., MAG ETISM AND COMPASSES
Q3. Magnetic diP. at 40 H value= 23 un\t value of Z and T wm be.

Q8. Msgn t in DR re u pended b low to
·. z ) lmprovc h rizontality b) To make DR aperi die c Im r vc t. I i't
(a) Tan0 =~ Z=l9
Q9. A magnetic comps wlU show an apparent turn to the north in
oulh rn
z hemisphere when:
--=Tan40° a the aircraft ace lerates on 090° (C).
23
40° Dip
b the aircraft decelerates on T70° C).
Z=l9 T
z c) the aircraft accelerat on 000° (C .
Cos 40= Hrr T=23/cos 40=30
·a) 30/ 19 QlO. Select the correct statement:
b) 18/24. (a) DRC with all 3 property can be used any where.
c) 19/30
(b) Whatevtr be the accuracy DR can not be t ed beyond O 1 ••
(c) Whatever be the efforts made for accuracy DRC is unrel iable eyon () l I• 170'1
Qll. The type of compass least likely to suffer from paralla i :

Q4. Given that T = 50 micro-tesla (m T), dip angle= 60°, calculate H a~d Z.
a) a standby compass.
Ans. H = T x cos dip, therefore, in this case H = 50 x cos 60,
b) remote reading compass.
H= 25 mT;
c) direct reading compass.
and, Z = H x tan dip, therefore, in this case Z = 25 z tan 60,
Q12. When accelerating on an easterly heading in the 1 orthero hemi
Z = 25 X 1.732 = 43J mT
compass card of a direct reading magnetic compas~ will turn?
Q5. ln direct reading magnetic compass, the effect of dip is countered by:
a) Anti-clockwise giving an apparent tum toward the south.
a) powerful magne~
b) Clockwbe giving an apparent tum toward the north.
b) low center of gravity.
c) Clockwise giving an apparent turn toward the South.
c) the shape of the casing.
. Q13. When turning right from 320° (q to 050° (C) in the Southern e
Q~. Cpmvass deviation is c~used"by: reading of a direct reading magnetic compass will?
a) aircraft magnetism·<.µstorting the earths magnetic field. a) Over - indicate the tum and liquid swirl will decrease the effec
.b) the angl_
~. e-of ma~eti,c.~ip.
. . "' ~ . ~ b) Under-indicate the turn and liquid swirl will decrease the effec .
c) the ang\~ of incli,nation. c) Over - indicate the turn and liquid swirl will increase the effe t.
Q7. rhe forces acting upon the compass needle in a stand-by compass in an Ql4. An aircraft is completing a timed turn in the orthern hemi ph re
aircraft, are! · to 040°C. After the turn has been stopped but before the d:irec · ·c
a) the earths magnetic field, the aircraft magnetic field and the effects of attitude and magnetic compass s_ettles down, will the compas 1) o er-r d r
movement of the aircraft. and (2) is this error increased or decreased b · liquid sw· l?
b) the earths ~a~eti~ fi~lrthe ·cdrioli~
etI~t an(air9r3.~ magnetism. a) (1) over-read (2) increased.
c) the total-magnetic field in the c~pas~ foqati~n. b) (1) over-read (2) decreas d.
c) (l) under-read (2) in re · d.
:, ....
76
7
P.~~T I .. G~N~AAL NAVlGATION ~MAGNETISM ANb,COMPASSES
.. ,.
· qts. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere makes an accurate rate one ·turn to •the Q 23 • Isogonals converge"at·tbe? "<-.
)
· right/starbo~rd. If the initial headiug was 330° after 30 seconds of the turn the 0) Magnetic equator.
direct reading magnetic compass should read? b) North magnetic pole only.
a) Less than 060°. c) North and South geographic and magnetic poles. .. . .
b'1 Mor~ than 060°.
. Why does the valae of maenetlc variation on ·a chart change with time?,
c) More or less than 060° depending on the pendulous suspension used. Q24 . , , , ,
a) Movements of the magnetic poles, cause_1t to,1~crease:·
QJ.6. At the magnetic equator?
b) Movemerits of the ma~etic po!es.~use ~ to mer~ or d~~-
a) Deviation is Zero. b) The isogonal is an agonic line. c) Dip is Zero. c) Increases in the magnetic field, cau~e it to incr~:.
Qt 7. Which of the following is the correct conversion from True to Compass? Q25. At what point on the earth Is a magn~f:ic ~mp~ss most e:f f'~ve?
T V M D C
a) At the geographic equator.
a) 130 2W 128 -1 127. · b,) Close to the magnetic North ·Pole. .
b) 130 2E 128 -I 129. c) Approximately midway b.e~e~~ _the magnetic poles.
c) 130 2E 132 -1 133.
Q26. An alrctaft in the.northern be~i~phere.~ m~g an accya~ r~te one turn
Ql8: T.~c horizontal component of the cartb's magnetic field?. to the right: If the i~!~ial beading was 135~ after 30 seconds tile direct reading
o) Weakens wjth increasing distance from the magnetic _poles., magnetic co'i npass ,shoulcl•read? ·
b) Weakens :wi¢ i~_creasing_dis_tapce fr~l!l tj}e nearer magnetic poles. a) 22s0• i • · '-- , • : ·bj Less than 225°. c) More than~.-
c) ls appro~imately _the s~et~!. tti~~etic Ia~tude 50°- N ~ d._50°s·. QZ7~When using a direct reading magnetic co.iipass in the northe~ hembp.here:
Q19. What is the maximum value .of dip that can be caused by the vertical a) A longitudinal acceleration on a Wes~erly heading causes an ~t~ to the
component of terrestrial magnetism? · South ·
a) 45°. b) 60°. /b) A longitudinal accelerationiof ail Easterly heading causes-an apparent mm to the
North .
Q20. Which of the following ~s correct when the variation
c) A longitudinal deceleration of a Westerly-heading causes an apparent him to the
a) True North is East of Magnetic North . .
North
b) Magnetic -North is West of Compass North. . .
'"'~ . ... , .,,... What is the m;iin cause o( permanent magn.etism in. aircraft?
c) '?"rue No1.h is West of Magnetic North.
a) Ha;mmering,and:t)le effect _o f the~ 's .:magnetic-field, whilst under ~nstruction.
Q21. A line drawn on a chart which joi!JS all points where the value of magnetic
b) ·. Expo~urtftcrtne terrestrial µiagnetic field during normal-operation.- ·
variation is zero is called an? .
c) The combi'ned'effect 6f aircraft electrical equ.ip!!lent and the tem:strial magnetic
a) Agonic line. . b) . . Acljnic line. c) Isogonal. ·
field.· · · :
Q22. How is the direct readhlg magnetic co·m ~ass mad·e aperiodic or dead beat?
· Q29. Wh~n accelerating on a westerly heading ln ~e northern hemisphere, the
a) Using a pendulous suspension system .for the magnetic assembly. compass card.of:'a direct reading magnetic compass will turn?
b) Using the lower possible viscosity l~guid in the compass. a) Clockwise-giving an apparenUum.tow~ th~·north.
C) Positioning the magnetic assemb_ly m~ss close to the compas's point and using b) Clockw.i~~ ,giyiQ.g.au:apparenf tum-towards the sou.th.
damping wires.
c) Anti~clockwise giving·aMipparenttum t~wards the north.
78 79
..;_:;::::s:::s

PART I - GENERAl NAV1GAT,ION
--.-, _ ~n aircraft's compass roust be swung?
Q30. What is the OlJlln advantage of a remote indicating compa$S compared to a 37
direct reading compass is that it? ;, , Q · a) · 1fthe aircraft has been in the banger for a long time and bas been moved several
a) It has less moving parts. •1 • •• : ti.roes .
b) It senses, rather than seeks~-~e magne~c-merid_icl!l,
.\'~f ,· -:<:_,.. , ·b). _I{the ~aircraft has been subjected to hammering.
. ,-. '~· "--:_ · ·. c) Ev~ry maintenance inspection.
c) It magnifies ~e earth's ma~etic field!~ o_rder to attairi.~~ater accuracy.
. ~ ~;·s :.;Wtiat•is -the dip angle at·the South Magnetic Pole?
Q31. When decelerating .on a wes~erly headlr~gJn th~-~ort_!:tcr~ hemisphere, the
compass car~ 'of.a direct reading magnetic compass will turn? _- -': ·. a) ooo. b) 90°. c) 180°.
,. ;J. ,,. 1.. • ' .. \ ~
• •
a) Anti-clockwise giving an apparent tum towards the north. , Q39. At<the magnetic equator, when ~ccelerating after take off on heading 'est. a
b) Clockytise g!ving an appar~nt ~~-towardthe s~~th.'.• . . . · -·· :direct ·reading compass?
apparent
C) Anti'. : clodcWis~ giving ~ - :tutn\owalds ~~, ~outh. . i f
. · .. . a) . Under.reads ..- . .
Q32. Why are the detector -units in slaved gyro•compasses usua)J.y fitted in or close
_.'. ~-- ,~ , °b) The heading indicates a tum to the south.
to the wingtips _o f an ai~craft? c) 1ndicates the correct heading.
a) In order to isolate th~ det6ctor unit-form the terrestriai magnetic field. Q40. What is the name for a lin_e of equal magnetic variation?
b) In ord~tto:i.solate tlie.detecfor unit fonnthe aircraft deviation sources. . a) An isoclinic. ·. . · b) An isogonal. c) An isogriv.
CJ H~v,~ g one det~ctor iri each wingtip, can~els qut corp.pass deviation. Q41. Which of the following statements .concerning earth magnetism ls complete\.
Q33. Which-~~ the. following statements.is t~e of the Earth's magnetic field? correct?
a) An isogonal is aiine which ~o~ects places of equal dip~ the aclinic i. e line
a) It may be. permanent, temporary, transient.
~ t } i.
zero magnetic dip. • ·,
b1 !t does·not .~ff~ct aircr~ft-~v~tion. is
b) An isogonal a'lfoe which connects places with the same magnetic variati n:
c) I~_; acts,lllte a-large)lue magnetic pole in Northern Canada. a~linic connects place with'' the sai:ne magnetic field strength.
. .
Q34. In a,remot~·indJcating compaS:8 system the amount of deviation caused by c) An isogonal is a line which connects places with the same magnetic variation · the
aircraft magnetism an~ electrical circuits may be minimized by? aclinic is the line of zero magnetic 'dip.
a) Positioning-the master unit in.the center of the aircraft. Q42. An aircraft is accelerating in the Northern hemisphere heading c t. 1"
b) Using a vertically, mounte~ gy,ros~pe. direct reading magnetic' compass '(1) over-read or under-read and (2) lndkat
c) Mounting the detector unit in the wingtip. a turn to the north or to the south?
Q35. An'aircraft·using:;a direct.reading magnetic compass in the Northern a) (1) over-read (2) north
hemisphere.starts a Rate 1 turn to th~ rjght from 145°. What will be the b) (1) over-read (2) south
indicated heading_if it ro11s out ~f the tum after 30 seconds? c) (1) under-read (2) north
a) It is not possible to answer this question using the information given. Q43. A direct reading compass should be swung when?
~ Greater than 235°. a) The aircraft bas made more than a stated number of landings.
c) Less than 235°.. • b) There is a large, and permanent, change in magnetic \atitud .
Q36. The sensitivity of a direct reading compass ·varies? c) The aircraft is stored for a long period and is frequently moved.
a) Inv.ersely with the vertical component of.the-earth's magnetic field.
b) ·Directly with the.horizontal component of1he earth's,magnetic field.
c) Directly with the vertical component of the earth.'s magnetic field.
81
80
PART I• GENERAL NAVrGATION
_ ,;;r
3 '. ':. :;~~ c .· 7:_.. . MA~N_ETISMAND G(?~PASSES: .. .
Q44. The Earth can be considered as being a magnet with the? t~-'/;~: ~-- ~~,1.1 h'of the following.statements concerning -the earth's -.gnetic_field .ls
·u J . ''':r.
_i;' ~~
;QSOt .n ,,1 1
.
C.,
· .. , ·
a) Red pole near the north ·pole of the earth and the-direction of the magnetic force ··· ·: •... -i~ ·: Qqmplctely correct? . ,_ .· :.. ·. · :· ·,: · · ~
pointing straight down to the earth's surface. ,.: : ·.: · _· -~) Dip is the angle be~een total magnetic field an~ y,~tca! flel~ com~nen~.
b) Blue pole near the north pole·ofthe earth and the direction of the magnetic force . . _ ~) ·· Magnetic North rotat~s.ar.o1;lfld true N9~ sb~~-1)',
pointing straight up the earth's surface.
, c) . Earth's Red Pole is sit~t~ in N~~s~~·.;,- ',
c) Blue pole near the nort!Lp9le of the earth and the direction of the magnetic force
pointing straight down to the earth's surface. · QS-t: :C~ri~efning direct reading magnetic compass~, in t~e northern hemisph~re-, it
.,-., .. ·: can be said that? . . ,, . , . .
. Q45. Deviation applied to magnetic heading gives?
. ·,. af _On an Easterly heading, a longitudinal'accele~ation_causes an apparent tum to the
a) Magnetic track. b) Compass heading. c) Magnetic course. .}.+A: ,.. · · ·South. .. .
Q46. WMch of the foJlowing is an occasion for carrying out a compass swing on a
Direct Reading Compass? _. ,
~~::t. i. -~~t;Ji~fb):~~~pra~westerly headin~·a .1ongitudinat,acc_elera~o~~auses ·an apparent~ to the .
"· :;." .<i~'-"" -.'. South ..
a) Before an aircraft go~-s o~ any flight that invqlves '1: large change ofmagµetic ':?i1\:rt:~\J~;,/.·cf \bn:an-Easterly heading, .a longitudinal acceleration causes·an apparent tum to the
latitude. ', /,;;(,..,:/ North. .. ·
b) After any of the crircraft radi~ eq~ipinent:·has b,een cha~ged due to un serviceability: sz{(A,t-; specific loca!ion the _value of magn~tlc variation?·
r::->,•· :r:: .···;:"-
c) After an aircraft has passed through a severe electric.al storm, or has been struck by /;:,·) ':~);\Varies slowly over titne.
lightning.
Q47. Which of the followh:ig statements is correct concerni~g the effect of turning
errors on a direct reading compass? .
i/J.~i!t6!!!::·::t"t~t!~tdirig. ,· i .. · •, '., -- ,,
a) Turning errors are greatest on east/west headings, and are greatest at high latitudes.
:'.~\;i~)~~$,f;In ·northern hemisphere, during an a.tcelet:ation-in an easterly direcpon, ~e
; ,. , .. ,' . .
J;Ti~I!:::£%!:~::.ndicate? ·
. , . '
b) Turning errors~ greatest on north/south headings, and are g~eatest at high

latitudes. · ·
c) Turning errors are greatest on north1~outh headings, and are leas't at high latitudes.
:-f:· :- : ·-~- c) An apparent tum to the South.
Q48. Complete the foU~wing statement regarding magnetic v.ariatio~. Th_e charted ~i'/ . >/ ' ..., .· '
values of m~gnetic variation on earth normally change annually due to? ',j.J' -:;\;,, . . · ·QS4.
..
The purpose of compass check swing is to?
a) Magnetic pole movement causing numerical values at all locations to increase or ·l .· a) Cancel.out the horizontal component of the earth's·magnetic field.
decrease. ; · .' b) Cancel out the effects of the magnetic field found on board the aero plane.
b) Magnetic pole movement causing ownerical values at all locations to increase. l-'ft· (,·~,:' c) Measure the angle between Magl)etic North and Compass North.
.. . .
c) An increasing-_field strength causing numerical values at all loca~ions to increase. : lft- ..i:J ,Q.$5.
The magnitude of vanat1on?
' ,,ff, ' " ),
Q49. The north and south magnetic poles are the only _positions on the earth's :·;:.,, :·. :- a) has a maximum of 90°.
surface where? l . b) has a maximum ofl80°.
a) Tht value of magnetic variation equals 90°. I _., \ c) has a maximum ·value of.45° E or 45° W.
b) A freely suspended compass n_ eedle will stand vertical.
...) A freely suspended compass needle will stand horizontal.
I, Q56. At the magnetic equator?
* a) Variation is zero. b) Deviation is zero c) Dip is zero.
82 83
_PART t - GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q57. The. agonic line? ·Answers

a) Follows the geograprucal equator. • ·
b) Jowis places of nil'variation. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 li I )8 1 20

~Q: 1
c) Is midway between the magnetic north an(\ South Polei - a - - b a a a b C b b a C a C ,b C C a
A: C I I
Q58. Disadvantage of Remote ·sensing comp~ss over DRC is : _it{\, '
-
a) Turning errors.ate ihCre·ased. ~ . ' ( ' I~ •
_, ,.
b) Detector unit is expo~ed .to Qigh devi~tion errors~ 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 3 ~
1
40
Q: ,21 ,,2_2 23 24 25 26 27 28
c) Susceptible to 'electrical failure. '.
Q59. What will be the ~ffect onJts.direct readin'g.compass when an aircraft on the
"ti. ·
Jf:' :x:· :·a_·· C C .b C C b a C b b b C C b b b b C b1
Equator accelerates whilst traveling westwards. ·I
',!
a) No change. . . .
b) Indicates a decrease in heading. ,,
i.,
•;~
Q':_ 41 42 43 44 45, 46 47 48 49 · 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 8 59 6C
c) Indicates a increase.in heading.
Q60. A ground feature appears·30° to the left of the center line of the CRT of an
airborne weather radar. H the heading of the aircraft is 355°. (M) and the
t·: . ·"A; C a b C b C b a b b C a b C b h C ~1
magnetic variation-is 159._Ea~ the true bearing of the aircraft from the
¥r.
feature Js?
a) 310°. 'b)' 130°. c) 1600.
. ,,
84
85
PROJECTIONS
erhaps very few geog.raph~cal features, it is called a _c hart. A map, on the other
Chapter h~d contains both the graticule and an abundance of ground features.
Maps: They have more ge~graphical details depending upon scale of the
--<' .
map.
C1!~rts: They have lesser derails and have information for which they have
been ma e. ·
,.
{:
, Method Of Construction:
{·: ·, . ·(;) Geometric or perspective. A flat surface, cylinder ?r a cone _is place~
'~:: ., conveniently on the surface 'of the reduced earth and a hght source placed (at
the center or at one of the .poles of the redu~ed earth) projects the graticule.
An example is ,the polar stereographic.
ny. atte_mpc a~. r~pr?ducing a spherical shape on to a flat surface must

J '._: •. (b)Geometric, mathematically modified.hThe ~asllic gTheo~e~ric projalec tiodns may
:,.,:;:· . ,. - -·. · be improved by modifying them mat emauca y.
1 1s 1_s · norm 1y one to
p~·odu~e mev1table ~t1stortton ·. Thus, on a tlat surface we must expect distortions ;;\·~:::~:.;),:,~ch~eve a certain property. Mercator, and transverse Mercator projections are
ut Lhe ideal properues l1f t!1c reduced earth. ;-:1.·:~r:::< :, ·"examples. , ·
Projections on flat ~urfaces: The object of makin a ma or a chart is to \,~~~:?-ftW;(J)~Mathematical. -Some projections are produced entirely by mathematicaJ
I -·p r ~e OL Lhe s herical earth, or at least a part O 1t, on a flat surface.raea11y it · ~:i'.-'~1li~:, :\,. methods, although the basic concept might be drawn from the geomeL ic
:ii j o u d p0"ses the following features: "' · : ' ]fiii:i:}~/;• ptcijection. Lambert's ort~o morphic projection is an example here.
(tt)-/1-'hr scale: it should be both correct and constant.
(h, '.fht~ e sho<ild be correct. •:1::} };f' Projection
( ·) Areas should be shown c.:orrectly. I
,dJ The bearing measurements anywhere on the reduced earth should be I I
identical to the measurements on the earth. {Perspective S ~ Non perspective l
( -L/Great circles sho uld be straight lines, just as on the earth. ·(Light source and graticule) (Mathematically ecru tructed/modified)
(l}..... --i.f eridians and parallels should intersect each other at 90°.
djacent sections fit perfectly together. ltJ:\,:~tt·( ;Ortho morphic (Conformal)~ It-is property in which bearings are correc \-.-
The geometric projections are also called True Projections and the sheet 0.a iii"S:::i:~1;.,hown. For a projection.to be or_thp m9rphic, following must be met.
which the graticule is to be projected is called the developable surface. Examples :~;,-'.:\~:/? . (a) Mer)dians ~nd .eara~l~l. ~f latitud~ s~1ould cut each at 9jt..
(a) Cylindrical projections, eg, Mercator. :l : :· · :
~
~: •·.::,'
(b) ~cale is cqnstant in all dir~ctions with in vicinity of a point.
.
1
.
✓ • {t ·.· , . Practically every chart. used will have its method of projection noted on
(b) Conical projections, eg, Lambert. ·l, : , _ ·.-'it.· Often the word conformal or ortho morphic will appear in the name. The
(c) Zenithal projectfons, the plane of the projection is tangential to the
I,·-~ \ p_rojections encountered
~i ·:' . '.\':~~~, ' · :,; . ·~.·
are l~kely to be as follows~
. '
ean.h's surface, eg, polar stereographic. , I->~~,:~ Not conformal:' Gno~onic (Polar) Obli ueJ E uatorial), Orthographic Equi-
,J- . -·~ista . . ,
Wl en a projection contains only a graticule of latitude and longitude with i:•\f<.
Conformal: Lambert's Conformal Conic, Standard fercator (cylindrical
86 87
ERAL NAVIGATrON PROJECTIONS
orm Tra.ruv r e ercator9 Oblique Mercator, Stereographic (Polar, (iv) It is an orth o morphic projection .
e Equa rial)
Usage:
GE ERAL PROPERTIES ·o F MISCELLANEOUS TYPE OF PROJECTIONS: (i) Suitable for Rhumb line tracks rath r than G/C tr,Kk .
ylindrical projection (ii) Suitable for topographi~al maps near equ· tor (KO l · 11a Ll ll ) . T1 1
low latitudes, chart almost ha a con ta.nt le.
Co tru rion: Point of tangency is equator and light sou rce is at center of
h r h (iii) Met charts in India are Mercator chart .
Propertie : Draw backs:
(i) Can't be used in polar regio~ and overage i limit cl Ll 7U 11 1 IS f
i) M ridians are traight parallel line equidistant from each other. equator, above its seal~ expansion becomes ver L r
(ij ParalJeJ. o latitudes are also straight lines but not equidistant from each (ii) Radio Bearings are great circles, which mu. t l . nvrn rl t I r h 1 111h
ther. Distance between them increase from equa·tor to pole . lines e ore p ottrng. ·
Cii nv rgence n p rojection on these map is zero. It is on earth urface (ii i) On a long route, I.he rhumb lint! can cld aµpre -j" bl ,. t th e d i..,,:, th<: .
hown by 'n'.
Note: In Mercator p rojection scale in E.1'1\i direction i. v, riec.l at t l1 t' .-.1m t<' 1• ·,
n = d'long x sine lat f scale expansion in I direction.

(iv) A trai :rht line on this map r epre ents a Rhumb Une .
(v) rea irde is hown by a cu rved line con cave to eq u ator r con ve to Sc.ale at latitude = scale at equato r x ecant of laLitutl ' .
rhumb line or conve to pole.
(vj) I i not an rtho morphk or conform al projecti n MERCATOR
Origin of Projection Cylindrica}: The cylinder touches tlw redu ·e I ·.a rth at
the Equator. Projection i from the cc . here.
Graticule , Meridian : Parallel traight Jin .

ParallelsofLatitud: r str;,ig liL
line , pacing increa r.
. Corr tat the Eq ua . l·~ci11t1tnr
as the sec nt of the latitud .
, Corr ct at the Equator. At all oth r ltt ti udc -, ·hart
conver encei.sle th nEarhc nvcrgen ' .•
r rec.tir ar , rried ut l'! i1n1 I Rh nmb Line traight line.

tion: Mathemati 1 111
n t mk rh m rphi .Thi. pr Jj ti n 1' ~di ed Gt at CirclP Curve· convex o th near r pol. and ronrav · t< ll , ·•
Equ at r. Equ a or an d m ridians are traighl lin 1::.
1...,.._ _ _ _ _ _ _-J._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ ,_J
i) i Ha · impJ cylj nd rical proj crior1. Coni al Projection:

pr ~ .ctiu n Construction: Poin t o tan gency is ·1e pani ul r stan lar d I a ·all el ,•\ii Ii
( ') i cli
,rved onv ' th e c< n hr changed by changing ape x angle/ cone angle . Light s rce i t hr cc 111er
(iii) 1mb lin i I great circle i
tr. · ght line l
of tJ1 arth.
le imi . rt lindricaJ pr ~e tion.
89
88
r,._f\l I• O..,t:Nl:KAL NAVIGATION
___________ .;;:.;__...;...;.;.;;;.,,~_;__:__.
PROJECTIOt)IS _ __ ________. _____,
AUUlffD QIUA,T
: (v) Awav from standard Parallels scale expands at .h igh rate, map· is ortho
COICI..I
mor~hic only between 2 standard .P,~rall~ls . .
OARD MRA&.UI.
1Jsage: , . ' - ,'
• This projection is ipcreasipgly being used, as a _plottirig chart. Its other uses
o, OMMN are as t~ppgraphical charts, raqio aid charts, airways ch.a rts and meteorological
~DPAAAU~
;ynoptic charts.
l .
· . D.rawba~ks:
. . The ,greater the latitude difference' between the two standard parallels the
4-W · AH\JMBUHe
rreater the scale error and distortion of the shapes. If the shapes are greatly
· ~iitorted, so 'ar:e directions, with,a loss of ortho motphicj >r.o perties.
Properties:
...;'. ·, , :.:•' Iri'mid .war, thumb line is Pa,ral!e~ wi* the GC. Flying ~hat ~n_gle will I_Ilake
(i) Meridians are s_·trai,ght lines converging towards nearest poles. •. : ''air:craft follow RL path ..Convergence (m degrees) = d long (m degrees) x sm lat
(ii) P~ra IIe Is O f latitude are curved lines not equidistant from each of.her · t,.' ·•· ·{.tn"d~grees) · · ' " '
distance between increases a way from standard Parallels. ' .<?\h!~-~~ ~::~· ,__. .
.,_i ( , <
. I I
J \ ,
~~ ~~ (,
(i ii) Great circle is show n by a straight line. . BERT'S CONFORMAL . . . :1
(iv) Rhumb lin e is a curved line concave to pole or great circle or convex to •.
'
eq uato1: . ()rigiQ ().f Projection Conical: The cone. touches the reduced Eard1 at the
(v) Convergence is less then I (n <I) - . pai !17( of\ an~e~cr;' Proj~_ction from the center of the
sph~re
(vi) It is not •!11 ortho morphic projection. When it is corrected to make it
Graticule Meridians: Str,aighl'lines.converge toward the pole of
orthomorphi(ic is called Lamberts conical 01:tho morphic / c~nfor ~1~l
wi th in 2 standard Parallels. ..
, ,.
. proje,cti~n. 'Parallels ofLatitude:-Arcs of circles, 1
'nearly equallY, :spaced, with their center at the pole
Lam bert Conical Ortho morphic / Conformal with in 2 standa1·d ;
of projection. ' ' - .
parallels: Scal.e Co1>rect at the standard parallels. Expands outside the
Construction: Points of tangency are with in 2 standards of Parallels an d sta.ndard·parallels..i'ncl contracts between.the standard
ligh r rn urce is at laciwcle of origin. parallel Is ~ inimurn at_:he parallel of origin.
Pro-1Jerties: Convergence : C~rr~t at· the parallel of m:igin. Chart convergence is
.equal
.,
to Ch Long x:Sin'Parallel of Origin.
(i) Appeanmce of meridian and Parallels of latitude are similar to simple -·.:;. '
conical projection. RhumbLine :curves concave to the pole of projection. Meridians are
'straight lines.
(ii) Mathematical corrections are carried out by choosing 2 standard ·,'
Parallels to make it ortho morphic. Great Circle '"· --,•·~·
: •Gur~~ •f !)!IC3.Ve·t~ the·parall~l oforigin. Closest to a
(i ii) G/G is a curved line concave to latitude of origiii. But, for practical . . . lin~
sq-;tight . at the parallel of origin ,
purposes it may be considered a straight line.

(iv) Scale is correct at standard Parallels, between them scale contracts ,,nd Polar Stereographic Projections:
it is least at latitude of origin. The scale contraction is very less. i.e. less . Construction: It is zenithal p,cj~ction with point of tangency at pole and
th en I %, therefore be tween 2 standard Parallels scale is constant. point of projection at·oppo~ite-pole.
9.0 ' 91
PROJECTIONS
Properties:
pOLAR S'!EREOGRAPHIC:
(i) This is an only projection which is u-uly persp~ctive and.orthomorphic. Origin of Projection Azimuthal: The flat plate Couche th e re.d u ·ec..l
(ii) Meridians are straight lines converging towards nearest pole. Earth at the pole Projection is from the op posi te pole.
(iii) Parallels of latitude are concentric circles and distance 'between theni Graticule Meridians: Straight line radia ting fr 01 di · pol ·
increases .form pole to eqtiator. Rhumb line is a·curve concave to the Parallels of Latitude: Circle P. nte r e<l 0 11 h e pnl,- .
Pole. Parallels of latitude are demonstrative. The spacing inc.Tea e ctwrl y frnm ~ o_lt-_ _ __ _ ---1
(iii) Convergence on this map is equal to one. Convergency reduces towards . Correct at the pole. Expands a wa · fro m rh , pr,,, ;i ·~
Scale 2
the e.q uator, .where it is O; so ch.art convergency ·is constant at 1, correcr - Co-latitud e ] . · ale 1., )J r e( t , . , , 111 11
only at the Poles; tooJarg~ .away fi:om the Pole. , . secant o f t h e 2
[
(iv) When· plotting in high latitudes not. too far ·away from. the Pole where ~.;·,' l % to 78°N/S. and to ,. jchin 3% to 70° '/ .
.Convergency is correct; a GC is taken to be a straight line for practical :(
.purpc;>s-es. As distance from· the Pole ipcreases, a GC in fact curves concave ''. · · Convergence Correct at pole. At all points on th e ch art.
convergence equals Ch Long.
to the Pole, and· finally the equator, itself a' GC, will appear as a distinct '!,~
curve. Rather an academic , point for a chart used for aviation in the ·RhumbLine Curves concave to the pole of projection. 1 kr idi · 1
Polar Regions, perhaps; A str.aight line drawn on a polar stereographic are straight lines.
chart ,is. sometimes referred to as a stereo dro:me. Curves concave to the pole. leridja.ns a r , 1·aight
Great Circle
(v) • R/L-is a curved line-concave to ·nearest pole or G/C or convex to equator. lines. Close to the pole ma be con 'idered craigh l
(vi) The scale is correct ·at the ·pole. The distances measured very close to line for plotting purposes.
the Pole is very nearly cor.tect distances. Away from the pole the scale
-expands.
,, Transverse Mercator: The Transverse Mercator i a c, Jin lri cal ·o ·en ·o;i
placed horizontally on the reduced Earth such that cylinder and the globe t u h
along a chosen meridian and corresponding anti-meridian , a ._1, w 1 t • i
the chosen meridian and anti-meridian are known a the central m ri dia n ·.
NORTH POU
the points at which the central meridians cro ·. the equ aUJr ,lrr.. · u •1 , · 1 , '" ''
points of origin.
nATPLATil'OR .
"ROJfCTJOH ,10,,..:,,"--J--<i-l-°~
Properties:
, !QUATOR
(i) The chart is ortho morphic.

UGHTSOURCE (ii) The scale is correct along the d a tum m erid jc n c1 n iL, 111 11- in, · 1 111· . :·
Expands away from the datum merid ian at th r 1 c~ -; c an t , f 111 · \2. 1 , 1'
OrNnwkh
circle distance.
Merldlen
(iii) Convergency is correct at the equat r an_<l th e I _. Us ·I ere it 1
incorrect and as the meridians are curv d, 1 o im pl ~ 1, n n ul ca 1 >
given for chart convergence. However, up 900 mi l s frn , , c , 1.
meridian the error is very small and ma be negle t d , ,r al I µ r aL Li d
purposes.
(iv) Any straight line which cuts the cen tral merid i n t 90° i.· il gre..: t cir k
by construction. Elsewhere, gr at circl s are curv . )nec1 vc tn t I w
92 93
FART I - GEN~RAL NAVlGATION PROJECT(ONS,
datum meridian and anti-meridian giving complex curves. For pra ticaJ · •oblique ,Mercator: The oblique Mercator :is •a cylindrical projec~on. in
purpo es any straight lin drawn near the datum meridian may be take 1 · .· ..,, the cvlinder touches the reduced Earth along a chosen great crrde of
co represent a CC. dus cas"" , , . .. -
,tangency (someti,.mes refene$1 to as the Fals~ ~quator).
( v) All m ridian and parallels are rhumb lines, curves concave to the neare
pol .
TRANSVERSE IVIERCATOR:
Origin of Projection Cy~indrical: Th~ cylirn;ler touches the reduced Eartl1 :y:/J'ropertjes: . _ . . /
at the selected meridian . ~/•;;.' h> . The chart is ·ortho morph.ic (conformal) . ., //
Graticule Meridians: The datum meridian, the Equator, and · (ii) · · The scale is correct ~ong ·t he datum great circle-.;
✓ meridians at 90° to the datum meridian are straight line~. (1ii) Conveigency may be.
assumed to be- reasonably correct close to the
Other meridians are complex curves.
datum great circle: ·
Parallels of Latitude: Ellipses, except the equator.
Close to the pole are nearly circular. ·,A(iv) Great .circles ar~ rur,ves ,~oncave to the datum great ~ircle. Great circles
intersecting the-datum-gieattjrcle ,at,90° will be straight lines.
catc Correct at the datum meridian. Expands away from the
, (v) IUiumb line.s are coinplex!'curyes.
datum meridian as secant of great cirde distance from
the datum meridian.
Convergence Correct at the Equator and poles.
OBLIQPE MERCATOR
, ,.
,
;·'- :-
.Rhumb Line Complex curves. Datum meridian, meridians at 90° to tOngin of Projection . -'..:Cyl~.'1dri~~f:'T'tie cylina.er. fr;>ucpes the reduced Earth
the datum meddian are straight lines. alon:g -~ select_e d gr_
eat circle route·:
-
Great Circle C Jmplex curves except che datum meridian.
1
Datum meridian, Equator, and the meridian at 90° to

Gratic~le . ~ ·-~~i:t~ans: ·oµ~-~-c9n~ve·to:~.~datum great circl~.
, The ·!11¢fidi.an passing through the pole of the datum
the datum can be taken as straight line~. gte~Hir~e·ll istraight line·. · 1
• •
Any straight line ·at a -right angle to the datum meridian -h,riill~ts~ofLa'µtude: Com.plex·curves cutting the
is a great circle. <°l~ineridians. 9'c) ! at~ 0
'. ..
'
I • • . •
. . ·-
·9Hr·r_~t~at -t4e rieai circle or tangeng. ~ands as secant
of great circle·disunce from the great circle of tangency
94
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION PROJECTIONS
Within 500nm of the great circle of tangency may be

- th !
point where the 70° 7 ..5' W is marked. m rk a m 11 a~ c h ;'l ,,,'tll r:1 r1 .·
used as a constant seal~ chart. .
the longitude mark. That 1t, the p int wh re h wn a rc i 1 r~ •· '11t· 1 ••
- po ition.
Convergence Correct along the great circle of tangency, at the poles
and at .the Equator. Measuring 'lracks And Distances:
. On Lamberts: Join the two points by a straight lin ·. Align ,r
RhumbLine Comple. curves. alo~g the mid meridian between the two points on the traight lin
Great Circle Complex curves. Ciose to the great circle of the ~L track.
tangency may be interpreted as a straight line Distance may be measured along the s~alc diagram or latitude cal .
1
On Mercator's: On a Mercator prqjection a rhumb lin t.
1
The .r epresentation of m~ridians, parallels; great circles and rhumb lines: r meridian at the same angle. In other words, it is a line of the sam 1 . r·
/'' G/C is always towards the p-ole. Great circle is a curved line convex to the • •throughout. Although it does not represent the shorte t distance . e t een
~earer ~ole ~n Mercator chart. O n Lamberts an d Polar Stereographic charts G/C . points it ·co meets, this fact is not important unless ve ry large d 1, t • r . _. " ·r·
is a straight line.
involved.
I . Rhumb line is always towar ds equato; . On a Mercator chart R/L is a straigh/ ~---" _· Since rhumb line is a straight line on Mercator's , track can be me ~. m -rl h
line. On Lamberts and Polar Stereographic. charts R/L is a curved line concave to . · joining the two places by a straight. line and measuring track angl an , "' h e r c n
the nearer pole. the line.
The use of current' aeronautical charts: When measuring distances on Mercator's projection the middl
between the two points should be used. On Earth 's urface. l 11
For plotting purposes, all conformal ch~ts can be placed into two categories:
·may be considered 60 nautical miles in length; whereas, the ]em;-tli I ' 1 ii
Category M: (Standard) Mercator longitude varies with latitude. Therefore, the latitude scale m t. r 1s c i ·
1
. Category L: ,All &hers - usu ally one of the following: Lambert's Conformal, measuring distance. Al though this scale is expanded -1 a 1 1 n- ~11.0 1 1 .· 1 • •
Oblique Mercator, Transverse Mercat0r, Polar Stereographic. the expansion exactly equa1 to the expansion of distance a t tht· -. ;rnw l,wr, ,r\ ,
Therefore, in measuring distance on a Mercator chart. n • m u. t 1,~ ·are-fu!
Plotting ,Positions: With the understanding of the latitude and longitude ~ to use the latitude and longitude scale in the area o ne i: mca u r>"' ~· . , · ~ , , ·-
scales, we can. learn how· to plot a position. We can quickly and accuratdv 1
plot any known positi?n. For example, a position at (LaL 36° l l 'N, Long. 0
~·o the longitude scale.
Plotting Bearings from ADF/VOR: Bearing are ah a s pl red fr m \ _
17 .5'W) can be plotted as follows: · ·,
station. Since bearings obtained from Radio Stations are Magn eti , tl , r fl r
Find the latitude, 36° 11 'N, on the latitude scale. Place the point of the converted to True. It is not necessary to apply convergency when pl ti V
compass on 3_6° and m~.C:lS.~~ .up 11'. ; mark the scale with the compass lead. \,. ADF bearing on a Lambert or Polar Stereographic chart. It i ~ h o e r n
Without opening or cl.9s.ing the, compass, move the p oi nt of the compass to apply a correction for conversion angle when plotting VOR a rtn
over to the proper meridian. In this case it is 70°. Mark the m eridian with the Mercator chart, if the change oflongitude between aircraft and st.a ion i
latitude measu r~meilt . Next we will· find our longitude 70° and measure 17 .5' .
Car e rtj.ust .,be~i~r _to . m¢~sure iow_ards ~ the 'west or left, towards the next
Detailed procedure to plot bearings is given in Part 3, Radio r a , at' n .
hi~her longitude .. We will u·s,e o~ r lead to 'm ark 9ff 1? .5'. Move the compass
pomt up to. ,~he ,36° pa~~le) . :an,d .~ ar~ . off .1 7..5'. Con tinue to move up the
1
70th meridian to the p oint wher e you m arked off .the latitude (36°11 'N) and . ............................................................................................................................................................ ... ... ..... . ...... ...
mark off your longitude. You will- mark off -the longitude once again , this ti.me
mak.i ng 'a small arc: .pl~ice· the .;poirit of the compass on the 36° parallel · at ~
97
_ _ _ _ _ ___:,_P..:.,:~.:.;,RT:...:_,:t-:_:G:.:E:!.:N~E~RA~L.!..:=~~Vl~G~A~:n~O::.,:N:___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -~. \?' / -~
-_~-~---;------:--~:--~-:--~P~RO~JE=-CT~IO.;,.._N_S_ _ _--:--_ _ _ _ _-:--_ _
.'i ,.r, :; --~ ,,..:,-·· ;, ~ ,
~-r?,:·•"3'·.~-~~:-··: · - -' Lam

. bert conformal conic projection, wit~ two s~anclardparallels the
Questions • .. 1 ··910 0 n a . ., .. .
_·. :~ . ~n·;:·:, i) / .:~·;~~~)~is?,' . .. ,. ' . .
1
I' :· : {ft~/.· ,-a) .'/t'~~ect only along the parallel of 9ngm.
✓
QL Radio Navigation charts (Jeppesen) uses: ~;}Jf1t~-\~J-~:'.~p~ec~ only atlthe pQles. . . .. . .
~) Lam berts confonna1 conic projection ;;{f.?1\i;:J . _. ·aorr~t only along the standard p~l~ls. . · .
b) Mercator's projection ~Ji\f_: ()~
· -,(: :Tr~~~-~r~e ,Mercator c)\at~ scale ls exactly COf}'.'ect al~og ~e?
c) IMPP .:::~~: \· ·_~,-_':~~1\~'M;rid·i~ oft~nge~cy;_ b). Prime·. meridian.•
<1,:~1r:'··'·•;',~.\?" /-,,:,:: ·~ ' •
c)Standard latitudes.
2. A rhumb line is a straight line. This applies ~o }l\"&•J~ ._0~:.Ji!Yb,rts co~cal proje~ti~n, the given ~cale is correct at·_ · _ and
rn:-. ) Mercators b) Lamberts · c) IMPP. ,:>q;;~'.,; ~.J:rAcin.v.ergeDCe:j5 'correct at __}_. •' .
' ·, :__ :. :··a) ~;"~a~nide.oforigift, latitude of.origin .
~ ) Meridians and parallei intersect at right ang_Jes. This applies to
a) Mercators b) Lamberts 3-,VBoth. , , ,. , ._."",~"-'"·- ·._·, ~ r -.._6) /L~titude oiorigin, standard Parallels
Q4. On the Mercator's chart, . , . .-< :~, ;Standard -Parallels,Jatitude-of.origin~ · .
::;;::::;,-Jef' Distortion
Pole
increases away from !he Equator. b) Distort.ion increases away from the
,_.,. . '-__,,--.___.,...,__>------~-- -
~t·':~:f·'Q~J; Ji1ti~-~e~s~nng track at Lambert conical projection protractor is to be
:~-- ' i : , •~ J piacecht: · · · ,
· · ,!, ~ -~ ~) Latitude of departure
9
c) Parallels of latitude are not straight lines. b) Latitude of arrival c id way longitude
1
·
<')5.
- The sea l e on a Lamberts projection is correct only along Ql4. The angular difference, on a Lambert conformal conic chart, b ~ the
1) The standard paraJi els · arrival-and departure track is equalto? ·
._,,,_- - ...
b) The equator a) Departure angle. ~ b) Map·convergence. . c) Secant of½ latitude.

. - ---....-....... - >.
,, _,...~ c.;) 111e end paralleis of latitude and 2degs. on either side of the central meridian. Ql5. On a Direct Mercator chart, meridians are?
~ Charts are used only for: a) Parallel, equally spa_ced, horizontalstraight-lines.
0)7Flying over seas b) Dead reckoning navigation c) Polar navigation. b) Convergir.g curved lines .
.) 'Parallel, equally spaced, vertical straig!it lines:
~
rr!_) In an ortho morphic projection,
~ Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles Q16. On which of the following chart projections ls It not possible to represent the
north or SQuth poles?
b) Meridians and para11els are straight lines
a) Polar Stereographic.
c) Both the above
b) Direct Mercator..
Q8. The chart.that is generally used for navigation in polar areas is based on a? c) Lambert's co·rucal.
a) Lambert's Confonnal.
QI 7. Which one of the following, concerning great circles on a Direct Mncator
b) Transverse Mercator.
chart, is correct?
c) tereographlcal p·rojection.
a With the exception of•meridians-and_the e.quator, they are curves concave to the
9. On a Lambert conformal conic chart the convergence of the meridians is? equator.
The same as earth convergency at the parallel of origin. 1 b) Straight lines.
b) The same as the seal~. . -- ~ , c) Curves concave to the nearest pole.
c) Most accurate at the standard parallels.
99
~: I - GENERAL NAVIGATtO N PROJECTlO S
ert confonruil conic chart, the distance between parallels of . \ here is the con ergency correct on a Thans,1er e !ere tor
e paced the ame number o{ dM~ apart? 16
t the datum meridian and the Equa r.
a
Increases between and reduces outside of the standard parallels. b Only at the Equator and poles.
ces be een and expands outside the standard parallels.
c Only at the datum meridian. .
constant between the standard parallels.
. Io which of the following projections will a plan~ su ....face touch t e r
27
19 kb one of the following statements is correct concemlng the appearance; of earth at one of the poles?
gre.at circles, with the exception of meridians on a polar tereograpbic cha.-t a Stereographic. , b) Direct Mercator. c Tran v
who e 1-ngency s at the pole?
A The higher the latitude the closer they approximate to a straight line. Q28. The scale on a Lambert s conformal conic chart.
) The lower the iati.tude the closeT they approximate to straight line. a I constant
b) Is constant along a parallel oflati..tude. 0
c ever approximate to straight lines.
c) ls cor,.stant along a meridian oflongitude.
20. Wh ch one of the following descn'"bes the appearance of rhumb lines, except
meridians, on a polar stereographic chart. Q29. The scale i correct on a transverse Mercator chart?
a Straight lines. ~Curves concave to tbe pole. c) Approximately straight a) Along the datum meridian and meridian at 90° to it
line. b t the prime meridian .
Ql1. What the value of the convergence factor on a polar stereographic chart? c) ong the grea circle of tangency.
a) 2.0. b 1.5. / 1.0. 30. The nominal scale of a Lambert conformaJ conic chart i the .
'2l On a Dlrect Mercator, rhumb lines are? a) Scale at th standard parallel . •
>) Straight lines. ,, b Scale at the parnllel of origin.
b Curv concave to the nearest pole. c Scale at the poles.
c) Cu:rv convex to the nearest pole. 31. What type of projection is generally u ed for charts u ed for na ig tion i
( Ql p rfectly traight line on a Lambe~ chart i .1/-- . . . North and south polar area ?
a Lambert s conformal.
A p llel oflai'tude. b) A rbumb bne. J A mendtan of long1tude.
b) P lar ~ ereographical projection. , ~/-
24. Which of the following statements be,t des ribes bow scale vane~ on a
c) Dir ct Mercot r.
rcator chart?
a) [tis corrc ton the tandard parallels, but expand out ·ide them , anc.J contracts J2. On a Lam bert Confo rm aJ conic chart great circle tha t are not r
with in them. a) urves concave to the pole of projection.
xp nds dir ly with the ecant of the lati tude. b Strnighl line vitbin th tandard parallels.
p ds the secant (½ x co-latitude . ) Curves concave to the parallel of origin. 0
2 . m on'for mal chart the dbt.nce between merJdian 5° apar Q . Parallels of latitude, except the equator, are?
la ·tude 37 North 1, 9 cm.. The scale of th e chart at th at puallel ) Rh umb lines. - b) Complex curv s. c) Great 1r le.
) 1 : 5 000 000. c) 1 : 4 000 000.
100
PROJECTIONS
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION•
4
Iethods Of Indicating Scale And Relief: --
_ h_
measurement or calculation of d istance is an essential element · ·: : ·.· ·
1
_ :Lr tion. On a chart, distance is normally measured
using a scale bar·or usi~n if.:' :·
. iv , ,.r , b~1t a_~nowl~dge of the means of calculating distance is also required an~ \'.' ..
1 c,> r ed m t111 ect1on . · · .:
1' /
\.,/ 1
b e are
(a)
1,, . f
m.am systems o measurement:
ImperiaJ measurement - statute mile, yards, feet and inches. j:·
(b) Syst~ms Interndatioil~l~ls (S I) -The Metric System: kilometers·, meters,
cenumeters an m 1meters.
(c) Angular Measurement - Th~ n autical mile (nm).
SCALE: The scale of a map or chart is the ratio of a given distance on the
map or chart to . the actual distance it re. .resents on t e Ea r th . Th e •sea e o f a .
chan .at _any P? 111 t may e exp ressed in several ways. The four ; xamples of scale _. Scale
d ,. npt1ons g1ven below refer to the same chart, and all four are correct:
Large
(a ) 1/63,360 ✓ 1
(b) I to 63,360 ' 6000
(c) 1: 63,360 /
(d) 1 inch to I stamte mile (one statute mile being 63,360 inches). ,.,.
Ratio of Map Distance to Earth Distance is called scale. O n a map , scale is l' = 1 Nm °1 = 60 nm ·
iv ·n by following. / <--;_ 1 nm= 6,080' = 1.85km 1 km= 3,280J ·= 1,000M 1 m = 3.28'
... ,,,/'' Representative fraction (rf) 1 Sm = 5,280' l' = 12" l" = 2.54 cm
.:;/' Statement in words Relief. The inequalities in elevation of the surface of the earth represented
/ Graduated scale. on the aeronautical charts by contours, hypsom_etric tints, spot elevations and hill
shadin g, Lhe choice of method.being affected by the nature and scale of the· chart
REPRESENTATIVE FRACT ION: and its intended use.
·ca,e on map is given in a frac tion with numerator always as 1. Contours and .Form Lines: Contours are the lines drawn on a map or chart
1 1 joining places or'tqual elevation. W,ben these are approximately drawn they are
e.g. 10,000 ' -l,-00-0-
,0-0-0
called form lines.
·I he smaller the dencminator of the re presentati ve fraction, the larger the Spot Heights: .I~ the presentation of pot elevation in feet or meters as
ale of the chart described. indicated below: 1730.
TATEMENT IN WO RDS: A statem ent gives ra tio of map · Djs t_a~~~ -·~o. eart~ Layer Tinting: I n- order to indicate height intervals, shades of color are
~i~, ~ ~- .! e.g. chosen wh ich become deeper with ~ncrease of height. Thus at a glanc~ a pilot can
(i) I km = 10 Nm know the type of ter rain.
(:j) On this map 1 cm rep resents 5 km . Hachuring: H achures are sh ort tapered lines, usually employed to indicate
high ground on charts. T llese lines radiate away from peaks and high ground.
GRi DUATED SCALE: A calibrated scale gives, the ratio of rr.ap Distance to earth
Dhance.
103
102
PROJECTIO
In the-middle of th tap r d li1 spot h ights showing high st levation c m
.., r. l r/• ., ~-
also be shmv-n.
Hill shading: i a method of sh ding ·o that if Lrigl t ligh is -bin.i n g ae ro ·
Q34. On Jepp esen ch arts calo i giv n in folio ing
a) R prnsentative f: acti n.
an r:
1-
r:
--
--- _) ...
} f1 l.
the map, shad w ar ca t by the high ground.
Conventional Signs:
b) Graduated seal nd s tern nl in
c) All of the ab ve ./
rd
an
--- ) '
Q35. Nautical mile is more than a tatute mil e. Stat it mi t'l
ICAO Chart Symbols kilometer. /..- t'/
Civil Land
o· Joint civil and -
Milltarv Land ()- Sheltered
Anchora2e I~
-- a) Both statemen r ' /corrc9tfI .,, b) On] k'l1 orn~ter
c) Only statute mile 1 afore than a nautical mile.
1
Civfl Water
. <i> ,Joint civil and
'Military Water ♦
Aerodrome on
charts with no
0 Q36. 1000 meters equals:
Military Land Aerodrome dentification
0 Emetg~ncy or 0 a) I run b) 0.545 nm c) 0.545 km
no facilities Q37. Contours are lines drn"".n on a map or chart join'og

Military Water f\.bandoned or Heliport a) Places of equal elevation b) qua I pre. ure E ua' ·:n-·.-:'1 •"'11 .
~ closed
@ ®
........ Aerodrome -. Q38. Maps· · e the details of the topography. Pilot can u e this for:
b) Instrument flying c) Dead r c -om a:i '~ a ,,-
AERODROME SYMBOLS FOR APPROACH CHARTS
. Q39. Graticule is the network of meridians and parallels on :
Aerodrome The aerodrome on · a) Earth b) Maps o c) Both
,,,.· affecting the which the
aerodrome on procedure is based .Q40. The scale of a chart is shown as 1: !million. Thi me n ha
which the a) l '' on the chart equals 1 million inches on the Earth
rocedure is based b) 1 c.m. on the chart represents 1 million centimeters on the Earth
Symbol IJt,,,..
W'
Collocated VOR and
Basic radio nav aid c) Both. 0
Identification .. DPN TACAN
NDB FVlf~ ID Q41. Representation of high ground on a projection can be · th
.e:-.ma@.._\ (
a) Contours and form lines b) Spot heights and Layer tinting
VOR
·Q42. Map Distance= 10". Earth Distance= 120 nm. Find sea e.
ILS
flCl(a,JRSl Scale = l Map Distance _ 1 "
DME [!) -f- = Earth Di tance - 120 nm
VORDME 8 {
Scale=
DME Distance to DME In
R.77,520
distance km/nm _ __
Elliptical ~'1
25km Radio Marl<er
Q43. Map Distance= 13.2 ''. Ans. ED = 350 nm. Find c le
Beacons 1---------~ MD 13.2n
Scale =
VOR radial · R 037-DPN ED 350nm ') 50
UHF TA.C.TICAL NAV AID f = (25536000)..;. 13.2 = 1934545
1
Scale = -~~ --
11934,545
,104
105
PROJECTIONS
Q 44 . O n a map 3 ·m represent earth Distance of 200 statute mile. Find scale of map. 04
s. on a direct Mercator projection, the distance measured between two
meridians spaced 5° apart at latitude 609 N Is 8 cm. The Scale of this chart at
S al = MD 3 m 3cm l latitude 60°N is approximately?
ED ~ = 200x5,280X 12X2.54cm = 10,728,960 a) I : 3 500 000. b) 1 : 5 000 000. c) 1 : 2 000 000.
Q4S. O n 8 map scale of 1: 2xl0 6• How many km are represented by a line 4.2" long? · Q49. On a direct Mercator projection,.at lati,t ude 45° North, a certain length
·. represents 70 NM. At latitude 30° ·North, the same length represents
~cal = MD = _l__ _ · 4.2 11
ED 2 x1Q 6 - ~ , approximately?
a) 86 nm. b) 75 run. c) 45 run.
4.2' X 2 X 106 == 8.4x 106 ._ ~ \ • V •
~' . •,: QS9- At;60° N·the scale of a dir'ect Mercator chart is 1 :3000 000. What is the SC?le
.4X 2. 54 X 106
X = 21 3. 36 km . , ., at tb~.eq~at~r? ' .
1 x 10 :,
a) 1 _: s ood ooo. b) 'J. : 6 ooo ooo. c) 1 : 12 ooo ooo.
<) 46 · o.n a map scale of 1: 1 xl 06. How many inches are represented by ground
D1 tance of 400 km.
Scale = MD l MD
ED =·
1 X 106 400X3,280X12
MD = 15 .74 inches
, -,Q: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 JO 1 l 12 -rn 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
,, .
;
SCALE ON A MERCATOR CHART: A: a a C a ·a a a C 9. c · ~ , C C b C b a b a b
:
Steps:
✓
Convert scale at a given latitude to equtor before
converting to another latitude Q;,, .211 22 23 24 25: ~G 27 -i~ 29 :30 31 32 3~ 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
; -~
Scale of Equator = Scale at a latitude x cos lat
/!.
.- .A: ..
~.
C ,a C b b .' b a
"
b; ~ a b C a C a b b a b C
Q· 7. On a mcrcator chart scale at 57°N = 1: txJ0 • Find Scale at 6
(i) Equator (ii) 35° S (iii) 25° N

;
;.:Q : 41 42 43 :44 45 46 47 48 49 50
l Scale at Equa tor
(a)
10 6 = Cos57° A: C - - - - - - a a b
0.544
cale at Equator == 105= 1,838,235
rl)) S ·al
Cc C at <J
-? ,J
r:;o -
-
l
1,838, ...935 X - - - - ;;:;:
cos35
1
1,505,794
( ) Scale at 25°. r= I s c::•gl 29 ~

• ~k. J:J
x -- - - = 1,666,006
cos25°
l
106 107
DAD REC 0 D)
Chapter ir p ed (IAS CAS, TAS, M ch mher) :

ASIR - Airspeed Ind ication Reading . Th . 1 hi ·h i~ ind i, ~.r,. ,l In· ; ,1
,, itho L r~ cti . n_._

I~S _ Indicated Air pe d. Th e ~pt cl l1o wn b i o 1· r.11·r, 1r ' 1 ec·d 1
indicat r caiibrat d t rell t sr and aLd _mo .ph ~r -_-i ab<1ti< <. rn12_pre -.~It I,, .., .n
1 L.-.Ai1d uncor ctecl for irspe sy t m err r s.
CAS - Calibrated Airspeed. t <:d an< tn~ 1 u m tnt
rror. lt i equal to T a MSL in :-,tan<la1 d , t 0sr h r ·. ( ' c,,{' . In tl1f' l ·r. < ., ~
. is often referred to as R Lifi <l Air }.> • cl ( rl ,., ,11 Ii , 1. l,r 1 .r \'
1
5Computer).
EAS :_ Equivalent Airspeed. Tl e CA cor ecte l r or pre) ibi\i _\ , h
parti~ular pressure altitude unde r onsiderati on . [t i: _
r.1ual to C 1\ · -" ~ ~, _ " r ,, ·
1
atmosphere. (When applying the effect f cornpresstb1hty. he fa\\ ,' . 1 111 tnd
-first' if TA is > 300kt, this value is then c r rected (red ced l h he ,, r,, ,unt
necessary for compressibility).
Dead recko~int, as ~PP\ied to ~y_i~g, is the navigation ofan airplane solely by TAS - Tue Airspeed. The E S corrected fo!· d en ity err >1 ~rnrl 1•, • ,,. 1 1 11·
means of computano ns b ased on airspeed, course, heading, -wind direction and _·. ·speed of the aeroplane r · lative to th undistu rbe d a jr.
speedJ ·gro und p eed , and elap sed time. - - -- - ----- · ··
--- - - - - . Mach number: [l is ratio of TAS and L ·S (\onl , pe cl ,r o \ ,. ,, 11 . :, "-~
Basics Of Dead Re~konin : _peed of sound i not constant. for same TAS ~ ach number ch' n e" .
--rt=ac : A physicar p~th being followed or to be followed on eanh surface is Ground Speed: Applying h ead /tail wind omp onc nt " . ~ ,~t ,, ·! :·•; w ::
always in °(f) unle·ss -sp_eci'fied ~ R'.e quired track (RT) is the track required to follow -~P~~9· Obtained by m easurin g the length o f the T rne Cou r. e lint- "'.' r, ··• ,. , : 111
fo r going from one p lace to ancfrher. Track Made Good (TMG) is the track or ~f{ah gle (using the scale employed for dr a wi n g Lh e dia(Tr m ).
p a th, ac~ ally fo llowed by a ir craft ·b ve1· the-s-urface of earth. It can be obtained by
Total distance - Obtained by m a ··urin g the len gth of the \i • , •1n 1, •
joinin · starting ground ositipn and known ground position at ~ny _tit~·e-. ~-:;, / <•
chart (using the scale a t th e bottom of the ch art).
Heading(H): The d irection in which NC longitudinal axis is aligned/ nose is Estimated time en route (ETE) - t tal d i , ance
poin ted. Directio n measured in degrees do~kwise fro m true north, in which the
n ose of th e plane sh o uld point to m a ke good th e desired course. Fuel rate - predelerm ined fue l u . ed pe r h our at c · 1i ·· n~ . 1 i:•.,
Course: The in tended direction of fli ht. Direction of the Ji!i~ _co1~necttng NOTE : Additional fuel f or adequate reserve hould h~ adde . rr n s11_t:IJ n t. 1 •,
t~o desired poi m_s, drawn on the chart an~ measur ed clockwise in degrees from ., ETA: Estimated timeofarrival. For IFR High ts ~the t.in1e at ·hich it -- rn:,l ,·c,
l ·
true no rth on the mid-meridian.
Heading and course are .in the horiz~ntal plane measured clockwise in
degrees from Compass, Magnet.le, True or Gn d North.
th~t the aircraft will arrive over that de ignated pain . Je med
Q.avigation aids, from which it is intended that an instrum e1 1pp · Yl ·
will be commenced , or, if no navigation aid i a ociat d ·i h
. tim e at ,vhich the aircra ft wiH arrive over th a r :- n . hr · ~
·Wind Velocicy /Wind Speed: The dir ection from which the wind is blowing time at which it is estimated th at the airer ft \v · l
nd it's speed of movement on earth.
---, DR-Position: Dead reckoning (DR): i~ th
-:.P,osition based upon a previous} d e e n i, ed n.
1nntin...: nnf' tt;: •·'..1
. ,md ;(h-.1 ( in•r. l h, '
1
•
,108
lO 1
/
-- --------:--..'...!PA~R:~T_!l_:-~G~E~N~E~RA~L~N~A~~l~G~A~J~IO~N~--------
P~t l~on __ba_s~~ _upon knO\ n ? r estima ted ~pe d over elapsed t.ime, and course.
1
- ----- The G roun d ,r.ector·
,..
DEAD RECKONING NAVIGATION
. T his describes the dir~ction and -~eed

i-
(DR)
of the aircraft
h
\\ •7 ti ._ t 1 .id 1t 1 na l mcLh ,d 1 dead i- ckonmg ar · no longer 'onsider d prima, i.y ,er th gr un·d. It co_!!l ass ~ourse/tr.~~- (IB~) a?1 _groun~spee~ . (.9-_S). T e
r . . 0~ . below shows the completed tria ngle of veloc1ties:
111 .rn u n .. _tg t1011 rn tern inertial navigation ysLem ·, which also depend up diagram
\ id ly u d.
HEADINGff:6 .WD/WS
1 l a I rec korung ar e ver l
. . A di advant~ge )f d. ~d recko ning i that since new po ·itions a;e calculated .

ul I . r m I re. 1_o us pos1 10ns, h · error of the proces are cumulative, so th-= , :
rrnr m the pos1t1on fix grows witJ1 time. '" i_:.. ~ COURSE/GS
_ . Fix: A fix ~s an ~cn~rate ~round position of the aircraft determined by visual, . ~--
Wind Correction Angle : Wind Correction ~ glc ('NGA) is the angle th at
1 ad10 or rada1 1:av1gaaon aid s. The accuracy of the fi x is dependent on the { .),
ac u r ' of the aids used. · / o d. Angle must d eviate from the Desired Course to cor rect for the
0 ur .c1.ea mg . . d . 1 I 1.
ffect th e Wind is having on our aircraftJ d etermmed from the wm .m.ang_e. t. s
-~se o~ The Navigation~ Computer : Navigation computers like manually :q~h,alent to Dr ift and applied on the opposite directi?n of the Drift e~) if Dnft
<.~p .1 ate? .Ebil a~d dectrorncall y operated CX2 can expedite calculations like ... ,
is->-Jos, WCA will ~e 7°P. ~
/ s1..e ~· , frn~ , D1 ta n ce, Fue l Co nsumption , Conver ions, Heading, Airspeed,
\.V inc Velon ry tc. The mechanical or electronic computer has a n instruction bc..ok
t_li«L ~robably includes samp le problems so the pilot can become familiar with its
, ~~/:
: i~.
: , :- -- .;Drift (D): An gular Jiirerence ~etween heading and track made good is called
. It._. 1 ' -drift.
HEADING,w· Awo/WS
'.: ~~
Ju II uon. and operation. Scientific calculators are also usefu l in calculations. ·

The Triangle Of Velocities : Six variables given in the fig. consti tute ,:'. ,;_,_:<j;: HEADING/TAS
vd it Lrian 5 le. If four variables are known, other two can be found. H eading/
Ti·\..S is represented by a single arrow, (Course) Track/GS by two arrows and Wind
Dir e 'Lion/ Wind Spee9r by three arrows. Single and three arrows always follow
er1d1 o cher a n d double arrow is the resultant opposing them.
The Air Vector : T h is d escribes the path of the aircraft through the air. The
CO URSE/GS
WTA DRIFTI~
~ CA= Wind Correction Angle, WTA=Wind t~ track ~

C()URSE/GS
J
le
1
l1eading is the direction the aircraft flies in re ation to the air mass. The aircraft's
Desired Course = Heading ± WCA or Heading ± Drift
sp eed thro ug h the air is the true airspeed . The two sub-components of the air
.HMDIN7
vector a re h ea ding (H DG) and true airspeed (TAS). The air vectoi· is shown below: •.-~ ).~·
(W · is ad ded -to headil1g)fll!_e ·wind is
-fy0m the ifght. Opposite is true for Drift. )
to
from the left; subtract~d if wind is
•.·. • · Drift conver.ts h~~ding track ~r track to h eadin g. If you want to go

from true to rnmpass you need variation and deviation .
l
t ,: · · • Heading is th e· direction in which the aircraft is pointin g; ~ck i~ its
The Wi nd Vector: The wind vector describes the movement of the air mass i~ path over the Earth. T he angle between heading and track is d nft and
hro ug h which the aircr aft is traveling, over the surface of the Earth. Wind r it is measured from heading to track.
,..,J J(i t , wh en wr it ten , incl u d es the direction fro m which the wind is blowing an d
th e speed (u sually in kno ts). It is written as a 5 or 6 figure gro up eg, 330/25 . T he
C · Starboard drift is subtracted fro ~ track to give b ea ding or added to
;~ . • heading to give track. .
di,1gr am .sho ws the air vector and wind vector. . • Port d rift'is added to track to give heading or suhtracted from heading
. ,. ' ·· to give trade..
HEADING/T1/\ WD/WS :.·-· ·: . ~ ., When tracly ( f~G) is .right of
heading it is called ST~9~ ~~t
' • and when track is left of heading, it is called PORT drift.
- - - - - ~_, _ ....l
l ll
\.. ,._. AV\GAi\ON
Track Error (TE .. be w n k r ui.r tl

Ti1
mad e go ~L . t \\ \: ' l O
If T ~ OARD r k n an l p d
' en it ~~.....;..::.o~~
t ro r. Ru way a ? tl I ' , t l H_
te r n' te\ u
l
♦ TMG/RT/COURSE RIGHT 0
♦
TMG/RT/GOURSE LEFT
F HEADING, DRIFT STARBOARD
OF HEADING, DRIFT PORT
ong-runway ompo
(An • h ad w· it
(. 0
~ -
-- Aer o -runway comp = 0

ST TMG~T/COURSE - H + D n + cr o from starboard • c
\ ARRORD ADP (:+ ) , ~O~T SUBT RACT ( ) I
Wher 0 i. the differ nc b v en \ h wine ·
0 = Win d dire tion (M) - Runway H
l
)
~
♦ TTMG
MG RIGHT OF
LEFT OF TRACK
TRACK
_
RE
REQ~~D, TRACK ERROR STARBOARD
RED, TRACK ERROR P O RT. T he abov
T MG=RT±TF calculator, ..,m gi v
more than 270°) b_...,__ __ _
starh oard add ( +), Port subtract (- )
T h is ac ords with th e _standard practice for his t e of c l l
W h en evalu ating runway components i ~h uld b
HUDl~C/fAS - are norro~ly de cribed by their magnetic direct.ion and
TRACK converted mto a magnetic direc 10n a\ o.
RE.Q,UlUD
STARBOARD
- - ~CK ERROR
T MG. ~-
- ,
.....
-~ ..;.
Beam Winds~
In UK u sage, track refer s to the aircraft's actual movement over-the ground . Hdg.(fAS
WN
lt m ay be -the required or d esired track; th e calculated or DR (dead reckoning)
track or th e tra:ck already achieved usually refer red to as th e T M G (track made
good). · · · TRKJGS
In-U.~A,u sage ,,and so often _encounter ed when operating American aircraft
and in su ilme n\ systems, cwurSe i&used -to.indicate the required tr ack and track is \ inds Hdg:
Winds 90° to Trk: G/S < T AS
reserved to 4 escribe tht! actual p ath,over the _ground . ·
Calcufationst For d oing calculations Using CX2 calculator, Course and T AS
and H eading ·a nd GS are clubbed together. Wind Vector is represented as wind
dir ection and speed,Th\~ paitj.ng-is because a p ilot knows his course and T AS and
. . ... . . ... .. ..... . .
...................................... ......................... ·········· -•····· ····--· ··----·· - -·- ·· - ·· -
winds while planning. H e h.is to calculate his heading and groun d speed fro m
ava11able data. While flying a heading into the winds, "the pilot will get desired
\l 3
course and resultant ·ground s_
p eed.
I ll
DEAD RECKONING NAVIGATION (DR)
tT T
...
o-) Track·required
(1)
TE
90S
TMG l)RIFr
4°S
HDG
090~
Hdg Drift TMG TE Trk , ,,•' ·. (2) 225° 220° 3oP
( 1) ss
0
095° 'fi ' 1 -~--. '. {3) 4op 315° 322°
~ '
270° 269° 265° r~

~ rt~ Ans.
(iii) 2°s 145° 150°
Track requir&:~ TE TMG . DRIFT HDG
(iv) 055° ss 0
' (l)_ ,., 085° 9°s 094' 4°s 090~ ,.,
An. (2) 225° 5op 220° 3oP 223 1

Hdg Drift TMG TE Trk (3) 319° 4op 315° 1°P 37.20 .
(1 ) 090° ~os 095° 3°s 092° ., -i~:11:directions in s~bsequent questions are,true unless otherwise specified
(j i) 270° 1op 269° 4°S 265°
}
- · 'Qj1-20. ·
( iii) 143° 2°s 5op .. Find Wind Velocity
145° 150°
oo Heading TAS Course G/S Drift WN
(i ) 055° s0s 060° 060°
270 250 267 213 ·
155 300-· - 159 330
QS-7.
040 350 035 380 -
,.·
Track required TE TMG DRIFT HDG -:i. 210 620 205 .538 - --
.. 226 . 260 205 169 -
(1 ) 100° 097° 1°s
: . 310 400 . 300. 450 -
(2) 6op 264° 273°
11 °s 039° 260 355 268 .282
(3) 053 ° 3°J)
225 . 150 217 187-
ns. 047 173 058 197
DRIFT HDG ··-
Track required TE ..____
... TMG '--
- '·
1°s
'-
083 197 070
-· ;
228 -.
"'
'
( ]) ' 100° ~op 097° 090°
(2) 270° 6°P 264° 9op 273°
(3) . 053° 3op 050° 11°s 039° He~ding · ··t~ ".

· Course - - G/S Drift WN
'"
270 · 250 · 267 · 213 3P 286/39 -
l55 30,0 159 3?0 4S 014/38
040 ~~59 03.5 38,0 SP 173/45 I
114 us
---
W/V Drift
~
Course TAS
Heading TAS Course G/S Drift WN 010/100 SP 35
420
210 620 205 538 SP 239/96 510 260/90 5S
226 260 205 169 21P 257/120 240 250/50 4P
310 400 300 450 10P 070/88 120 2 10/20 10P
260 355 268 ·2s2 ss 233/85

2.25 150 217 187 8P 009/44 Q31. When Track is 010°. Heading 000 deg., the~ .,
a) o p 1 os c) i c! i '" ·, '~t., .. ~- · · ~
047 173 058 197 HS 288/43
I 10
083 197 07_0 228 13P 199/57 Q32. The path traced by an aircraft over the ground and th e intende
·t he same when
Q21-30. .. /4estimated wind and actual wind is the same b) there is no wind
Find -Heading and groundspeed c) there is no tail/head wind.

Course TAS WN Drift Heading G/S Q33. Drift is the angular difference between heading and track me red r
120 180 340/50
_;r) heading b) track c anJ ne 1 L lc· ,1rs-,· :
260 300 - 140/75 Q34. Drift occurs only when

020 240 120/40 · ,a) there is a cross wind b) there is a headw ind c there i a ta1liy 1 u
219 200 310/74 · Q35. Required track 300°1', drift 8° right, variation 10° W deviation -4(1 - ·
the require4 compass heading?
163 ·- 120 ✓ 075/23
010
· 350
220 .
420
350/65
010/100 ·
: ;~1:
C) / 298°
~· / ~ )f
"/ Ci ·
,- / _/ ~
290 510 260/90 I . .t
Q36. 1 What are; ne a\ong- and across-runway comp onen fa
t
230
120 ·
..
240
120
25Q/50
-21~/20 /
7 runwa~ 7 and 25'! Magnetic variation is 10°W.
An .. Magnetic WV 100°M/40 kt. Runway 070() M
Ans.
·(' n = 100° -0701) = 30° -
Jli Head wind= - 40 cos30° = - 35 kts (nearest kt)
Course TAS W/V Drift Heading G/S
..-- ··- / Cross wind = 40 sin 30° = 20 kts from Starboard
120 i80
~
~340/50 toS 110 216
Note that if landing in the opposite direction : 3 · ts
260 300 l40/75 12S 248 330
Headwind= 100- 250 = - l 50 + 360 = 210 ,,
1/ I •
020 , . 240 . 120/40 lOP 030 243 - 40 cos 210 = 35 . indicating a 35 kts tail, ind c I
219 . 200 3J0/J4 22P 241 188 Cross wiud = 40xSin 210 = - 20 kts from P rt . t
163 - 120 075/23 us 152 117
010 220 350/65 6S 004 158
·116 ,- ;-(2~ ~
~(:~
1
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION ·• \~S '
,- - - - - - -- --~~~~~~~~~~---------- .~~ _/·_;-t , . DEAD RECKONING NAVlGATION (DR)
/ 7. Ile wlnd at an airfield ls reported to be 330/30. What will be the wind , •. / ____,
, omponent along and aero s runway 04? _-~~ ' / _ An aircraft is following a true track of 048° _at a constant TAS of 210kt. The
44
a) 10 Kts headwind
) 10 kts tailwind
28 kts crosswind from the left.
28 Kts crosswi_nd from left the.
·-'<
:· . :\ .
1
l
Q wind velocity is 350° / :rn kt. Th.e GS and drift angle are?
a) 192 kt 70 right. (.. - •1ol b) 196 kt, 7.50 right. c) 196 kt, 7~50 left. 1~·
0
) 2 ' ts head, ind 10 kts crosswind from the right
'he r ported surface wind from the control Tower is 2400135 kt. Runway 30
(303°M). What is the cross-wind component? ..i "
l ·,
C'
·: \ / Q 45 _ F~r a given track ~ d component =+45 kt, Drift= 15° left, TAS = 240
kts. What is the wind component on the reverse track?
a) 81 kts. b) -62 kts. c) -43 k~ ·
r
J 30kt. b) 35kt. c) 26kt. Q46-. Magnetic heading= 255°, VAR= 4O°W, GS~-375 kt, W/V = 235u(T) 1120kt.
9. he maximum fac orised cross wind that in which a particular aircraft can · Calculate the drift angle? (_ t. ) {, .,
take-off is 10 Kts. What is the acceptable wind at 330 in which the aircraft can
t kc-off from runway 09? Q47. True heading= 180°, TAS = 500kt, WN 225° / 100 kt. Calc~Late the GS'?
) 2 Kts. . b) 32 Kts. c) 12 Kts . a) 435 kt. b) 575 kt. c) 3~0 kt.
-.:5, . T 1 reported wind at an airfield i 270/30. What along track and across track _ Q48. True,heading = 310°, TAS = 200 kt, GS= 176 k4 Drift angle 7° right. Calculate
<"..., " ·ia d components must be used in the take-off calculation for an aircraft using ( , the W/V?
~
~
.J
\ runway 29? . · _ a) 27 , 33 kt b) 270° / 33 kt c) 270° / 43kt.
a) 28 kts tailwind I 0.5 Kts from the right.
~ ·Q49. ue track-is 348°, drift 17°Ieft, variation 32°W, deviation 4°E. What is the
'--"1 b) 28 Kts headwind 10.5 Kts from the left.
c...s- c) 10.5 Kts headwind 28 kts from the right.
· · compass ·headin·g ?
·· .· · a) 007° · b) 359° c) 033°
' .tl. What is the ETA at Z? lfTAS = 380 Kts, what is the forecast and actual HW/ ,QSO. True heading= 090°, TAS = 20!) kt~WN .;_-l2O .. 30 kt Calculate tl1e G8,
TW component? ✓
a) 200kt .b) 140kt c) 220kt ~~
~ /
Determination of DR position
X 120 nm Y 180 nm Z Dead Reckoning "(DR) is the process of estimating one's current posit.ion
ETA ' Y' is 1036 UTC ATA 'Y' is 1032 UTC. based upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing tha t posit~r,n
ATD ' X' is 1012 UTC
based upon known or .esti_m ated speeds over elapsed time, and course. Nh.iie
.i) 1112 UTC/+80kts/+20kts . tr~ditional methods of dead r.eckoning are no longer considered primary mean
b) 1110 UTC/+40kts/-1 Okts · ofnavig~tion, modern inertial navigation systems:, which also depend upon dncl
c) l 102UTC/-80kts/-?0kts rec'wning, are very widely used.
A disadvantage of dead reckoning is that since new po ition <1.re a\cul 1ted
Q-42 . True track: J92°, Magnetic var iation: 7°E, Drift: 5° left what is the magnetic solely from previous positons, the errors of the proce · are cumulati.ve sn Lhe
h ading reql!ired to maintain the given track? error in the position.fix ,grows, w_
i th~time.
~) 190 'M. b) 192°M. c) 188°M. Need For DR: "Dead" Reckoning (or "Ded 11 for Deductive· R cl: nin~) i a
Q, . ,tagnctk heading 060°, Magnetic variation : 8°W, Drift angle: 4° right, w hat is basic navigatbna1 method used by low speed, ~!:lall airplane pi~ots. It i ~ h. ed
the true track'! \/ •- on m~Lhemat~cal caiculations to plot a. cou rse usmg tne element of a cour~ ·ne
t) M airspeed, course, -headingiand. elapsed time'. During thi pro e " p1l ts m8 ~ use
b) 0540 · c) 0560 ·
0
;,) OS ' · - - --- 000
c:.. rs: of a flight computer. Manual or electronic flio-ht computer re used to calculate
() ( .o i') <:\- ~.J.. =J ·' : , ;;_,_--- 0
118 ]} ~~ ,: .· , 119 ~-"' 1 / ' 4-(c,.

I
PART - .GENERAL NAVIGATION
-. . I. d
_.-:y~;.f{~
d . - ~:\ :>---~~,~~-,... Hues may 1
offer
icuation on th
;,-~~:J;/:e::,l;;:::c:irl~
dirD:::nR~::~:~:;::~~~;lg 1
. 1' : i : f ; l 11fF
l _," "' ,
h'""e speed dts. tance measurements, fuel consumption, dens1ty a e.an ir,an)\.:<:\ -,.~:/{.-H!~J - n·' 1·n·g t, dnsrn1t t 1e s 7 0 0 "A ,< t t·,t _J. 1-i tj
tltu ~ n d c . n i.l' r , ti . L' i .•
1:><·. ~ ,:s:,:•: "I -~
eate ' cl t. 7 l Y.l () (.
., --t~1L:t --~,":J'.,1!cl _'set-th e trans o n e r ~ -:-
LUU - - .
other en route data necessary for nav_igation. _ · -~ - - --==:::.----

th
Confirmation of Flight Progress (Mental D~): M en~I DR is e m'.'. n tal::;:~t;~ ; : le1eri<:_Y
_!r~q t~e __ · ·- t,• _ T AS cal cu lat{ average win d ve I e it:• ' " c ·
calculation of the aeroplan~:s ' progress S~,. that its pos1uon can be asse . ~sed,_::i~u~·--"'_ .-t·, :·\ .. dculate average heacJmg an<:__ '
alterations to heading determined, ~nd re~is1ons of ETA calculated, as _neces.)ary. ,·'( -~':k-,_ ·, ,:, G -, ·
---=---- ---~ 7
- ' -.. ! ~:, ...~.: . '

Time Adjustments _:_ .
(a). Planning the route so. fbat th~re is a qmvenierit corner befor: 1 the( Dist TAS W/V G/S ,--,i 111 '
destination or turning point. which can be cu~ or_extended, to gam or.:.:

t
lose time.. ·· 450 350 +3" ---·-
I
(b) Flying a 'dog leg· or simifar alteration ofheading t9 lose time. 250 +30 ··-
· _______ j
200
(c) Adjusting ilie aiispeed.' ' _
720 275 - 47
Cutting the Comer : TvVhen there is a large track alteration along the ro ute; ,
say 60° or more, it is .possible to adjust timing by extending -or cuttin_g the corner·-
at that turning point. , .-..c- · ·
~';_: Find mean w inds, TAS and GS experienced on fl ight A to D .
Losing· Time by 6~ Dog Leg : Flying a dog leg can serve to lose a lot of .
0
time in a short ,dista:ri_c e along _track. The technique is to alter heading by 60° in ',_
either direction for the length of time to be lost, then to turn through 120° in_;
the opposite directi9n,for the same length of time in order to regain tra~k. T he
Dist TAS W /V G IS -. • 1 e
aircraft will then have _flown two sides of an equilateral triangle, and the ti me ~ ~)~t
I
- - ---~!
will be equal
,
to the time
- ✓
taken ·to fly one side. A -B 450 350 ~35 ;
Adjusting the Airspeed : Providing that the speed range of the air craft - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~~--- -=-- - - - --1
B-C 200 2 50 +30
. permits and any fuel ·penalty is acceptable, small timing err ors can be correcled - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2_
-- - -:;---> - --~--
by altering spee~ c c~o 720 ,?.75 -4 ~
Lost 'Procedµres: Getting Jost in an •aircraft is a ROte ntially dangerous '--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- - -- -- - -
situation es eda1Iy when low on ~ el. If a pilot becomes lost, ther e are ·some good
common sense proce_ ures to follow. If a town· or dty-:can not be seen, the fi rst~
thing to do is climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditio n s. An increas~ 1
40 .6+21. 3 -1 48.05
in , altitude mcrea.ses radio and navigation reception range, and also increases (
5 .02
radar coverage. 1f hymg near a town or city, Jt migh t be possible to r ead the na rne
of the town on a wat~r tower. --- 86.] ,.,
= - - 17kts
If the aircraft .has .a. navigatio~al radio, such as a VOR or ADF r eceiver it ·· 5. 0 2
can_be possible to dete ine position by plotting an azimuth from two or m~re ·(~) Find mean TAS
nay1gatton;11 facilities.,. f GPS i! inst~Iled, or a pilot has a_:por table aviation CPS
0~ bqard~.1t can be us to etermi~e die R<isiiiori and the location of tfie neare.st = 4_0 6+ l 77 .5+ 866 .25
airport. · = -- · · - - - --- ~ ---c ~ - 5. 0 2
289 kts ·
C_ollUDunica~e with -a°.y, availa~_le facility,_using-f requencies shown on the
chart. ·If contact 1s made with- a controller, radar vectors -may. be offered. Other
120
121
DEAD RECKONING NAVIGATION OR
3\ Cakt:.l ate average G/S
~(, e"dilig.8;Dd ~AS,,Vector .Since 1~~/€0~~~-.P~i~~~: It ~~-a certain
477 + 199+718 1364 -~/r· ' t ' O;f··urn
-~ --,:~ . " ·e ~to·'p lot a -fo,. Should· the fix
. mdicate thant
. is
, ,. .necestt~ry,
. • , ;-:J;l to
' ·alter
5.02 = 5.02
J.,<-',
~W•~r:'.to ai~~ "(he.nex~ ,~ui:ni_I:l_g p~in~)t_ i~ ~-o ~~e. ~-~lcula~i~g -the -~~~- ?e,adin~
272 kts ~~-fix Hosition 'since die aucraft.li~s·by· ~ow flc,wn beY,O~d. t_n.1s eo1~t. It 1S
Or Mean TAS = 289 i ~Wi~~; · e·c'6s°sciry' ·t~ DR AHEAD,' a'rfd 'to ca!cid~t~ an alteration ~f heading from
Mean WN ·= -17 Mean G/S = 289-17 = 272 kts e. ~?r,e n . . . . , .. , .
;.• ~i?ii.':fh~_a: of
9- the aircraft. _ . ,.
Or Tota l Dist
Total T ime
1370
5 _02 = 272 kts · lt;?f
~· t:l'\-' ·
1~ li~.a.ti.~n ,of Wi~d Vel0'<itf ,:Vector: Wind~ aloft <!ffect both the .ground
:., ,PJ>f t-h.e ~ircraft and the heading ,that .the ,aireraft must fly to stay on the
7 -··,
. "';: ~- ·. -speeu ,o :·. P..A ' •
Q52. .~: · y~,=·\ t~iii:~ .:-tr.µe course. ·
· ·· · , ·· ' ·. · ·
:_.\\ }::. -i!:~_W ·.· :·d: ·.affe~ts the aircraft's 'flight ·path _in two ways, namely drift and
,·. 10
d th . d d. . . call d
I
i Dist TAS WN Trk
, '\: ':: 9
· · · '· · . r.
~ ~1$pe~d. The ,angle-hetwe~n ;~ _~cr,aft-tracK ·~n . . e:;w1p . u-ectJQn.r IS ._ · ~.e
~e,wind angle; the acu1aJ.values\o_f qt1ft ~d.ch~ng~s:to spe~d ..wilLver.y d.ep~~duig
A-B 250 400 120/45 090° 'rt'ih'; \vind.angl~ apd.-wing.,s pe.e d cq_m par,ed~to ;th.e air.c raft's t:r:ack and TAS ..
5',.:.:~,';'" :;.,,/;<: . ,. "1
B-C 350 300 330/28 120° Iiast' ~own:Track ·an4 Ground "~peed -Vec~r:"Hea~nwTAS y_ecto~ ~ves us
C-D 450 250 180/50 150°
./t1,.:~·_:/ Ic;fl~\ iire~~on in still air condition$: Application 'h f "wi_~cl vector ·give_s·us·Track
½f·· ·:, ·"a~d .(;round Speed vector.
Find mean winds, H/W and T/W component
zl?.(·._ -:"·:· ~alcul~t~ estimated ._Air _Position ~d gro~~ positio~ : A fix ~ an ·~~te
-·!f . ground position -of the aircraft_. determmed by visual, radio or _radar na.vigat10n
·.•: . , ·., · aiqs. '-The accuracy of the fix is dependent on the accuracy of the aids.used.
-
Dist / TA S WN Trk G/S Ti me l~--
l ·- ·
,- ~::- : }1eadit;lg;TAS,vector mul~ipli~d
and Ground speed vector ip.ul~ ip_
l~~c!, by fi'(ne· gives
~x
~e -give~ ·us f:Stim_atedAir _Po~itjb~~1rack
us estimated ground, position.
A-8 250 400 120/45 090° 360 0.69 • ii( ' , • , •
B-C 350 300 330i28 120° 324 1.08 ~ / ~sessment of Accuracy of DR Position: The principle of vis~al navigation is
to compare an estimated or 'Dead Re~~oning:(DR)- position with visual references
C-D 450 250 180/50 150° 205 2.19 .-~ _in order to determine· the actuaLpo·si_tion· of th~·. aircraft and make the necessary
1.2.2 . adjustment to speed and h~adi:ng. Therefor~ the pilot must haye the abili~y to:
(a) . Select Features
HW TW (b) Identify landmarks
120°/45 - 40 (c) Estimate distance
(q) Estimate dir~ction:
330°/28 +24
:/' The pilot will need t_h e ability to build a mental picture of the terrain and
180°/50 - 45 _features alofl:g the plannec;l ~route, estimating ranges and bearing of features
- '-2.7 .6 + 25. 92-98 .55 r~lative to each other both ·in the air and .on the· map will greatly assist the pilot
= = - l00,3 = - 25 .3 1
in this task. It is also necessary to have a sound knowledge of the map being used
3.96 3.96
~nd the. techniqµes ·of track keeping and timing. Through map preparation will
Mean H/W = (-27.6 - 98.55) + (0.69 + 2.19) = - 43.80 considerably reduce the complexities of map reading.
Mean T/W = 25 .92/ J.08 = 24
122
123
:::~
--
PART I · GENERAL NAVIGATION
-· --
Resolution of Current DR Problems by Means of Charts: . Distance. The scale of this ch~t expa?ds which latitu~e awa from d e p l ..
• Mercator Charts : .
15 1 5
. then 1% in error at 75° lautude. It 1s therefore cons1dered to br a cons ;i.1 t
lt e s
·scale chart. Distance may be measure d fr om t h e lat1tu · d e grac,luauons
· c n an ,.-
Track. Bec~use a straight~~e on a Mercat?r is a rhu~b ijne, it is only possible ··
. men
· ·d·a ·1• nor. from the scale bar in the legend of the chart.
p lot .rhumb Im~ tracks. 1~ 1~ 1s necessary to plot the shortest distance between ,
two p 1_n a cons1deraI:Ie distance apart, then the gre_ a:t circle wou_lq have to b·e ·_· · · .;-_M··
. 1s·. ~ellaneous
. DR uncertainties and practical mean of
approxunated by a s~nes of rhumb l.hie tr~-cks; the length of these tracks being ' .cbrrection
depen~ent on the-latitude an~ the distance between"the,points. 'The:path of the. '··::· DR position is only an approximat_ion. There is, ther ~or , a_~legrce Id
gre~t ~r le. would have t? be trans(erred as a eries of points from a gnomonic . :~_\ mcertajpty regarding _this_position. T~is 1s, referred_ to as the rncle ~1. er o ·. _ hr
P:OJect10n if the route distance exceeds 1000nm. Between 12°N and 12°s; the _ ,_ '. ~?.-• •.· · f.thfn;ircle. is dependent on the time mterval smce the la t pos1t1Ve Gx. he
f th , l Th 1· f tl
difference between the rl:m,mb line ~!ld great circle is sm~ll ~noughJo. be ignored .. :·-stt.e,o · •·
\011 g~t~~the: ·- · · · ·
·titl!t'.interval, ,the greater 1s the radius o e me e. e rac 1 1s o ·1e
Distance. The· scale· expansion of this di.art makes the measurement of - ,:_ • C~l:cle':pf efyor is approximaJely equal to 5% of the TAS.
di tance a more difficult task then on othei'• charts.- As. one, minute ·of latitude , .··_ ·.: <-.·1rplqt,a '.DR-position~ it is essential to accurately dete!mine the track -ln~l
equals one nautical mile·,-the latitude 'graduations 'on 1the meridians must-be used · i ·a';• , ; tartce 'tr'avele_
d along that track since the last fix. If the uoppler CO .1puter L
for this purpose. The. t1:ack should ~e -divided into segments of approximately lS - . l . . C. J
'u'§ed to determine the Dlt position, then if it was updated to ast pc · 1 I ' P J 1 1t' 1 • •
100nm to 200nm. Lengths are .m~asured agairist the . nearest meridian to the error around th~ DR position is an ellipse. The dimension of th elli p. , r . ,
segment at the same latitude.
along track 0.1% of the distance and across track 0.2% since the la. t fi: ,
• Lambert Chax:ts
Track. The convergence of the meridians on the chart is equal to a fraction
Answers
of the change. of longitude; known ,as the constant of the cone -or convergence
factor. This means that the true direction of a track changes progressively along ---,
the track. Because the l>R ah~ad is usually only for a short distance, it is accurate 31 4 5 6 7 9 10: 11
enough to use the initial track at the beginning of the track for this purpose.
Q: 1 2 8 12 13 14 15 16 17 l 1. 2tl
l
\
Distance. It the separation of the _standard parallels (SP's) on any plotting

A: - I . l . l- - - - - - I I
- - - I
- - . - -
I
chart is less then 16°, the scale erro·r, either contraction between the SP's or
expansion outside, ?fthe SP's,, is ~ess thenl%. The scale is, therefore, considered
I ,
to be constant. The latitude graduations on the meridians or the scale bar in the Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 I . 1(1i
legend may be used for measuring distances.
• Polar Stereographic Projections
A: - - - - . - - - - - b a a a a a Ia I • r '\
I
l l
Track. Because this chart is not used for navigational purposes at latitude
le s then 70°, then great circles are almost straight lines. Those that pass through
/
the pole are exact straight -lines. ·For navigational. purposes then; a straight line
Q: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
is considered to be a· great·cirde.,.Due to ·the convergence of the meridians, the A: C a C a b C a b C C - -
true direction changefrapidly along track. To accurately plot a track, its direction
should be plotted as a mean direction at.the mid -point of the track. Of course this
i not always possible then projecting a DR position ahead of the pre·s ent position
but because this distance is relatively .short it is ·sufficiently accurate to plot. the
\ initial track direction at the start time and position.
- . /2-
----- .
-124 125
MEASUREMENT OF OR ELEMENTS' PR_ESSURE
t.-~~- Ef[ec~ of fall of pressure is more than ~£fee~ of fall of.temper(\ture. l'he effect
Chapter , :~:fr~n ~f pressure is predominant, therefore with increase in altjtude atmospheric
. f;nsity. . .reduces .
. ,.., ( '
.·~, .<·.A-tnlosphe;ric Layers:
Thermosphere
,Mesosphere
50km
Stratosphere
20k:ml-------+----------
Tropopuase
11 kni ::- $65~9 ' , ' . ., . ·' ~ ( ~
1.98°C/1000' ,·.
lSA CO DITIONS /
!'J M.S.L. remp.: + 15°c./ / · '00 ' - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - -
'ii) M.. L. Density: 1.225 kg/ cm 3
(ii i) f.S.L. pressttl·e: 1013.25 hPa/ 29.92" Hg/ 760 mm/ 14. 71b / inch 2 / ,,.
Pressure Values And Corresponding:Heights:ln· ISA:·
-' iv ) rfemp Jap e rnte : 1.98'1 c/ 1000' up to 36,090, thereafte r temp is constant . l'
rlL - 56.5 °C up to 65,600' / .
Altitude in Feet
.I cl i~q ~
r ,) .
1 a Le; ~~ U' . Thi · lapse rate also applies in tropopause, ie, above
·;;~\Jq() ·. ---- 53,000 30,000 10,000
eJat;on ~hip Between Density Temperature, Pressure And Relative Humidity:
I · 1 ) }_ ., '' · 100 300 ·. 700
Density a. ~ - -- - - a - - .I J, n..t,,
remperatu r e RH
Rate of change of pressure by lhPa is :
D n ·ity a. Pressure ( MSL = 27' 10,000' = 341
~ ~,000' = 50' 40,000' = I00J
► I--i i 11 temperature and high RH wilJ adversel y affect the density. De nsity will
l r ,1 e . Low temperature and low RH wilJ in crease d ensitr,
► 'itJ 1 increase in altitude, temp d ecreases wh ich causes density to increase. At
h ame tim e, with · increase in altit ude, pressure falls exponentia Jly, which ., .... ,.. .............................................................. ..................................................................... .............................................
, , ,
c;1 1• , · densil y to decrease .
126 127
PART I • GENE~ NAVIGATION
MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENTS PRESSURE
t~ ~ ~ · ..,'
Questions
,; ]',TH .is set on an altimeter, the indication is always called 'altitude':
QI. Density varies: J _ { ~ _;. . ;?:'..-_ Regional QNH. A regfonal QNH is _the lowest value of Q H_, hi h ir i.
~ ~ \I!! ; ,: :t'·. fQ,ecast '(by the Meteorolo~1cal Central foreca_stmg Office) will e. 1·t it hin "
~
a) Inversely with temperature andpressure
~J(:-,y,,g-iveQ AJ~m~ter Setting Reg10n (ASR) for a specified penod . ASR. are ho, , w 1
:✓-:}L,_ ::.aeronautical charts.
f)
b) Directly with presmrre and inversely with' te~perature (b t}.
c) Inversely with-pressur~.and.directly with temperature · : ··- '. jbl'3'. hPa ·
Q2.
H pressure increases whilst temperature increases in the-ISA: '· :(/t· -1ofa ' isthe standard pressure setting used by aircraft ti in g ahu c th e
a) -Density will incr~ase. · ' - '._~\?l'nsi.tion altitude and on which the flight level system is based . \Vhcn IO13 1~ se
b) Density might Iricrea§e or de~ease. - tJ
►
1f an-a1timeter, the indication is called pressure altitude, or flight I vel.
'
c) Density will remain c~i:istant. ~QNE·- I I 3 "'far-

QJ. . ·.,.. When l013 is set on the subscale, the.altitude show n o n th e a ltin e!cr 11(' 11
If pressur~ increases whilst temperature .increases in a non-standard :,Ytlie ait:craft is on the ground is known as the QNE value.
atmosphere:
a) Density wilI increase. b) ·. Density ~ill decrease.
, - QFF·- .
c) Density might increase ~ decrease. '· · QFF is mean sea level pressure · either measured or calculated fr om QFE
Q4. ~, . P-.. · reduced to mean sea level using ambient temperature. It is rcpprtecl b"
In ISA conditions, with increase in altitude rate of faJI of pressure .- meteoroiogical observing stations and plotted as isobars on ·urface weath er chart ·.
a) Increases - · - -b) Decreases c) Remains same . ; but is not used in aviation.
,,,
Q5. In atmosphere rate of fall of pressure is :· · Transition Altitude: is the altitude at and below which ve rtical po itioni ng i.
controlled by reference to altitude.
a) Linear b) E;xponential c) Progressive
.r-- The 1ransition Level: is the first flight level above the tran. ition · it11dc.
Q6. The ISA temR~rature and pressure for 18,000 ft are:
a) -20. 7° C and 506 hPa respectively _ The Transition Layer: is the layer between the tran ition altitude a id !h r
transition level.
b) -20. 7° C ;and 595.2 hPa respectively
c( -12. 7° C and 506 hPa respectively types of Altitudes:
Altitude is vertica] di.stance above some point or level u ed a~ a r -.fr ·c1ic· .
Q7. Wh'at fs the ISA temperature value at FL330?
There are as many kinds of altitude as there are reference level from wlwl:
a) -56.5°C. b) -53°C. c) -50°C. altitude is measured, and each may be used for specific reason .
Altimeter Settfn9s:
QFE - 'ire,U
I
t/4uoft1J";---
( ' ._,. i!. f i7
MAtyv Cl()OVe 'JL
- ,
, '
y), ► Indicated Altitude - The reading on the altimeter when it is s t ,tn he
current barometric pressure. The altitude read dire .ti ' fr om th~ ~I' n eter 1
The p1·essure observed at the airfield datum point. When set on an r1lt1mete r ·(uncorrected) when it is set to the curre nt altimete r setti ng (Q iJ-l . etll n Q. 1•
the output is heigpt above the aerodrome or runway threshold. ► Absolute Altitude-The vertical di stance of an a irplane 1. ove rh ter -~j I.
QNH - 'aJcc t.oi.f k,; I- . or above ground level (AGL) (QFE settings or Radio Altim ter.)
The QFE reduce.cl to mean se~ level (MSL) pr~ssure ~smg : the ~tandard ► Pressure Altitude/Flight Levels/QN~ Settin~s -!hL c lritu de i~;di c,_ tor!·
atmosphere temperature lapse rate. (Jne<pressure alt.Jmete,: IS
standard ' atmosphere, and so when QNH is set on the altimeter s~ 'S e t e
~e cahbrar!t • -~
when the altimeter setting window (barometri c ca.le) 1 adJusted r o 10 1 )·.. h '.'~ .
:s
♦-2p, 92 •· or 760 mms. This is _the altitude above the stan~ard d a tum pla n,t' , ";~~ '.cH~
instrument indicates the airfield elevation at the airfield datum pomt). When ,. a theoretical plane where arr pressure (corrected to 15 C) eq~al l 0 13·- 1·.r 1 let> <l
f _; Pressure altitude is used to compute densit y altitude. true alti tud e. tru e J I I ·
128 129
MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENTS PRESSURE
in th e alculation of aircraft performance data and for providing separation . , [ 4X l5X20,000 ]

be(\ e n aircraft tlying at Flight Levels.
:::: 20,000' +
1000
5> 1 rue Altitude - The vertical distance of the airplane above sea level-the j/ ;·
Llu,a_l altitude. It is often e~pressed as feet a~ove mean sea level (M_SL). Airpo~t, :·_J }ii/:;_· , == o,000' + (12.00') =.21,200,
2
_ - . · _ _ • ·
t rram, and obstade elevauons on aeronautical charts are true altitudes. Exact .:f1tt:.,;},, -~' • .: _-, .· . . . . 401 of pressure altitude for every 10 C deviation from
0
h 1~· h b I 1· d h - . ·~~,- ·-- . •·-,·~·:'"'.. · - b Rule· True altitude vanat1on 1s 10 . ,

ta ove sea eve 1s use w en a p11oc wants the most accurate calculation of' \ ;/i~: Th~m _ - ·
altitu d e-for xample, when flying over mountainous regions or close to obstacles. ·.:\_\lf•:.:~'I_ SA'. · · - _ sooc F"10d tru ltitude
.,fl · . • · · - Ititud Of 25 000 ft. SAT- - · ea ·
~ _ 4 x ISADeviation xPA :·J.:>,_:~ \:.Q9. ·
An ale is flying indicat~d a ·e ' .
l r I Al. = PA + [ - - - - - - - - ]
.l ' ··;.r: ....
-•r- · : ·, '. -· . ,' ISA.,..
1 erop a
t 25 ,000' = 250 x20 =-- 50°+ 15° =
- -35° .
1000 •jr:· . . Ans:, . . - 500 ( 350) = -i-so ()Pn '1
= PA+ [ 4X(Actua1Temp - ISATemp.)xPA ] ] ---
1000 . h. [4X(-}5°)X25,000 ·vt'
- -- -- = 2!>,000
1
t . - ~
· ··· · .·. 1,opo' .. , .
'fA =PA + {(OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE - ISA TEMPERATURE) x 4 x· PA} } . .
, 1000 · -~~ -- =:25M0'-l,500'
4% of PA for eve; ~O deg of deviation --;;;;::==== ~::.:::f;_]~lf;I~j~·· A/Cis ftying indicated altitude of.21,000' OAT =-12°C. Find TA
Density Altitude -This altitud e is pressure altitude corrected for variations ' :t::;/~fis- , , ISA = - 42° +l5" = - 27° ,
fr om tandard temperature. It is pressure altitude corrected for non standard -~'. .>>/· , , , _ , [
4 x(-12o-(27"}}X21,000'] .
~~A c:en:;~:h~~~:~:~o;;e::1t~;t!:i: ~::;~;::;~~:s~t;1a1ci~~~:i~1~1~:~

versa. TI1is is an important altitude because it is directly r elated to the airplane's · :;~, .
-~--·t_,;_!~·:t.:~:.._:,.\:._·_:_•·.j:_·._,_-: -i:·,···:·.:_·;.\,_~:.} =T:1-,00201'+,0[040xI+5 x21]
.L
1:tOOO' ._ .. -
performance, used prjmarily to predict aircraft performance during takeoffs.
~:~~~!t c':i~:::~ce graphs in the Pi/.ot Operati:ng Handbook usually provide a l/{
.fl;·_·,;;
:· :!~:~~~:+ 1 26
, 0'
if ,i ,·QU. ·Ale is flying at PA.= 17,000', Aml>~ent-Tenip = -"30°C. Find TA.

Density Altitude = PA+ 118 (Actual-ISA Temp. in deg C)
-~J .- Ans. ISA Temp= - 34° +15° = -.- 19° -
l
Calculate Altitudes
Q8. AL. ale is Jying with indicated altitude 20,000 ft, OAT= -10°C. Find True Altitude.
l m
=TA=l7,000' + (--4 xll x}7]
= 17,000'-748' = ~
Alti.m~.,ter -Related Ques~o_ns

An '
fSA Temp at 20,000'= (20°x2°) = - 40° +15° = - 25° l l. Make the following table using required pairs to solve questions:
Dev ;:: ~ I 0° - (-25°) = 15°
'.I
\ -r.
•ii
l
Al titude/Heigbt:, lndicated1 Elevation/True Altitude? 0/ height FL/PA?
Tr ue Alt= PA+ [4x(Dev)xPA ] Pressure Setting: . Indicated?, QNH? . QFE? (1O13 ..2hPa)
I
10_
00
\31
130
- --·-- . - . .... ·-- .. -•.• · ···- -- - - -- - - -- -- - - - -- - -
PART r - GENERAL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENTS PRESSURE
2. Fill u~ the information in the table abo.ve from the data given in -:1, · .: A A/C takes off from A with altimeter reading 240'. A cle.vati.on 00' QF A
question and work o~t .the required information to complete the table. - ., Qt 4• == n hPa, goes to B. Elevation B = 180'. Altimeter re.ad 150' at nd' n • witl
994
3. out changing the setting. Find QNH at A and QNH anrl QF'E at B.
Assume Pressure: lhPa = appx. 30', if not given.
At'A:
0 240 30Q
994 ? ?
. QFEA= 994,. QNHA = 1004, Indicated: 1002
· AtB:
150 180 0
Q12. A/C takes offf~om A elevationA=90'. PA of A= 150' it goes to B. PAB = 450'.

,''j,,.t, Indicated: : : : bPa: ~NH,. = 1003 ->I 80', Q FE8 = 997 hPa
Elevation B = 240'. Find QNH & QFE at A and B. -~I}~l5,,An ~c takes off from place X with altimeter set at 1008 hPa. And clim
:· · to indicated altitude of 9,500' it goes to place Y where QNH is l O 5 h
Ans. AtA: Elevation·ofY is 400'. Find:
·150 90 .(a) True altitude of A/Cover Y.
(b) Height of ale over Y.
If setting QNE 1013-+ 150' QFEA = 1008, (c) Altimeter reading on landing at Y (subscale was not reset to QNH of ).
AtB:
450 . 240 Ans.
1013 ? 9500 ?
QNE = 10f3 -+'450' QNHB = 1006-+ 240' QFEB= 998 1008 hPa. 1015 hPa
Q 13. An Al(!, takes off-from A with altimeter reading 240'. Elevation A= 330 >. QFE A
= 997 ·hPa}-tgoes,;Jo ..Q.. Ele~ation B = 300'.Altimeter reads 210 at landing,
1
without changing the setting. Find QNH and QFE at B.

Ans. AtA:
I I~I
40
~97
/
QFEA = 997 hPa 1005 ➔"240 ' .(a) True altitude will be high 9,500'
AtB: . , ,,,· '? • • ·, ,(b) Height~ 9,710' -400' = 9,310 '
210. ~ _300, . 0 , (d) 400' - 210' = 190'
tl005 - ?· ?-:
Q~ =1008 hPa, , Indjcated=1005hPa, 'QFE8 = 998 hPa, Reads=210'
132 133
t;1EASU.ltEMENT QF Dk ELEMENTS PRESSURE
PART I - _
GENERAL' NAVIGATION
:i;_'1k~c takes off from place A with altimeter reading 180". Elevadon of A is 90~.
400 ? ~{fii iNB,o(.A 10~~-b,Pa',_:af~-_cli,m~s !~ at~~~fe~,fn4,\cat1ons of 8000'. AIC goes to B.
·\r;-l.Elev~d~~-:f~.- =~30~. Q,FJ!je=.: ~98'hPa . .(subscale w.as not reset) •.Flnd ·· · ·
l O15 J 008
. :/~;.? :·(;f §~~~~cale s,etti~g aiA'.. .;
,... -.':.-:(b)i'True:altitride Jf _a/c,ov~r ~- ,
·-·~:~,\;; :. \ ~J:°frue h~iglit ~f.a/c o·ve'riB.
6
:~~~:~ - ,_.~ (d)~QNHB ·. . . .· . . . .
QI 6. er
An ale
b takes off
. from place A with alt'tme ter reading 0' QNH - lOIS hP
im s to altimeter indications of 6 300' d . . A- • a.
'· ·_. ·· /: · • (e} AJtif!1eter_ reads 120~,.while;land4ig at;B:;F~~d\!ltitude with altimeter sub scale set at
hPa elevation at A is 60' and ele . ti' faBn. goes to place B. QNHB = 1006 .· .·•- . 999'hPa -at B. . · ·
ya on o 1s 300' Find
(a) Subscale reading while taking off from A. ·' · . ): ·~ ~ \~n~/,·ca) "~ubscate·, =·1Q23 hPa.· : . ... :, :.
Cb) True nJtitude of ale over B. - >. ;. ~-~ {b)' rrue Alt. == 8,()00' -12_0 ' = ns·o,
(c) True ht. of ale over B. · , t cf He°ight = 1;2so 1 - ~JO' = 7~250' ·
(d) lndicated Altitude while landing at 8 • (subsea1e not reset). (d) QNHB = 999 hPa.
Ans . (a ) 1013 hPa (e) Altitude = - 600 '
0 60
? 10]5 180 90
j
!
.? ·IQ~O
(b) True Alt = 6,foo - 210 ' = 6,090'

120 - 600
1023 999 :
l 01 3 1006
,., .,, I -
Q18. An ale takes off from place A with elevation 90' with altimeter reading
(c) Ht = 6,090' - 300' = · 5,790' · 0' .QNHA = 1020.hPa. It climbs to 8000'. It goes to 13. Elevation B·= 30' .QNH8
(d ) Altimeter at B = 300 ' -t- 210' = 510 ' = 1004 hPa. Find
(a) True altitude of A/Cover B
(b) Height of ale overB·
1013 1006 (c) Altimeter reading while lauding at B. (Subscal'e \vas not reset)
. Ans. (a) Set 1017. TA over·B = 7;610'
(b) Height over B = 8000'- 420' =; 7~580'
(c) Altimeter while landing at B = 420'
. 134
·6>
PART I • GENERAt. NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENTS PR~SSURE
F· Indicated - 992 _QNHHill = J 009

. Diff == 17 x 30 = 51 O'
~ ·~:·:i ea<Iing == 9840, + 500' = 10,340'
~ ,~ .R~ading for clearance= 10,340- 510 = 9,830'
o, Distance between A & Bis 1000 nm. QFE" = 990 hPa eleva ~on
' ~M.,C takes off with QNH setting nt A. 700 nm from A. there 1~ a O·
.-. _/elevatioh.: QFE81010 hPa elevation B = 600'. Find:
;~ ' (a) \.Yhat indicated altitude will give clearance of 1,000 ' over hi ll.(a 'Umc u 1if< l n
8000 ? pressure gradient)
1017 1004 (o) What will altimeter show while landing at B (altimeter was not r~set
(a) QNHA = 993 hPa

? 8000
993 1019
37
? 30 Setting= 993 bPa QNH Hill = Diff lOOQ X 700 = 101 lt Pa
1017 1004 Difl26 x 30 = 780' 7,000 + 1,000 = 8 000'
Indicated 7 220' Setting = 99 hPa
(b)
Q19. An A/C takes off from place A. QNH~ = 998 hPa elevation A= 90'. Altimeter
Reads (-)90' at the time of ta~e off. It goes to place B. QNH 8 = 1020 hPa
I
600
1030
?
993
elevation B = 200', Mfd way there is a hill of elevation 3000 mtrs. Find:
Diff 30 X 37 = {}IQ ' Indication - ) 51
(a) Subscale reading at take off.
(b) QNH ath.ill (assume uniform pressure gradient). Q21. An aircraft is in level flight at FLlOO over a mountain range which e.·te d. up
(c) What inmcations of altimeter wilJ give clearance of 500'while crossing over hill. to 2400 meters AMSL. If the regional QNH is 998 Pa (use 30 ftlhP a). vi.ti
the approximate terrain clearance?
Ans.
a) 1681 foet. b) 450 feet. c) 78 69 feet.
(a) Indicated; 992 hPa
I ~~ I(-~,~ I OU , An J\ir'1raft RleR an altitude of 3500 feet from A to B. ele n.tion 700 ft'
1015 hPa. B Elevation is 1120 feet QNH 992 h a. Assuming the al i n N,
scale is not changed, the aircraft will arrive oYer B at a height of:
,t
(b) (1020 + 998) + 2 =,1009 hPa a) 2810feet b) 670feet c) 1690fi t

(c)
Q23. The atmospheric pressure at FL70 inn "standard+ 10" atmo ph ere i :
? 10,340
a) 781.85hPa b) 942.13hPa c) 1013.25hPn
992 1009
136
137
-~-~.µ;g."'. , -
_. ..~8rf:.:~. MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENT$ PRESSURE
·-.;;r:· · •·.·•··> .·:~Whi.ch of the following cause air density to ·decrease?

Q24. On board an aircraft the altitude is measured from the: t,:w:,:·,·f....
·- :'-. . ...- .a)
Q34 · .
Increasmg m1 '
· t mperature
1 nidity increasing altitudet increasing e .
. . .
.
tature .
::i) Density altitude b) Standard altitude c) Pressure altitude ·.··;,, :\:, . .i.:. . . .· humidity, decreasing altitude, increasing tempe .
·'.:'.tL . \. .·- .,- • b) l,ncreasmg . . . te perature.
Q25. If QNH is 999 hPa, what is the pressure altitude at an elevation o·f 25000 ft. i,1J~r·i~_-··:._;, .,:-, ~ . • bunu·ru·ty increasing altitude, decreasing m
3\ \\tt::_, ..: .:· _·c) Decreasing· ,
c) 25300 ft · 1021 h.Pa will?
a) 25400 ft . b) 25200 ft;
Q26. Jf pressure altitude is 22,800 ft, at an elevation of 22,000 ft, what is QNH?
,,._
'.~t~:
('.h-•,....
, ..,.,.Q3. 5 .
.
,.y: · fr QNH changes from t 013 hPa to
~
\::(•;r->1s? : a) Increase field elevation
a) 985 hPa. b) 1034 hPa. c) 1026 hPa.
:\~(:.:',\l) ·'JQ_ecrease field elevation.
Q27. If pressure altitude is 3700 ft amsl and QNH is 1000 mb, what is field \(-.· -~)- Not affect field-elevation.
elevation?
a) 3310. b) 390 . . c) 490. 16>\rQFE ch·anges frpm 1013 ihP~ to l02tli2 hPQ~:? Increase QNH.
t~-~}~i{~'Increase field~elevation b) Not 8: ect .. c)
Q28. Take-off and landing performance must be calculated based on - and. - - . :,,~, ,: , - I ti ,·, ·' •s· 4000 ft. amsl and QNH ls 1025 hPa, what ls the
respectively? . ~Inierq_d rome,e eva o~ .1 . .. . - ' ·
a) Forecast temperatures Forecast temperatures. .(pi~sur~.'.~1titude?

<1JLt--~) :~540 ft. . ,. - b) 3~0-ft. c) 3740 ft.
b) Actual temperatures Forec_ast temperatures . .
c) Actual temperatures Actual temperatures.
tj "'?g~{As altitude increase in the ISA.? . .
t 9. If the OAT at a pressure altitude of 5000 ft. amsl is 10°C what is

temperature deviation?
a) -4.90C.
Q30. Density altitude is?
b) +4.90C. c)
a) Th~ altitude at w{ich the existing density would occur in the ISA.
-14.90C
·
J:~ ·~ ' a) Tl:\e effects of decreasing,pressure outweighs those of decreasmg temperature, so
· aircraft performance decreases.
·The effects of decre~ing dens.ity outweigh those of decreasing pressure and
temper~ture so aircraft p~rtoxmance d~_creases
The·effects of incre_asing TAS: CAS ratio ou~eigh those of pressure and
temperature so aircraft performance decreases.
b) The density at which the existing temperature would occur in the ISA. ;jl ~2.it)~ii ~!3~Ih .1_1l:ill1ie tcmpera~r.,Js ;l2~ -.t ressure a}titud~ of 10000 ft., what iB the
c) The elevation at which the existing density would occur in the ISA. density altitude?
Q3 1. Tbe pressure altitude of the field can be found by? a) 11993 ft. i3993 ft c) 14993 ft.
/
a) Setting QNH on the altimeter subscale. pressure altitude i ft. and-ambient temperatlµ-e is 10°C, wha! is the
b) Setting QFE on the altimeter subscale. density altitude? ./
/
c) Setting l O13 mb on the altimeter subscale. ~) 593 ft. b) -S93 ft. ~ 1593 ft.
Q32. If field pressure altitude is 5000 ft amsl and OAT is 25°C, What is the densu~, · , field tlevliltiQn is-1 000 tt..au,~l~ QNff.isJQZS mb, and QFE is 9~1.67 mb,
1-@:1'._.·;;ViT::;c.ec:~;:;~~ ' •~- --
altitude? '< wha~-is ,he:pi:essµ.re:altitude.aUhe~fi'~d'? .
1
a) 5000 + 118 - (25 -(15 - (5 l._98))) = 7348.2 ft.
X · a) ·.-640 ft: · ' b) · . 1~40 ft. . c) 640 ft.
b) 5000 - 118.- (25 - (15 + (5 x -L98))) ~4988.2-ft. ~ /t\)/C;ft~ ':'".,-· Density:.altitudej~?'
C) 5000 + 118 - (25 + (15 - (5 X 1.98))) = 855] .8 ft. 1. ,.' rbe ~eleya_tjon _a t w~ic~ th~.prevall!ng density ~ccurs in the I_SA
Q33. If QFE is 1~22 hPa-wbat is_the -pressure altitude :of the,field? . 2.. The ~r~sure altitude at which ·t he·prevailing temperature occurs in the ISA.
a) 270 ft amsl b) -270:ft amsl c) 30660 ft amsl 3. The Press:ure altitude·at which the prevailing density occurs in the ISA.
a) l. b) 1 and 2. c) 1 and 3.
138 139
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENTS PRESSURE
Q43. Pressure altitude 29000 ft, 0AT-55°C. Calculate the density altitude?
·a) 28900 ft. b) -27500 ft. c) 27850 ft.
s
Q44. What is the true altitude if OAT= +35°C and Pressure Altitude= 5000 feet'!
Radian measure of 0 = --r
a) 5550 ft _.. e. ? b) 4555 fl c) 5320ft
Calculate height on a given glide path given relevant data

Calculate distance to touchdown. tlr:~?--'sLOPES.(ILS Glide Path/AWR):
1::·/:.:'-~· 0
•.~:. The one in 60 rule forms ~he basi of caku lat ion in he · rtie, r h I r- ul
•
~~ : J:.i·iieight against range for an aircraft on the IL ' glidepa h, a nd_ f c; nu:. hcigli
1: .60 . RULE l' ,..,,,. ~termination using the airborne weaLher radar. These calcu lat1 n, c1n-: c •. T r-1
The One to S¼.,ty Rule has many practical applications in air navigation. The {1, ·
proper use of this rule enables th:e pilot to accurately calculate various navigatio1:al ,~: · ·the relevant sections of the text.
problems such as: Wind corrections, Time and Distance calculations and Slope> ~:'.i Another practical application of the One to Sixcy Rule i~ estimatin _th h i hi
calculations. <6'ra cloud by using the RADAR echoes return . The RADAR antenna 1 ii t-> d n
-~;: and down to points where there i no return.
so NM B ----~ ·_ . The di ' tance cf the cell is given by the RA1 G E A.RC
and th e Tilt ..'.\nµ-1~ i·
A ~ ...
' lo J' -------.J I
<t
'ti· :,.,~. derived from the difference between the low est a nd the highe t ~choe•· •
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _c;:;.....i
The theory of the One to Sixty Rule is based on the fact that a ONE degree · ·'i
1
.. f ·•.· ·
arc on the Equator equals approximately 60 Nautical Miles or in other words a · :~ :
O E minute arc equalS"approximately 1 NM, :1 ·_- •
This thumb rule is applicable only upto 20°, where we can take the base ·· ~t( .~ ,
and hypotenuse to be same (B = H).In tan 8, for values of 0 < 20° tan e can be , ·:~
replaced by 0/60,ie, tan 8 = 8/60 = P/H or P/B. . . F- .;} ~.
',.------ -- - -.c..._:..·- -- --r- - -- ---r, . "#Jr
- - - --
e = (PX60)
H or
(PX60)
B
{.
t ILS Calculations :
It does not have any units. ✓✓ - , l Inicator System
. tan ,. easures: he ratio of any arc length to the radius, s/r, will be rhe 1£
rad tan measure of the ·c entral angle which that arc subtends. Thus the radian : if INDICATOR GLIDE SLOPE LOCALlZER ·\
measur~ is bas~d o~ ratios/numbers that /are actuallytaken from the circle. Thus \. Max Def ± 0_70 ± ~-- r \
the :ad1a~ number 1s_ a real number that represents the ratio of a curved line t.o a ~--------------~~:ii---------~C)-::-rr-----j
straight )me. The ratio 's 'to 'r' depends on a unique angle 8. f ~•
.;t
4 dot Ind, O· = 0, 17 5° = o. ,~5° ~ v Sf-
f ~---E-~-ac--l-1-:d:--0-t---------:0~.-=--1-=7-=-5-=-
o- - - -
1·
. r~
~.
· 5 dot Ind o.t = o.140
( 1 ll
s
-()
j
I Each dot .14
l
. 140
1· ,
i\ (-~ ..,
·.,\tt
1i,
1-41
-~ -• ,._;,·· ,. :
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT OF .OR ELEMENTS PRESSURE
M ,
\ FE DEFECTION ? N Gi S == Halfof full scale deflection
--- On ~°.GP at 3 DME, ILS glide slope shows 2 dot fly up indications ~n 4 dot
If more than ha lf carry out a missed apprnach >,~~li~ator.Approximately how many feet ale is above/ belc~~ G/S ~Ude sl~pe)'?
·..- J ·:::f-I) -xsGA x 101, · GA = 0.35°, D = 3nm
· 1i;:=: 0.35x 3x 1.01 =1 06' below GP
~
LOCI\U SE R Nl!EOLE
SHO ¥ ~ F\.Vl.£F1
MIDDLE MAAK!R
~-:~ :~/-.,,
INS" RUMENT RUNWAY
Alarm flags ''\}'' 3DME
when visi bl e t·'
.· 11 imerception~ of Glide Slope are published from pecific height/ altituc-!e

;tJ1,·)}Q;
:.. . ll 4~. ,A:t-2.7 DME G/S shows½ !Jffull scale fly do~n in~icati~ns. Attbis plac~ there
is spot height of 200ft. Find clearance of,a/c while tlymg over spot height.
-. lii cl
1
·n ure that intercept is always from b~lo w.
·:t~f- ·. ,,,~ .GA = 3°+0.35° = 3.35° D = 2.7iµn
:::·:5;11;~;:o1
(a) GP Calculations l in 60 rule
Height in feet (H) ~ Distance in feet (D) x Glide ~gle (GA) x 1/60
. ote: Multiply nm by 6080 1 LO get d istance in feet.
.::1t>·· .•~l~~ :714'
By approximat.ror1 H (in feet) = D(in nm) x GA x 101 t
{b) Rate of Descend in feet/min (ROD) = Ground Speed in feeVmin (Gs::

x Glide Angle (GA) in degrees x 1/60
oce : Multiply GS in kts by 6080/60 to get GS in fee ~min .
By approximario:1 R O D (in feet/min) = GS(in knot ) x GA x 1.69 .
. r. Dcrer min e th e height ab ove to uchd own of an aircraft which is on a 3° glide
path at a ra nge of 3 nm from t ou chdown.
Tou chdown Zone
· Q48. At 4.8 nm ILS/ DME, G/S shows 2 dot fly up indication on 5 dot indicafor.
Height (l x 6080) .x 3
abov8 =
Touch own 60 '{here is an obstruction of elevation of 450'. A/C altimeter is set to QNH of th e
= 91 2 ft RWY. RWY elevation is 300ft. Fh_id
3 nm (18240 ~)
a) Clearance of a/c while passing over. obstruction.
b) Altimeter reading over 'Obstruction.
c) Ht. of a/cover ~J>struction .•
142 143
MEASUREMENT OF DR ELEMENTS P~ESSURE
· PART I .. GENERAL NAVIGATION
Ans. - D = 4.8mn~ GA = ,3-0.28 = 2.72°

H ~ 4.8x2.72x 101 = 1319,
Altitude= 1319'+ 300'= 1619). ~\t,l$iii~,._
a) Clearance= 1619' -450' = 1169'
b) Altimcte,:: ;::: 1619'
c) Height = 13 I 9'
:i::::
vers
Q49. At 3nm ILS/ DME localiser shows 2 dot fly. right indications and G/S shows 2 .,,.~>., , ~-.
dot fly up indication ori S dot lndicator.AJ_C grounds-peed is 180 kmph. Find -~--2'-.~.
(i) How many mtr ·a1c is left right and above / below glide slope. ·2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 '20 I
,, I
(ii) Rate of descend of ale (ROD) . _
t~/ -b
/'• V ;- ,,
a c a b a c
Ans. D = 3nm, GA= 0.28
(i) H = 3 x 0.28 _~ 101= ~~ ~ or ~5/~.28~ = 26 m below GP.
Displacement from Center Line= ~xlx 101 =.303' = 303/3.28m = 92m left 23 24 -2 5 26 27 28 29 30 31- 32 3 3 34 35 36 37
(ii) ROD= 180x0.54x3xl.69 = 492' per min
a c a a a b b a c a , b a c c b tJ j
. 'Q: 4 1 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A: c c b a
QSO. At 3.6 nm ILS/DME. G/S shows 2 dot fly up indication on 5 dot indicator. MC
altimeter is set
to 'QNH oftl)resbold. RWY elevation= 300', a/c ground spt:ed
= 200 km~h:- Find_ . .
(i) · Altimeter reading at present position
(ii) ROD
Ans. D '=.3 .6nm; G.t\ t=,3·0:28·~ -2.72° ·
H = 3.6x2.72xi°0l = 989',
(i) Altitude = 989 ~i300'.=i12~91
.(ii) ROD= 20.0x0.54x3xL69 r=\ ~48'P,~r Ip.µi
'( 1-4;4 145

MEASUREMENT/ QETERMtNATION Of TEMPERATURE
'"/ <Ji:: . . .
?i .. ► - •:... ~
· \f {!,_;,,_A-pilot, ne_eds .SAT or O~T, for instance to mention in Pos!tion Reports at long
Chapter J ·?r} >t'di~tance flights. Calculanons for exams can be done by usmg CX2 or formul as.
_' t;,-/ 1~ 11;:; rhere exists a simple formula to-convert TAT to SAT antj to calculate Ram rise
}lt~fi[ttl'ature: TAT= SAT(l+0.2 X Rx M2)

-~- :f#j_;:S(if2::~}S~T:'"Static Air Temperature (in Kelvin) TAT: Total Air Temperature (in Kelvin)
:... ~1:!:,·;~i~fJ\·· : R: Recovery coefficient/factor M: Mach Number
,·]f f ,½ ,,. > .
\f:;.;tJ.}~:f ·To.obtain Kelvin 1n Temp Absolute, (never say degrees Kelvin, but just Kelvin
--if}f'.;:~\pr](,for short),
J:l.\i/i .,:.\ We have to add 273 to any temp in Celsius.
' ~.t{f :·~- :~ ... ·...
?I~ .;:-tj' Y·t .··For instance, flying atFL310 ~d having a reading ofTAT = - 9°C in the temp
.. :ilii?f;..:~:·.!<~vii,ldow.and a .Mach· n~mber M = . 0.86,, recovery coeflkient 1, we first convert to
-lttt~~i~:'.:,;. ,P°C + 273 = 264 K. Then using the conversio.n-fori:iula we'll fin~: SAT (or
]t)\·. ~ ?OAT) = 264 / ( I + 0.2 x 0.86 2) = ·230 K. Convertmg this back to Ce.Isms we get
A
't1i.
~Jf-· .-t~'·. 230.- k:. 273 = - 43°c. . · ·
_. J'_1 ~m~era,t ~re: Temperacu_re is the measure of the intensity of heat in a body. 'l,f•.~· In ·above example, the ISA temp at 31000 feet should be + 15- (31 x 2) = -
l lie .trnbi nt ~ir temperature 1s therefore a measure of the heat i1: the free air at f,' .
47°C. So the temperature of the air mass trough which we are currentl 1 flying at
1;
tn ,. 1 um · an~ _ r eferred to as the s~tic air tem . erature (SAT). an aircraft traveling
11 •
FL3 l 0 is ISA - 4°C.

Lh I uu g lt Lhe a 11 compre~ses the a1r ahead of 1t and suffers the full effect of that
cun p i ession at the aircr~ffc leading edges of the wing etc. where the air is brouaht
ADC (AIR DATA COMPUTER)
,tlm usl to a halt momentarily. The compression heats the air adiabatically, als;in
aJJ I _aro_und t~e area of the temperature sensing_ _m_b_e. The temperature sensed t ~' PITOT --+- A _____. ALT
:,n I 111 hc_ated _1s t~erefore a falsely high temperature. The increase in terr.perature ---. ASI
due to Lhts effect 1s known as 'ram-rise,' and the indicated temoerature is referred /:11 ..
STATIC ----. D ~ M.No.
Lu as die LOtaJ air temperature (TAT). Dependmg on the type o temperature r', -.TAS
?.
pr JU<.. used to determine me temperature, 'ram-rise' can se cakulated with a ;; ~' TOTAL _____. SAT
va r_~·ng degree of accuracy and the TAT cor~cted by that amount. This is called ,.
I.
'· AIR TEMP____.: C - . . DENSITY
Lhe ·r - co~· ry factor' or_'recovery coefficient'~ (TAT)
1Arl 'AT Relationship: <
1:AT =SAT+ RAM rise in temp. (Dynami~ rise in temp.)
TAT (Tot.al Air Temp)/ Impact Air Temp I Dynamic Air Temp/ Indicated
, 1•era,. ure (IAT) or Ram Air Temperatures (RAT). It is composed of SAT
(·T87.IAS] 2
r
l.jtatic Air Temp) / OAT f:)utside Air Temp) I True Air Temperature / Ambient TAT=SAT +~ 1'I
Temp plus t.he heating up by the ram effe~t oft e ast streaming -airflow, coming
t<', • ' Lid den stop and consequently the kinetic energy bejng transferred into heat.
►. . If y:>U don't know the re_c overy coefficien t set it to 1.0.
'1'KJ· is used by the FMC (Flight Management Computer) in modern airliners
1c, ·alculat and display among other things th e thrust and engine performance ► If you don't have the Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) use Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
n d .ockpi t' CRT'5 (Cathod e Ray Tu bes) in a glass cockpit. in place of CAS.
146 147
PART I ~ GENERAL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT/ DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE
...___
► 87 .1 is sometimes approximated to 100. In case of mismatch with answer u -
100. -==-- ______ ___ ' .se :ipee
d of sound is not onstarit, for same TAS Mac h number change .
-=-. .
► lrue TAS
Air Temperature (T) is also referred to as Outside Air Temperature
(OAT) or Static Air Temperature (SAT). . TAS = astM CT Or M = TAS =
~Tu LSS 39. 17 ft
► True Air ~emperatur_e (f) •is sometimes abbrevfated TAT. It is NOT to be
confus_ed with Total Ai~ ~~mperature also ~bbreviated TAT, which is the same' TAS = 'True airspeed _ , ~
as Indicated Tempera~ure (IAT) or Ram Air Temperatures (RAT). ·· ~st is the standard speed of sound at I !5 0C (661.4' kno ts)
Mis Mach number,
► Indicated Temperature (IAT) is also referd to as Total Air Temperature ·crATj ·
or Ram Air Temperature (RAT). · Tis.static air temperature in kelvins,
· -Tst is standard sea level temperature (288. l ~ k)
LSS = local speed of sound
Determination of Appropriate Speed
r ► ASIR + Instrument error-+ IAS . \ >. ,T he local speed of sound (LSS) depends only on th ambien t Lcrn e1 t · :11 c.
► IAS + correctiop for position / pressure error -+ RAS(Rectified Air Spet~·d ~ / ► Mach number is the TAS div1'd e db y th e 1oca1 sp eed of mm , 01-- . br:li !l <J = 0
\
•
CAS (Calibrated Air Speed) \

TAS/LSS.
► CAS + Correction for compressibility error ~ EAS (Equivalent air speed) · · ·, The Mach meter does not suffer from compressibiliL · er ·0 .1 1 I :-, • i 11 •i
► EAS ~ TAS (Tiue airspeed) , ► necessar y to apply a compressibility correction when converting \ •, r l,
1
+ Correction for density .:"YJ • ·-
to TAS.
► Ground Speed: Applying head wind (-)/ tail wind (+ ) component to TAS g!Ve \ · :: ·
ground speed. TAS ± winds -+ G/S (ground speed ) I ' Fot same TAS, mach number increases with altitude:
55S
./.....
✓ ► At 20,000 = 39✓ -25 +273 6 4
DENSITY ERROR. TAS is directly proportional to temperature and pressure
, , .:<•· ► At 10,000
altitude and inversely proportional to density.
Air density and ASI indications (with constant Ground Speed) are inver:,ely > .LSS =
r-- --~
39v-5 +273 = 638 = 55 5
638
= o. .,
proportional to temperature and pressure altitu_de. Hence: ► At sea level LSS = 39vl5 + 273 = 662 = 555/6fi2 = 0. 9i
► When Te~perature or Pressure Altitude increase: TAS increases: ► 0.84 MACH
Pensity. ~e~r<:~se~: ,!AS/CAS .pecre~es. . .. .
0 84 = TAS 'rA = 55
► When Temperature or Pressure Altitude decreases: TAS decreases: · 661
Density increases: IAS/CAS increases.
For same MACH no. TAS keeps decreasing with altitude:
RELATION SHIP BETWEEN TAS AND IAS: Thumb rule for approximate
values of TAS is: · . j ·20,000
0.84 =
TAS
6 4
TAS =5 l n
t,,.,.,_
( 'T'AC _RAS
· . ·c1.75xRASxFlight Level
. + 1000 ii'•
LSS
10,000
= 614 TAS
63
De.termination Of Mach :Number l·
,/,
Calculate Mach No, ·_~I -. .1........ . .. ..... ..... . ............. .... ... . .. . .. ......... ..... ... ... ...... .... . . . . . ... ... ... .
Mach number: It is·ratio of TAS and LSS ( local speed of sound). Since local
149
1 ◄8
---------~P.~~~R~T_!_I.:,-~G~EN~ERA~L:.!N~~~~~IG~A~J~IO~N~------~-,,-;..: I ; :P'~,;2~=:~-- MEASUREMENT/ DETERMl~TIQN OFTEMPEiv,TURE
~; ;:/- ; vt{ ~-~:__·.,, ., .
Questions . ai?-- .TA~=..;.. 25°. ,SAT =- 35•~Find-TAS.-.. .. , . , .
:l\:ilt\\ ,;;~ ;_, _35° +,U~ J + VIO = [ r~ l _TAS =275.4 i<.ts. •

2
;
Q 1. T~tal Air Temp is ah•ays ... than Static Air Temp and the difference varies -'__,,1}:tifbt•..AfC is flying at TAS =400 Kts. SAT=- Fin~ Dynamic rise in temperature.
0
23°.
- - = [400]
~ 1th •..
.:_ . Dynamic rise = [TAS]2

2
·t ' ... ,.. ·
a) warmer altitude.
b
>):?'\)/.:
.ti .,?i ••,~..,,. , • , 87 1 . = 21.09° C
87.1 ·
) wanner, TAS. .· ·~j-{11~{Qfo _T~tal air temp is __ than_ by an amount which is proportional to_.
~ colder, CAS. .}~~v:, ;_.~;--y:,__~}
. ,·
• · h s A'T. r.iAS
),i·"H
·•y: a . ~g er, n ' \,.,
b) Higher. SAT TAS
! . '
c) Higher SAT LSS
. , '
C~uising at ~~0, M.84 is found to gi_v e a TAS of 499kt. The ISA deviation a{\'. 'Jf~~~~J~perature sens~rhaving_a recovery factor·of 0.75 ~ndicates 30° C. Stetic
thls level will be. ~rn,.-v·~:::-vi~~~,('·Air:-Temperature'(SAT) is ·.25° C. How higb·is the Ram-rise?
a) +19. b) +17, c) -i9. -~l~iitift?:_--/ is.soc. ' ar b) 50c. c) 6.10c.
QJ . In An Air Data Computer {ADC), aero plane altitude is calculated from: _· _]:~Jm1~.~f~ress-ure altitude is 30000 ft amsl and Jriach number is 0.84 what is the ISA
:~ ~h:a d:e:~::e :::~~1\:;~~::::dn;;n~~~;pressure ~• fuselage
0 0
Ule
Measurement of a·)solute barometric pressw·e from a static source on the fusetage
li'"~~A~1:•c. b) I o•c,
/1\:v :_:Q13~ .'~findicated TAT is -to°C, pressured altitude is 30000 ft. amsl, and roach
c) - 12°C
M: Mach number Ts: static temperature Tt: total temperature ;f

_ 1;;.;:t:'.2JJnum~er is 0.84, what is the temp:rature deviation?
0
Which of the following statements is correct? . ; 1ft~. .~-~.>- :. l a) -2 C. b) 4 C. c) -4 C.
a) Ts;: Tt / (1+0.2M 2) b) Ts= Tt x (O.~~f1) c) Ts= Tt x (l+0. 2M2) ·~1(:::-::QJ~.")'f pressur~ altitude is 40,000- ft. amsl, indicated TAT is· -29°C what i~ the roach
, -J:. ·_-:- --. '. ~., :_ number assuming ISA conditions? · _. - ·- ·
The difference bat\veen static air temperature &nd total air temperature is
~/ · - :_ .:. a) 0.7. b)- 0.75. c) 0.8.
known as:
~-L) hot ramp rad iaii.:..1 QlS. Ifmach number is.0~88 and,TAT is -4°C, what is the pressure ...ltitude n, the
international sta~dard atmosphere? .
bJ corrected outsjtJe t.'.' ; temperature
_ a) 22000 ft. b) 280o'o ft. c) 26000 ft.
") the ram rise
Q b. Au Air Data Computer (ADC):
;;I Q16. tr pressure altitude is 30000 ft., indi~atcd TAT is -to c, mach number is 0.82
0
~
a) transforms air data □easurements into electric
instruments
nnJ.H.i~scs driviag servo m()tors in
't': :·.· -· _-,'"" what is the density altitude?
a) 31000 ft. b) 30472 ft. c) 30~/4 ft.
b) is an auxi1iary system that provides ~Ititude information in the event that the static (: ~ _Q17. FL 3:'i0, Mach 0.80, OAT-5S°C. Calculate the values for TAS and local speed
•r.' •. of sound (LSS)? ,. ·-
source is blocked
: . a) 460-kt, LSS 575 kt. ~ 465_kt, LSS 575 ~t. c) 460 kt, LSS 567 kt.
c) measures position ,;rror in the static.: sy.;tem and transmits this infor.nation to ATC to
provide correct altitude reporting 918. TAS == 485kt, OAT= ISA +tO~C, f:L410. C~culate the_~ach numher?
0
Q7. A/C is flyjng at TAS;:: 520 Kts. SAT is -20° C. Find TAT. a) ·0.852. 1') 0.833. e;) 0.8~.
· R.19. TAS 487kt, .FL ~30; T~_mperature lSA + lS.Ca~cuiate th~ MAC11 number?
/\n~. TAT=SAT+ [i~ ] 2
= -20°c +[:~~ ]2 =15.64°C a) 0.81. b) 0.83. c) 0.79.
ISO
PART I·= GENERAL NAVIGATION
MEASUREMENT/ DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE
·- '
l Q20. M 0.80, OAT-SO-C, FL 330, GS 490 kt, VAR 20'W, Magnetic heading·t40°,
drift is 11° right Calculate the true W/V?
. · \ ::~.- ·, · ·~ · ft d ressure altitude an increase in temperature will?
:-,, _·Q'JO. At a xe P . . .
\ a) 0200/95 kts. b) 02.0°/80 lets. c) 025°/90 kts.
. .. _.;;=..,-,.,,.,,..
•: ,, • .
~ .. ·,a)
, Decrea se density but increase density altitude.
· >-f··
) Q21. FL2SO, OAT -lS°C, TAS 250 kt.'Cakulate·the Ma·ch No.?
a) 0.45. b) 0.40. c) _ 0.38.
.,
·y :,•:·. b) Not affect density altitude. . .
c) Increase density but decrease density altitude.
QJl, The Airspeed Indicator measures:
Ql2. IAS 120 k+.., FL 80, OAT t20°C. What is the TAS?
· · · a) Differential pressure
a) 141 kts. b) 135 kts. c) 144 kts.
.,. . b) Differential pressure changes
Q23. FL120, OAT is ISA standard, CAS is 200 kt, Track is 222°(M), HeadiJJg is c) Static pressure changes
215°(M), Variation is 150\y. time to fly 105 NM is 21 MIN. what is the W/V?
QJl. ·calibrated air speed is:
a) 050°(T) / 75 kt. b) 050°{T) / 70 kl c) 050°(T) / 50 kt.
a) IAS plus the pressure error
Q~. What corrections mu.s t be applied to indicated airspeed to produce tme b) IAS plus density error correction
airspeed?
c} IAS plus instrument error correction
a) Correction for altitude and wind.
b) Correction for altitude and temperature. Q33. CAS is IAS corrected for:
c) Correction for heading and altitude. · a) position error.
b) instrument error.
Q25. EAS is?
c) density error.
a) CAS corrected-for adiabatic compression.
b) IAS corrected for adiabatic compression. Q34. EAS is:
c) IAS corrected fo(pressure sensing errors. _ a) · [AS corrected for compressibility
b) CAS corrected for position error
Q26. As pressure·altltude•increases ·when climbing at'constant IAS?
c) CAS corrected for compressibility
a) CAS will increase. b) CAS w'ill 'decrease. c) _ TAS will increase.
Q27. As pressure altitude increases when climbing at constant mach number?
Q35. At any given height or altitude, an aircraft will always lift-off at the s:i ~ "
a) CAS. b) Ground speed. c) EAS.
a) TAS·wiJI decrease then rern·ain constant.
b) CAS will decrease then remain constant Q36. CAS is?
a) EAS corrected for position error and compressibility error.
c) TAS will increase.
V' '
b) IAS corrected for position error and instrument error.
Q28, As pressure altitudeJncr¢ases.
c) JAS corrected for density error and position error.
a) Temperature decreases.
Q37. When descending through an isothermal la er?at a con tant Cali ra l
b) Temperature d~reises then remains cons~t.
Airspeed (CAS), the True Airspeed (TAS) will.
C) Temperatfu-'e'• iricri~es then"temauiicoiistailt. .
a) Decrease.
Q29. Mach numbet't~·tbe r'atto of? ·
b) Remain constant.
a) -IAS:TAS.' , ·, r; , . . ~'-;;b) 1 ·CAS:LSS. ._. c) TAS:LSS.'
c) Increase at an exponential rate.
\.
152 153
r
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION Jfil:}?-:.,. MEASUREMENT/ DETERMINATION OFF81PERATURE
~~:~~:
Q38. An aircraft is flyin t h .
420c. Determine g a mac 0.86 and the true ambient air temperature is- . ~~(ltt;he 'ff>Jlowing graphs depict what: will occur if one value remains 'constant.
a) The local speed of sound 1
i j ~~draw the graph: . . · ·. · _
b) The TAS '1 }¢:-\tT Draw,.
a,lti\ude and· airspeed on ~ertical :~d horizontal axis :r~pectively.
1
·\'tf~,, . -ftli~,. lin~ representing constant speed at nght angle to spe.ed. Draw lines
An · a) LSS = 39 x ✓ - 42 + 273 = 39 x ✓ 231 = 593 kts .. J~~~idriting other two speeds to complete the following se·quence left to right.
b) 0.86 = TAS/593 TAS = 593 x 0. 86 = 51 okts · '., _., _ , •. J:~~[::!, Climbi~~ in I~ or Isotherm~! layers: CTM (~ ffee, Tea or Me)
Q 39 . An is aircraft flying at a TAS of 1100 knots at FL 650 A cbang . lM , -~:-:::~t;:::j(·: ;~i.<. »»' • De;cending'in ISA or,lsothermal layers: M1C .
achangeinTASof57knot Th • em· 0 causes , t~:•.'' ··--,.. :,,, •, , .' - .
ISA t h . s. e temperature deviation at FL 650 assuming ,._. ·t{: ·r~<. _,»»· · Climbing in Inversion layer: CMT -
an a mosp ere 1s: . . ··~,\ · ·. · -.~-. -. · · ·
a) +5 b) -5 ,__ Af 'rr;/'{':\{ '. ~~,,.:I?esceriding iri faversion layer~ _~MC
c) -2 .5 .-f:··'\fr·.\:.· -- . , :ISA -CONDITIONS
Q40. If the out~ide temperature at 35000ft is -4ooc, the local :;peed of sound is· 1:-'tt . " . . .. . . , ·., . .
a) 307kt b) 686kt · c) kt · ':LWJ:t~}i'i:icreasing altitude t}:le_following_graphs ~epict what ~ill occur if one
596
Q41. An a!rcraft Is flying at FL39O, temperatur~ -56.S0 Cat Mach O 85 The T'H' :;'.e}~mains constant:·· . ' ., . :
the aircraft is: . · ' · · · ~ ·.) ,,·._· 11- • _:,:
a) 561 b) 472 ·c) 485

Q42. The velocity of sound at the sea level .in a standard atmosphere is: •<.::Jr<tA: 1•_:;re:f?-,'~'.•,
~I:~
;i' ' cA9 'tAS
,:i ~: -,·. ': .
. CH 'llf '
, ~ ;·,.,.
·c
i
TA&
.-: \ /
CH ''
.
'1-r ~ : i
CA8 TAI MACH
a) 661 kt b) 644kt c) 1059kt i, -· : ·~·, ·:~.
Q43. 1f a Decrease o~ O.~2 in the Mach number results in a decrease of 80 Knots in

the TAS, what 1s tlie local speed of sound? ·
An .
:) _,.
TAS . 80 AIRSPEED AIRSPEED
Mach Number = LSS , LSS = 12 = 667 Kts CAS/I'AS. .:TAS~·--··· ._.,, CAStrAS .~ -TAS;~ ,_ ~
CAS/TAS
AIMPEED
TAS
-Constant~ increases ,d~~es Constant - decreues ciec,euea
Q44. An increase of 0.15 Mach results in an incrt!ase of 93 kt TAS of an aircraft. MACH LSS -'MACH LSS MACH LSS
The local speed of sound is: increases: decrease.s. ~c~es- decreases comtant d~reues
a) 620 kt b) 560 kt c) 580 kt

This is summarised in · the following tabular format, including the affect of
Relationship between CAS, TAS, LSS and Mach Number: increasing altitu~e o~.the Local
..
Speed
..
of.Soun<;!
. -·,.
(LSS).
...... -..
A relationship also e_xists between GAS, TAS, LSS and Mach Number under ·CASI IAS TAS -.:. J·MACH LS~ _·: -
ISA, Isothermal and Inversion l~yer conditions. .. Constant ·, increases incre~ses decreases
Increase in Pressure altitude·and Tumperature decrease Density. decreases ; .. constant _,. incre~e,~ decreases
When Density de~reases: IAS/CAS decreases. TAS increases. decreases ~,. ,ge~re~e,s ~ c9p.sta~'t. de~~as~s
Decrease in Pressure altitude and·Temperature .increase Density. ,,
When Density increases; IAS/CAS i.:icreases, TAS decreases. rhe o.pp~~il~ w~H ~ccurs with defreasing altitude under ISA con~tions.
LSS increases and decreases with Temperature.
1-54 .- 155
4 PART I - GENERAL NAVIGA"rlON
It T
C
;I M
)'
T C
.!I ·· C
··' ·:.
INVERSION LAYER
. If an· aero plane climbs or descends through an Inversion Layer the grapli,
_~low _depict what wiU happen to the other airspeeds, if one of them ;·emains
co.nstant.
AIRSPEED ,
!1
AIRSPEED ·
I]
AIRSPEED C M T C '.\I T
Even if the CAS MN · ·.. ~ · :•;i
t . the · OAT.
o a ch ange tn · or_ h'1s unal~ered
h ·} ' on
·' purpose
·· the MN
' may chang<· due t:
-. · -f-·
cl . . '_eg. Jg temperature to 'low temperature'.> the LS.Swill . i-,
. ecrease, thus tO ·IIlaJ.ntain ~ collslant"MN -the TAS must decrease. For example · ·
if two aero_planes are tr~velmg at, the same MN, but, at different flight levels the·
aero plane at the lower flight level will have a h_igherTAS. ·
AIRSPEED AIRSPEED AIRSPEED
~ISQJ"H~RMAL LAYER
. If anaer~ plan~ climbs or descends through an Isothermal Layer the graphs
depict what will happen _to the other airspeeds, if one of them remains constant. . During a climb at a. constant Mach number the LSS will increa e l , t ~.he
At a consta~t Mach num~er the LSS will remain ~constant so the TAS wiJI also warmer air so the TAS will increase, but the GAS will reduce due to the reduction
remain COO.Stan~, although the· <;:AS will reduce -during a climb, but· will increase in density. If the aero plane climbs at a constant TAS ?oth the Mach num~er <1nd
during a descent, due to the density error. _the GAS will reduce. Conversely if the aero plane climbs at a con tam CA th e
Mach number and the TAS will both increase?
Conversely at a COQ-Stant CAS the TAS and Mach number will both inc rease
du'ring a climb, but will both "re<l,uc~ during a descent? During a descent the reverse ~U occur, because the LSS will d ecrea d
the colder air, whilst the density will increase.
TM C TM
T M C
AIR.9PE_l!D
!
~
j MT
C , MT C
AIRSPEED AIRSPEED
45. When climbing at a constant Mach numb er b. el ow the tropopau . e., in lSA
conditions, the Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) will:
a) increase at a linear rate b) decrease
c) increase at an exponential rate
AIRSPEED -
157
156
, . PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION
MEASUREMENT/·[)ETERMINATION"OFTEM~AATU.I\E-·
. '
~
.
4
?
ForaconstantCalib ted Ai-- - ··;\: ....... ..,:.:·· b. b "' · · · ·
temperatu ·u ra . ~~Pted;(C,\S) and a level flight, a fall in ambicnf \ .··\eicllmblng. thtougb an.J.nversloli at eon-..nt~•~ n • ~l" •
re WI resul~ an a: ·, l:'CAsmcreases. b) i ,T~ inc~. c)' TASremaimeoilstant
a) higher True Air Speed (TAS) due to an increase in.a.ir dens 1·ty . ::,' .. · .- · , · ;, •., · · , b b ·1
b) l b~n.de.seending through ... inversion at constant iDalC QUID er
. ower True A~ Speed (TAS) due to an increase in air density •' ·.ai.f ½S increases·. . . b),Y .T~ dect.:.~ s. c) CAS decreases.
~ ·,
:_I.·.·
c) higher True Arr Speed (TAS) due to an decrease in air density 1
Q47 At -~~~,n climbing through an~ liiV~f~ion •tJpnstant CAS"?
" . - . ) a con_stant Mach number, the calibrated airspeed (CAS): , '.'/. ,.~.··._a,. ::)_·'..._TAS
, ·increases. b) , , .XKS reni•ms.constant.
v-0 a remams unchanged when the outside temperature increases ,_ .
t.✓:~ ~~ : ; :::::~_::::~:::~:::: 1"·""'•>;~;' :~~:;:;it~~i~1dl

~
l)a
f~dsia;t,'1;.s;\ ·;'.·.~i> '.:i,
~~~2;
'? / 4 ·s· ,.,,: -· · · · 'l< . ··:. s:\ b) s':TAS decreases ' ·. c) .1 Mach number-increases.
1/ Q R ===~=:==:dacomtantCalibraMd ~. ·-·:~f~
:; ;:;~::: :: ~i:::~~=:tial rate ~~'.~,l::>!~ :::::~::.:::.

c) decrease .tjt:·~;~fj)::; ·.. ,c) Mach number remains constant.
/). 9. When desceudi~g thwugh an isothermal level the TAS will ....•. , the CAS ....... · 1\i!1Q59,,_When climbing thr-0ugb an lsot~erm_al layer at constant TAS?
and the LSS w1U ..••... : · ·~fl;£,;;~/ 8) Machmimbeiincrea5eS. · · · · ··
a) remain constant, decrease, increase .~/?~t /i-/':. b) Mach n~ber d~reases.
b) Increase, increase, decrease ] / !!~;:,~"~) ~achn~berre~s·cotjstall;t._.-; , .
remain constaµ;' inc~ease, remain constant
c) . f'/~'y\1,Q6o. ·when descending thr~ugh an·isotbermal layer at constant CAS?
tj ·, ':<f< · a)
.'t'' ; .
Q50. When descending through an inversion at constant TAS? Mach num~er~~~t?Ses,. . , · ·
a) Mach number increases.
b) Mach number remains constant.
r;~· .: .-.-
i ·-'
b) Mach number decreases.
i,~. c) Mach number remains constant.
c. CAS decreases. ~, _,, )~·:·.:·
QSJ . When climbing through an inversion at constant TAS. ~ .; •'/ 'Answers
:; ;:!::::;::::;onsrant. ,IP~/;~,:.~ : :. : <:: ; ., .:; t - ~~ ;~ ,~I.~~~ ~3 lc4' : - ~:.
~:,~:,g-i,~. . .,·.~:. :_•·;,...,(.!."~· ~·; r.-~-?~, ;,~;, r- ~-~·r·•'~~,-::ri'-·:~-:.=cr.::··J'.·:;i

·- --.......,;..;.·~' ~ .:.!-~; :·~',~,' ;.;
, ,~ -<· ;;<:..::;._ 1
,1: I: -~ :0
Q52. When descending throug!t an Inversion at COmtant CAS? P'. , , Q:' 2I 22 23, 24 ·fs· ijfoi ,27 :2s •29· so·, 31 -s'2 .33 34· -35·: 36 . -37 ·3s -.3? 40
~·
{ Y: ·.L.·_::A:·. J.
,,
a) TAS decreases. , -b-1--J~-l;..~~+-.4~k--+~h+-+~~+~-+--+--1-rT~
... . . " , ,., ~ ;•-.:. , :
b) Mach number increases. I} a b b a C ·. a h C a a. . c _a '. , C , a · ~b a - C c
Q53 . Wh:•:::::::tl7r::;~ ::n;:::~sion

a) TAS increases. b)
at constant CAS?
Mach number decreases. c) T~S decre~ses.
r' ._-.
.t- ··:·.'
-Q-:____4_1_42 _~--~..--~~--r---r-,-~-:--r-~""""'.""'T":::T.:7'"r::~:T~I
_43 .44 45 46 . 47 48 49 50 51 52· 53 5,4 55 M 57 58
_, ; ·'
a - a b
"'
b C C C a b . -~~ a b .b a b C
158 1S9
. ·- . · ~- -- ------------~:.. •
'
'
. . I
MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTS
----
\ • ' ·i..: •· - ,'
I' I _,,, ' •
,, • J b GOandGH : [(RofA)xGH]+[(RofA)xGOl=E xGO ~ C H

Multtp Y y Isolate R of A: R of Ax [GO+ GH] =Ex GO x Gl-l
Chapter re,
EX GO X GH
.·, (RofA=
=
GO+GH
NMs
endurance in hours in kts.

J
where E
GO = groundspeed outbound in kts.
GH = groundspeed inbound (home)
•_::T<? find the time to the R of A divide the di tance by the gro nd pe cl n 11t h ,,n
J
l
>,: f e'Endurance =~:ie~::s!:.;!~nR;:;::ur OR E= ;~

r-
->~:;,, E-Endurance in hours and minutes, FF- Fligh t Fuel FC-Fuel Con. mp ti n
'. .t , . DPNR is always calculated with all engines opera ting u nle ifieci .
Ex GO X GH NM )
PN~ PSR/ R of.~ (P;;in't of No Ret~rn/ Point Of S~fe ieturu/ DPNR = GO+GH s ~
_Radms of Action): · · · ·-
It is th~ maximum distance upto which_an a/c can fly out and still be able tff / For _T PNR calculations always use G (Ground Speed out all engine
.,:. ,:
o r n 1 , n, -.i i. ·'
return to plac~ of depa~ture with in safe endurance of a/c. It is calculated fo r the TAS.) - ~
endurance. · · ~ ,., /~ DPNR = EX GR
TPNR (Time to PNR) = G GO+GH
IT IS PURELY DEPENTDENT ON FUEL IN TERMS OF ENDURANCE.
----------•· .----~----7 ,
_.-.,The~hove forinula will ~ work if a in
:_,-:}r_-_:,_i_f_~ op sum,euo~o~ In such a case GFC formula IS used. Alternate
f there is. change r
; ,
l ::.;,:::~~\method maybe used. ""\ <::;
A . . . RofA B :\:\/·:·'__ · Gross Fuel Cons'umption (GFC) Formula: The Gross Fuel Con u m pt.i m
·- •· _·- . ; <::~·- :>·:·· - · -+ .- - ,--- . - . _J -. ~:.\':-:(.GFC) formula calculates the fuel used (in units) for each ground na tic mil
_: ;trayeled.
:· · ./ ~e-di~~fe/tfaX~fo1~~fr<?m 'the d~p~rture· aerodrome to the limit of the _ If the fuel used for each nautical mile tra eled out to th R of. i.
, radms.of,actiontan_d -batk to.- the. departure a.point are the same. The endurance
0
t_:::i::::~: :a::Lm~::::::~:~:ti:n~~:~e~r ;C y
·: .. ' the fuel used for each nautical mile traveled back from the R of
is c_alcu~'!ted_}!,1.f ~Ptf.it~~t ~~~i:3:c~. ~!i-~r.'7serve fuel _from the total fuel ay·ruable
o~-departure th~n: p_ 1v1c;lf '.Ui~ ·remainder_by the fuel flow. The total of the time
, o~tboµ.nd;-ancl ,thMim,e ,i1}botJlld }musti-i1ot-exceed,thle calculated endurance .. ·,1___/ ;;.
.. ihe.frihiiula~cal be aJri~~cJrr~~-. above.aJ·:. ...-~. . . - . . .~;. '/, . GROUND SPEED (KNTS) GS - ( ·
'."f.ime,~~t--+·~Time'.,home .=· S~fe-,E ndurance·- ..
. , ·· ' . - . '.~: '. _R:bi"Ai,.: ~-·' !Ro,rAi ,. ;_='. t ~:/ D = FF = NM
'i ' l
- ~~- ·• • 1- ,.:.
l
•• . • . • :·
·
•.
·
.GO ..:
· , r , ·;
.· .. · . GH
, ~ : E. ,
i::> PNR GFC
16 1
'·,J60
'.-l\ '·.
- - - - _ _ _ _ _:,_:PA~R~T!_!...:I-~G~E~N~ERA~L:_!NJl.~V~l~G~A~T~l02!N~---------
Heactwlnd
U. , ◄ . . . ,. ....,.__-WC
.nJtary Method: In uni ta h0 d D . .\ . __.
th t' ro ute and FF · al ry PNR is presumed to be at a point alo
~
ffif:;t. ,
GIS Horne G/S out
d eri ved ar by prop~;tic cul~Led ~or _that point. Subsequently, the PNR valutg 1. . ◄ ~
, onaLe Y ad1ustmg the distance as per fuel available. ts \
PET
~ Remember: ··
•
•
If flight fuel
chan b hcha nges b y certam
. ges Y t e same percentage.
Distance to PNR is maxim
· percentage of dist to PNR, PNR
. ·1 .
. ~-' .
· lf
(:;,
A E-----x--;------4
•
wilI cause DPNR to reduce. um m m wind condition, any type of wind
If fuel consumption ch b .
t;:_,; · · Cl tberreason O and H
same percentage anges y mtam pemntagc, D,w, will change by In case TAS is reduced due to engine a, ure or any o '
;v · will be bas~d on reduced (R) TAS.
Critical Point (CP) or E qw·time Pomt. (ETP) or Point Of Equal Ti (PE1'\ :t,. .· .'f (Time to CP) . •
CP / PET ~
It i, a point en route fro . . . me . . . , ·{"· " c31culate the time fm dep. To the PET. Note that. the all eng,ne< operaung
co destination or come back to pl f ;{' wh,ch "takes equal ume to e,thec go i .. , Oundspeed out from the departure point, G/S (G), " always used to calculate
NOT EQUIDISTANT POINT. ace o eparture/or a designated point. IT IS
DCP · I
i,•
f'
, ~e time from the pcint of departnre to the PE'f. In the all ~ginas operatmg case
G/S (G) :::;; G/S (0). this is not so for the one engine inoperauve c:ise.
1s ca culated
ro fl y on reduced TAS. primarily for th e emergency of engine failure when ale has I,;' Time =
Di.c;tance X
G/S (G)
OR
••
fA Tl CP! PET T2
T cP (Time to CP) =
DcP
G
(G=G/S out.all engines)
}· 7 D B:r For TCP calculations always use G (Ground Speed out all engines or normal
(N)TAS.)
X
Tl = H A Remember:
• Dist to CP is half way when O ~ H , that will be in following conditions
H = G!S home bound (with reduced TAS for engine Failure.)
T2 = D-X (a) Nil winds · (b) Beam winds

0
0 = G!S out bound (with reduced TAS for engine failure) t
A••~-------------•B
Tl=T2; X = DH
O+H • In case of head wind, D CP will be more .than half way, in case of tail
D cP (Distance to CP) = O+H
DH nm wind it will be less.
'1 In case head wind component ip~reases, distance to CP will increase
X= distance from departure to PET in nm. or it will move towards destination or•·it will move away from place of
D = dis tance from dt-parture to destination in nm. departure.
• If tail wind increases distance to CP will decrease or it will move
0 = groundspeed on from PET to destination in Kts. towards place of departure or wi\l move away from destination.
H = g roundspeed home from PET to departure in Kts.
163
162
•
•
De, al,w ays moves into the wind.
For same head winds ifTAS reduces, Dist to CP will increase .

-- - -From to TRK
TAS wrv G/S Dist

(nms)
Time
(mins) \
• Ifbe~m wind co~ponent doubles, Dist to CP will be halfway (or }ICP·A 270° 150 090/20 170 \200 424 \
remain same). Time to CP will increase.
0900 150 090/20 130 \200 55<1 \
• lf.head wind cortjponent changes to tail wind component. oi: vice versa
C ()CP-B
090° 200 090/20 180 \
Dist to ~p ~so .ch_~ges by same distance from half way as long as · '. ·GA-CP
component rema.ms same.
• ·r~ FOB/ FF I FC changes I?cP re!Ilains same . 000
D=l200 nm
424'
,.,. ... . .····-· · ·· ··-· · · · · · · ·. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . ..:. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 't' . ,. A
S54 CP
000 'I
B
' ,l
I ~\
:.
/,
/,{,
.,, .
-554
+424 \
'
.
,Ques'tioris ,
·,
·.t: _, .
. _:;
~-/ ,, r·--'
-~-
DH
O+H
(l 200X 170)
(130 +170)
= 680 nm s
$- 1/ -•- Or .By unitary method
i)
ii)
4 Find G/S ••~ Dr~
Trk
.090°,
2200
,
. '.
.
310
. ,.
.. - !60
~AS(kts)
.-
W/V
330/18
330/42
-
G/S HOG
0.84°
227°
DRIFT l _Q6.
D = (1200 X 554)/(554+424)
CP
TRK = 350q
T CP =
680
180
W/V = 120°/28
TAS (4 engine) = 450 kti:;
= 680 nms
= 3hrs 46mins
(3 engine)= 300 k tc;

iii) 315° .-220 · 090/22 319° Dist. = 1,500 nm
Find Der an<l T cP
iv) 120° 180 180/15 124°
I
- From to TRK TAS W/V G/S

Trk TAS(kts) W/V G/S HOG DR1Ff
'
---·· HCP-A 1700 300 120/28 281
i) 0900 160" '330/18 168 0.84° 06°
330/42 322 227° 07° OcP-B 350° 300 120/28 317
ii) 22,00 310
' , .
--- !•
iii) 3(5° 220 09·0122 235 319° 04° GA-CP 350° 450 120/28 467 \
iV) ti&> ' • fl 1'8.0 180/15 172 124° 040
--·- DH 1500X281 705 nm
Q5. Distance = 1,200 -nm
0 cr =
O+H = 317+281
=
'TRK =090'
TAS (Normal) 200 .kts TAS .(Reduced) = 150-kts Winds = 090°/ 20 kts. 705 = l hrs 30 min
T CP = 467
Find Del' Tep
165
164
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTS
Q7. For flight fuel of 2000 --v ~
by 200 Kg D . . ...~ calculated DPNR = 500 nm. If Flight Fuel is htcreased (iv)PNR: If FF or FC changes by Xo/o, DPNl\ will change by same percentage.
, PNR will be.
IfFF increases, dist. to PNR incr~ses, if reserve fuel increases D PrlR decreases.
a) 520 nm b) 550 nm
c) 450 nm If fuel conswnption increases, DPNR decreases.
lv1clhods to Solve Questions on CP and PNR:
(v) PNR: (No distance given) assume any distance.and calculate PNR.
DcP (Distance to CP) = DH nm
Q8. Dist. = 800 om TRK = 330°
O+H
EX GO x GH
\ W/V = 270°/30 kts TAS (N) = 240 kts
"
GO+GH = NM TAS (R) = 180 kts
(i) DcP: One leg (Return on 3 engine) DCP and Tep=?
DH ( . 330° WJV = 270/30 150°

O+ H CP 1s always calculated on 3 engines or reduced TAS)
(ii) DC!': Winds changing at CP: CP
J,. • •
♦ •• B
Ae---+---c_ ]
X.,__·- --}B
CP (
From to TRK TAS
800nm
WIN G/S
I
HCP-A 150 180 270/30 193

0~~ Unitary n1~thod (divide in 2 legs)
OcP-B 330 180 II
163
(ii i) CP : Winds changing at X
G A-CP 330 240 ·, 11
224
Null point or zero di'!ference point (calculated time, -Hand+ 0)
DH 80'0 x 193 1.54,400

A X - - - -- - -- - • B 0 cp =
O+H = 193+ 163 = 356 = 434 nm .
434
TCP= 224 = 1 hrs 56 -min•
Lc n11ai y method
't
Q9. In question 5, fuel on board 1,000 kg, F/C == 150 kg/ hr, Re'., erve =l00kg. Find
Dl'NR and-,TPNR'
A
----------t1~w_v_=_21_0_13_0_ _ _ _ _.BI
800 nm PNR _
166 167
:
-.,, .. PART I - GENERAi!. NAVIGATlt>N
FOB .. . 1,000 kg Reserve-= 100kg ·
FF = 900kg · F/C (N) = 150 kg/hr
,Find
(i) Da and Ta; DPm and Trm
(ii) SAR; Fuel required to go to destination.
D.__ (Distance to PNR) - . E X GO X GH NMs
rnA GO+GH - TRACK 030° 210°
- - - - - • 1250 nm..,__ _ _ __
From to TRK TAS kts W/V G/Skts
A B
GoA-PNR 3300 240 270/30 224 DH
DCP = O+ H
GH-PNR-A 1500 240 270/30 254
900 From to TRK TAS(kts) WN G/S(lds}

E=
150 · = 6hr
HCP-A 210° 250 360/30 276
(6X224X254)
DPNR = (224.+25.4) = 714nm 0Cl'-B 030° 250 360/30 224
714 GA-CP 030° 298 360/30 272
TPNR = 224 = 3 ht 11 min
~
1250X276 3,45,000
DCP = 276+224 = 500
= 690 nm
SAR (SOU Air~): It is the maximum distance up to which an ate can fl)
in nil wind while consuining·all fuel on board. 690
T CP =
272
= 2 hrs 31 min
TAS = G!S (in nil winds, both are same) !
SAR = FOB X
FC
TAS , From to TRK TAS(kts) WN G/S(kts)
I
GOP-PNR 030° 298 360/30 272
QlO. In above questfon -find'.SAR..
1 GIIPNR-A 210° 298 360/30 324
Ans. SAR = j~~O x 240 = 1,600 nm
QU. Dist=l,250 nm 6.25x324x272 = 5,50,800 = 924 nm

;:
DPNR = 324+272 596
TRK=0300 FOB= 1,400 kg 1
924
,winds =360130-kts Reserve = 150 kg ~ TPNR = 272 = 3 hrs 23 min
TAS = (N) = 298 kts F/C (N) = 200 kg/ h, . ~,., ,,
Ans. SAR = l ,4 00 x 298 = 2086 nm
· · · (R) = 250'Jcts F/C (R) = 150 kg/hr ·,., 200
FJ.
~ - ¥
Flight Time = l.
250
272
Fuel to Destination= 4.59 x200

= 4 hrs 35 min
= 919 kg.
i' ~
1:/
168 169
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT'OF ELEMENTS
Ql2. TRK= 0500
Dx202
WN= 330°/18 kts D,NR =800Nm
702 = +
202 196
, D = 1,3,8 3 run
FOB= 1,540 kg Reserve Reqd. = ISO kg . h t ume
Fhg . to d csunation
. . = 1,383 =7 :03
196
TAS=200kts.
Total fuel consumed = 7 :03 x 173 =1,220 k.g
Find: (i) Fuel consumption; SAR
Fuel required = 1,220 + 150 =1,370
(ii) If C~ is _reached 30 min before PNR, Find excess fuel carried on board on reach in
destination. g FOB= 1,540
Extra Fuel= 1,540- 1,370 = 170 k.g
From To TRK TAS{kts) W/V G/S(kts)
HCP-A 230° 200 330/ 18 Ql3. Dist= 1,500 nm
202
TAS (4 engines)= 360 kts TAS (3 engines)= 300 kb
,.
OCP-8 050° 200 330/1'8 196
GA-CP 050° 200 TRK = 0901 W/V = 330-/30 kts
330/18 196
FOB = 4,500 kg Reserve = 500 kg
!
1540-150 F/C (4 engines)= 800 kg/ hr F/C (3 engines) =600 kg/ lu
E= '
X '·
: ::, Find DCP and TCP; DPNR and T PNR
From to TRK TASkts W/V G/S kts ~ (ASSUME ENGINE FAILURE AT PNRANDAJC RETURNS ON 3 ENGU-IES.)
GOA-PNR 05~ 200 090°

330/18 196
GH-PNR-A 230° 200 330/ 13 202 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,.8
1500 nm
WN · 330/30 le.ts
BOO = EX196X202 E = 800(202+ 196) = 800x398 = 8 _04 hrs
202X l 96 202~ 196 l 96X202 From To· TRK TAS(kts) WN G/S(ktl)
(i) Presume fuel coLsumption to be X:
1540 -150 HCP-A 27<1' 300 330/30 284
8.04 = X OCP-B 090° 300 330/30 314
.1390 GA-Ci' 090° 360 330/30 374
X = 8.04
= 173 kg/hr
DH !., 500X284 4,26,000 = 7 ,1 23 nm
SAR= 1,540
""173 x 200 = 1780 nm DCP = O+H = 284+314 = 598
= 800 = -7 31i°4.3 ' = 2 hrs 31 min

GD6'3N 196 = 4 ·081 ·hrs
(i) Asswne PNR at B.
CP is behind PNR = 0.50 x 196 = 98 Nm
Dcp = 800 - 98 = 702 Nm (A ' - - - - - - - - - 1 5 0 0 nm--------• B \
170
PART I - GENER.AL NAVIGATION MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTS
From to TRK TAS W/V 'G/.S Dist Fr FC Fuel reQ i) \A-----2400nm----- B\

GOA-8 090° 360 330/30 3744 1500 04:00 . 800 .!.3208
Gib-A 2700 300 330/30 284 · i500 ,05~16 600 lliQ
~
From to TRK TAS W/V G/S Fl' FC FF I
-
__
J'
' ' 6368 - GOA-B 080° 440 030/25 424 5.66 \400 7915
IfFF is 6,368 kgs DPNR = 1,500 nm

~
GH-l'NR-A 2600 360 030/25 376 6.38 1000 6383

14308 I
IfFFis4,000 kgs D = 6,368
l,Soo ·•: x 4000 · ' -
· - PNR . , = 942 nm
FF= 14,308 for DPNR = 2,400
TPNR = 942/374 = 2 hrs 31 mi~
Ql4. Dist ... 2,400 nm -~ Jf · - 1 '.Irk "."',08_0_0 '.:.J · FF= 9,000 for Dl'NR = ;.i~~g8 x 9,000 = 1,509.6 nm
Wtv ·=OJ0'/25 kts : ; 1,'A.S:® = ·4401kts
TPNR = l,SlO
424
= 3 hrs 33 min
. TAS (R)=:z:360 'kts FO,B ~ 10,900·kg••·
Reserve= 1;000 ,kg, ~•••#• PC (N) = 1,400 kg/hr 1 FC(R) =:l,000 /kg/hr
QlS. Trk =270°
Find:
TAS = (N) =240 kts (R) = 150 kts
W/V = 090°/20 up to CP = 330°138 after CP
Dist= 1,100 nm FOB= 1,800 kg
. ·260° Res = 200.kg FC (N) = 450 kg/ hr
FC (R) = 300 kg/ hr
, ·---.
A..,..- - - - - - - --·2---,.4,. 0 0 hm
. .., ·- - - - - - - - • B
/,•~-
W/V • 030/25 · (i) DCP and TCl'; DPNR and TPNR (assume engine failure at PNR)
From to TRK
270°WN = 090/20 WN = 330/38 090°
· TAS W/V G/S
.'
HCP-A 2600 360 030/25 376 A CP B
0CP-B 080°- --360 030125 343 1100 nm

,> <.
GA-CP 080° 440 030/25 424 1
From to TRK TAS W/V G/S

i \
=
DH
O+H
2;40P2<'376 . _ 9,02,400
= 1,255 nm t HCP-A 090° 150 090/20 130 I
DCP 343+376 - · 719
l 0CP-B 270° 150 330/38 127
5
~~4 = 2.hrs 57 min
GA-CP 2700 240 090/20 260
172 ·,n
DH
1,IOOx 130
-----tl
Qj7,. Jo quu on ' '
MEASUP.EMENT Of ELEMENTS
1l FF "" J 000 kg, Calculate Or,ca aod TP~L
i) DCP = O+H
::,
130+ 127
= 556.4 nm
,\09•
--::;-:.=..::..:::.:=_:;:::----+ B
DCP 556.4
A ◄ . . -----====~--.-
=::.......----~ 1100 nm.,. WN = 330/38
T CP = 7; = 260 = 2 hrs 08 min WN - 090/20 ---~090°~-----=---..J
27G° 1
FT F/C FF
G/S Dlat
From to 1)-k TAS W/V GIS Dist FT F/C FF Trk TAS WN 959
Fro01 to 556 2 :13 450
090/20 260
GOA-CP 270° 240 090/20 260 556 2:08 450 960 270° 240 300 1283
G0A.CP 556 4:27
090/20 130 2242
GHCP-A 090° 150 090/20 130 556 4:15 300 .J..2.8Q 090° 150
G}ICP~A
2240
= 1141 kg Fuel available = 758 kg
Fu11~b~t~fu~e~l::::~3~00~0~kg~_!'.F~u~el~c~o::n~su~m~e~d~~Gi;g"--;Dh•i°-- _FT F/C FF
Vole: In tin's case fuel required for PNR to be at GP is more than the fuel on board. ~ AS WN G/S '"
Th.erpfore PNR lies before GP. Frol" to Trk T 1 2:48 450 1116
544
1100 240 330/38 - 219
Presume D PNR to be at CP : G0CP-B 544 3.30 300 990
0900 150 330l 38 1~5 2106
When FF is 2240 DrNJl = 556 nm GHB-CP
"\1h
556
V en FF IS
. J D PNR -- 2240 nm DrNR is between CP an".i B.
When FF is 1,600 D PN K = (556x 1,600) + 2,240 = 394 nm If FF 2106 0PNR= 544 - '111
544
OPNR =
Alternately u~g Gross Fuel Consumption (GFC) formula: FF 1 2106 0.259 nm
CFC (U 'ts/GNM) = FUEL CONSUMPTION (Units/HR) = ~ FF 758 DPNR = 0.259 x 7-58 = 196 nm
m GROUND SPEED (KNTS) GS
OPNR = 556 + 196 = 752 NMs
C FC= 450 + 260 + 300 + 130 = 1.73 + 2.31 = 4.04 Kg/GNM Total time (TPNR) = 556/260 + 196 /219 = 2.14 + 0:90 = 3.04 = 3 hr 02 min
DrN1< = FF + GFC = 1600 + 4.03 = 396 NM Q18. Trk = 3300
WN = 1900/15 kU up to CT -
T PN R = 396 +260 = 1hr 3lmin TAS (N) =220 Ids TAS{R) = 160 kts
330°/15 kts after CP
Ql6. Ju question 12, is fuel sdlicient to go to B? Dist= 750 nm .. FOB= 1,500 kgRes= 100 kg
TAS ., FC (N) = 180 kg/ hr FC (R) = 120 kg/hr .

From to 'Irk WN G/S Dist FT F/C FF
Der and Tcr (li) DrNR ad l'PNR (assume engine failure at PNR)
GOCP-B 270° 240 330/38 2i9 545 2:29 450 1118
Till CP FF= 960 kg 750nm 150°
q30°
Total fuel = 960+ 1118 =2,078 kg
B
There is not enough fuel to carry flight to B. CP
\ A 290i25 330/15
Nott: If PNR is before CP,fuil carried is insu/ficient to go to destination
174 175
From to TRK TAS(kts) wrv G/S (kts) u P lo
~C
CP "" I80/200 + 120/178 "' 0.9+ .674 = L57
. -
HCP-A 150° 160 290/25 r ud Required up to CP O
1.57 X 413 "' 648.4 lbs
178 -·
OCP-B .330° 160- r,ue 111vnilable after CP = 1400 - 648.4 = 751 .6 lbs
330/1'5 145 _
GA-CP GFC after CP = 180/205 + 120/175 .. 1.56
330° 220 290/25 200 Dl'l>'R From CP = 751.6/1.56 = 481.4
DH
0 cP = .· O+H .. 750Xl78 = -1,33,500- Dl'IIR From A = 413+482 =- 895 NMs
178-+ I ~5--- 323 · = 413 nm Tvt1R,:; TA.er+ Tcr-rNR = 413 + 200 + 483 + 205 = 2 hr 04 min+ 2 hr 21 min = 4 hr 25 min
TcP = 4'13 I Q19, Dist =2,000 nm Track = 090°

= ~h1rs 03 min
r;~
200 WN = 090°/30 kts for first 1,000 nm for remaining.= 330°/18 kts
3·30°'. TAS (4 engine)= 380 TAS (3 engine)= 260 kts
.-• I "~lt ,.. FOB = 2,500 kg Reserve= 350 kg
l[ ,,
- ' - CP r 1 • PNR
► B_
I· ,_.,;~' '
__ .·-
FC (4 engine)= 360 kg/hr FC (3 engine)= 280 kg/br
,,
<'-l ,Find: (l) DCP and TcP
From to Trk TAS WN . !, :
G/S Dist Ff F/C FF (ii) DPNR and TPNR (assume engine failure at PNR)
GOA-CP 33.0° 220 290/25
; .•
200 413' 2.06 180 371

GHCP-A 090° 1000 nm 207 207°
150° 160 290/25
,,' ,
178 413 2.32 120 278
~
1;t
ft 000
A
~
•t~ooo • -\4 6
B
'lr
484 ,, ,,II
223 ')OQ
II II II
DPNR is beyond CP. Presume
'
it to be at B.. - 484 090/30 -16 330/18 -!- 446
FF=-1400-649-751- lbs
From., to Trk,, 'fAS W/V G/S Dist
. Ff F/C FF
GOcP-B 330° 220 330/15 205 337 1.64 180
L From to TRK T~S(kts) WN G/S(kts) Dist Time
l
294
GHB-CP 1500 160)", OA-X 090° 260 090/30 230 \000 nm 1.6\
, .. ~ - ;:-.
,
• ""'!;- "
,· -~'
330/15 115
.· : :, "'!:·,, :,n )
~37 1,92 1:10 4lll ,. .. -- - l
.
.. 524 Ox-B 090° 260 330/18 269 lOOOrun r 3
FF 524 lbs DPNR - 337 nm.- Total 4 4 II
FF 751 lbs DPNR = (337/524) x 75 L=: 483 nm HB-X 2700 260 330/18 251 1000 nm 239 \
DPNR fr~in-A; 413 + 483 ,= 896-NMs Hx.-A 270° 260 1000nm \
/ - ... ..J , ' ,
090/30 290 '.ill_
I
Total 446 I
Altem.ate Meth~.(u~ing Gross ,Fuel-Consumption Method for DPNR)
I
GA-X 090° 380 090/30 350
GFC (Units/GNM) = F1.JEL CONSUMPTION (Units/HR) _ FC
· · GR(!UND SP¥-ED (knts) · - ~ GX-B 090° 380 330/18 389
'·
"-----l
/76 177
r
--
HEASUP.EME{'IT OF ELEMENTS ·
i) DcP == DH l ,OOO x I 6
O+H 16 +446 = 34.6 nm on ftJght from A to B dist. 1100 nm. TrackOlO- WIN~ ll0•/30. F/C 1100 lb1/ ,
11
Dcp == l ,0 35 n m (}JJ. hr FOD 10000 lbs reserye 1500 lbs, TAS 21!) K (4-en&) TAS 185 K (3 eng) ftnd:
n) Time & distance to CP b) 'Nme & distance to PNR c) SAR
T:m e=: 1.000 35
35 0 + 389 == 2.85 + 0.089 == 2. 93 == 2 hr 56 min ,\llS· a) 465nm lbr55min b) 730nm 3hr 4mins . c) 1750
(iii) DPN R Q?4. on a flight distance 1073 nm. TAS 170 ktl, head wind 10 ~, ~,.,..
a) Find time & distance to CP.
From to Trk TAS W/V G/S Dist FT F/C FF
- b) FOB ,ls Just sufficient for flight ftnd the time & distance to P NR
GOA-X 090° 380 090/30 350 1000 Ans- a) 600 nm 4 hrs b) 600 nm 4 hrs
2.85 360 1026
GHX-A 270° 260 Q2S- On a flight from S to T dlst. 1250 nm. Track 13S TAS (4 eng} :l:.,0 k. TAS (3 eng)
090/30 290 1000· 3.44 280 963
GOx-a 090° 380 , 215 K WIND 090/30 FOB 12000 lbs r cs-.::-ve 2000 lb! F/C (4 eng) UOO lb!i/hr
330/ 18 389 1000 2.57 360 925 F/C(3 eng) 1000 lbs/hr find:
GHs-x 270° 260 330/ 18 25 1 1000 3.98 a) Time,& distanc;e to CP- ~) Time & distance to PNR
I 280 1115
Total 4029 .c) Time &dlsta"ce to PNR (return on 3 ~~glne) d) SAR
IfFF = 4029 Ans: a) Der - 686nm ifce - ,'3hrs ·
. , b) DPNR.-,1028run 4432'
. D PNR == 2000 DP~R- 1048,TPNR 4437' 'd) 2500nms.
FF = 2500 - 3~0 = 2 150kg c)
= 1,067 run
D PNR = (2000 x 21 50)-;- 4029 : l~--
- '
Q26. On a flight from A to B: Tr 317 WIND 205/35 TAS 185 K D PN\\ 732 nm Flight
, -,
Fuel 1200 lbs find:
TPNR - l ,000
-- + -
350 , '
67
389
=2.85+0172
· == 3.02 == 3 hr 01 min
tt ,''. ,' a) Fuel consumption b} SAR
c) If CP is reached 4S min before PNR, find excess fuel earned on board.
Q20. On a flight from A to B : Track 153 TAS 210 K D"
FOB 1000 lbs, reserve 200 lbs. F/C iso
.
lbs/hr. fin~:t. 925 n~ WIND 200/30, ,, Ans. a) 149 Jbs/hr ; l490 rim· ~b1
c) -236 lbs-·
.~ ·, Q.27. On a Hight fr; ,i:i Yto X: Track· 210,, ;\VIND 270/35. TAS 200 kts FF ll00 lbs
a) Time & distancr, to CP b)Time & distance to PNR c) SAR ,:::-: .· D PNR 7f S nm:Fin<f' , ,. - -
Ans. a) 508 nm, 2 hrs 42 min b) 457 nm 2 hrs 26 min c) 11 67 0
Q2 I O fl " . a) fuel cons_u mpti~n
. n a ight from X to y : track 250 TAS 195 dist 975
900 gal reserve JOO gal F/C 150 GPH find : ' nm WIND 330/35, FOB b) SAR
c) If CP is reached 4S min before PNR, find excess fu.el carried on board.
a) Time & di.stance to PNR b) Time & distance to CP c) SAR , ~ t- , •
Ans. a) 512 nm 2 hrs 45 min b) 503 run 2 mi,

L- 42 mm
. )
c 1170nm Ans. 'a) 137:,}b~ :. , , b),.J ~OO m,ns f) l,94 lbs .
Q21. On a flight from K to L dist 1500 nm. TAS 310 K track 350 W . Q28. On;~,fl_ig~t}r9~.A,to B; Track 155, TAS 200 KWIND 260/3S D~ 1050nm,
12000 lbs. reserve 2000 lbs F/C 1800 Jbs/hr find: IND 240/.30 FOB F/C 141 GPR'iind: - . ,
a) Time & distance io .PNR b) Time & distant(! to CP c) SAR a) fuel on board
i,< ( .t J. -'(~ \ :;, .!' . ;,_: .. ' \. ·. •
b) SAR
. - ..
Ans. a) 856 nm 2hr 40 min
bY 724 run,
2hr 16 min c) 2066 nm c) If<;:~ Ii.es $>.~~.J o~rJ5;,mln be{or~ P~R, find exc~ iu~l carried on board.
Ans. ~) 1506 Gal b).2136 Gal c) 370lbs
178
179
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION / MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTS
Q29. From 'X' to "Y" distance 1250 .. - ......
Eng. ISO K, WIND 090/30 t n~. track 120, TAS 4 Eng. 180' K TAS 3 nm TAS 180 K head wind 10 K , fuel cons 1200 lbs/br M:\x
u: Distance 1015 · '
consumption 4 E ng 100 GP°! 3oE p & 060/30' after CP. FOB 1500 G fuel Q.:, ... AUW 90,000 lbs operational mass 50,000 lbs reserve fuel 3,000 lhs (to be
·~•t . ng 80 GPH. Find
added for PNR) find
a) Time & distance_to € P ln'case of engine failure.
a) Tim e & distance to CP b) Time & distance to PNR
b) Time & .dfstance to PNR with 1200;G ~:::- ·
of r eserve. Retur n on 3 engnies 536 nm 3 hrs 9 min b) 760 om, 4 hrs 28 mm .
Ans. a) 71 0 nm, 4 hr 38 . .\ns. a) '
mtn b) ll74 run 7 hrs 28 min · On n flight from A to B dist. 101S nm. track 083, TAS 190 Kon 4 Engines, 160
Q30. From A to B dlstance l4SO
K, WIND 260/40 up to CP :~s!:k 132, TAS 4 Eng 190 K, TAS ·3 Eng 160
fuel con sumption 4 Eng 1850 lb /h 3afiEter CP, FOB 18000 lbs, reserve 1000 llis
f 36
Q • K on 3 Engines, WIND 190/45 up to CP & 110/40 after CP. FOB 1500~ lbs. .
reserve 2000 lbs, F/C 1800 ~i;';!hr on 4 engines & 1400 lbs/hr on 3 engine, . Fmd
. s r ng, 1450 lbs/hr. find n)' Time & distance to CP
a) Time & dlstancuo CP ·
I . b) Time & distance to PNR (return on 3 Engines)
b) Time & dista·nce to PNR return on 3 Eng.
a) 544nm 2:46 b) 683nm, 3:39
Ans. a) 571 nm: ' 2 hrs 4 h nin .b) 840, 3 hrs 49 min
'Q3J. Full TAS 500 kt. Engine failure TAS 400 kt. Total distance 1000 nm. Along
Q31. F r ~ to 'Q '• distance 2000inm : Track'090; TAS 4 'Eng. 180 K TAS 3 Eng. 15(i track wind component 40 kt. The distance to the engine failure CP will be:
K, D 09 0/lO for fir st -1000 nm. & 150/20 for rest of the flight. FOB 1600 a) 450nm
;::;t!serve 200 Gal. fuel consumption 4 engine 100 GPH, 3 Eng 80 GPH. b) 550nm
c) 450 or 550nm depending on the wind direction
a) Thne:& dfstanc·e to CP
Q38. The distance to the PNR will b e greatest:
b) Time & dfst~nce to PNR, return on 3 E ng. a) If there is a tailwind component going out
Ans. : a) 1~97_IlIIl.,, 6 ~ 49.min_ b) 1278 nm, 7 hrs 53 min b) If there is a headwind component going out
Q32. From "A" to "B" distance 1500 nm. Track 347, TAS 4 Eng - 175 K TAS 3 Eng. i c) In still air conditions
l;~~ .~ .270(20 for first 1000 nm. & 2.-s120 fo r rest of the flight. FOB 1200 \ · · Q39. An engine failure PNR is calculated to enable the pilot to make the concci
G. Reserve lOOG, fuel cons 4 Eng. 120 GPH, 3 Eng 100 GPH. Find decision in the event of:
a) Time & d istance to CP a) An engine failing before reaching the mid-point
b) Time & distance to PNR return on 3 E ngin es. b) An engine failing after reaching the mid-point
c) the destination and its alternates closing any time up to the PNR
Ans. a) ..756, 42_2_8 .- b). 811 , 4:48
Q40. In Hight it is discovered that the winds used have been , everseJ., the effect ' \11
Q33. F ; om "A~ to "B~ distance 2,000 om. Track 080°, TAS 180K WIND 290/20 for
be:
firs t 1000 nm & 320/20 for rest of flight, endurance 15 Hrs. find
a) No effect on the distance to the PET but the ETA at it will be affected.
a) Time .offflght. · ·.b) i>Jsta;nce:to.PNR c) ETA to PNR (ETD 10001S1)
b) Chance the distance to the PNR
Ans. a) 10hrs21 min b) 1336J?m c) l6hrs50min c) Give the distance of the PET from the base ahead instead of from the hase t1eh1n<l .
Q34. From X to Y distance 1200 nm TAS
160 K, Tail wind of 10 K fo r first 600 nm. Q41. Fligh t distance 1500nm, wind component out +40kt, back - 50kt, TAS :no l't,
& head wind of10 K'for 'restofftighffind time & distance to CP. endurance - fligh t time +15%. The distance to the PNR will be:
Ans. 600nm, 3:32 a) 786nm b) 750nm c) 738nm
180 181
PART !-· GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q4 i. The effect of an in • ___,

dista t creasmg strength of wind.at 90• to tr k ,.,
nee o the PET will be: ac on the time and
Distance time
a) none increase , ..
13
b) decrease decrease
c) none none
Q43. On a simple flight from A to B th di . . .
endurance is equal to -the fligb~ f e stance to the PET is 1200nm. The PN.;. '. •... , ~
, ~
•me +10% The dist · -l'- ' , ,
a) 1260nm provided the same winds , l . . . ance to the PNR will be: '. "- . ; \ :
b) 1320rµn provided the same . . els app y to bothPETapd _ PNR calculations. ,_-_,_:_,_:~_·> _:
, ~vm apply to both PET d . \:.',,,t· '· -
c) 1320nmprovided the wind . ·· an PNRcalculations -~. •t_.___ .·
1s not at 90° the track •. ..x, :·,
Q44. On a flight out to the PET the GS
·11 b
.
are found to be I th
.ftS_'"
w1 e m~ved along track:' ess en expected. The PEt-) -. "· v,,,
•:, t _;.
a) Into wmd ' f

b) In to the. wind provided
. the w·md change contmues
. ·
throughout the fli ht ';;'PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING .
c) Downwrnd provided the wind change continues throughout the fligh! . · _ lfis .?,bsol'utely necessa1'y 'to redµce · th'e"t~e 'spent on navigation in the air
•;' to.~ minimum. In this respec~, goo<). flight planning contributes to the ·success of
Q45. For head wind component of 50 Kts al
route dist of ]200 c culated DCP is 750 nm for the total
nm. 1n actual flight wind co 1 t
• y,:,anf .~igh.t. . . .: . ·. , . ..:.\. - " _· .
tail wind, new position of DCP will be: mponent s ound to be 50 Kts of · Flight planning. should be carried out on ·a basis that requires the pilot to
a) 600 nm ,' b) 450 nm establish a position,auheJol~o~ing ip.teuvals:.' . :.
c) 525 nm
,• f Immediately after set.ting.' b~ading tfrprovioe 'aoefini.te departure pqint
j and lo establish a departure time on which to base E~ _
Answers e · At regular. ·points along track to check the progress of the flight so that
corrections fortrack error or ticy\e ll_laY-?Y mad.e. , _:
• At a final point.close to th,e _destination S()_tj:la~ final _corrections may be
Q: I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ade ' . · · ; · · ·· ·'' ' · ',.. '
~ .
A: . . - . - - . - - - - . - . . - - - . With chart preparation, there are only a_few absolute·rules:

Time/Distance Markers ,-The tr~c\fc.lineiti,n•either·.b e -calibrated in units of
flight time or distance. lf'flig\lt time is used, i.t can either be time elapsed or time
to· destination. Similarly, dist3:nce _ca1:1 ,be distance flown or distance to go. Toe
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28' 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 4( choice be.tween the tw'9' methods'is a inatt~r Qf personal opinion, but an advantage
. of the distance method is that it.,facil~~ tes ap_p\ication of the l in 60 rule.
A: . . - . - . - - - . - - . - - C C C C
Track Error Lines - Lines drawµ at angles of, 5~ or l 0\ either side ohrack
through departure poin\.ancl_ 4estination, are nwst '.1sef~\J9r quick estimation of
Q: 41 42 43 44 45 track error ancl for estimating l\eading alter~t\ons.
A: l a b b b
183
182
.
PA~T I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
F~lding .Charts -'!'~e chart should be folded so that complete track co'vera c
1s. possible ~1th the minimum numbef of page turns and without re-fold.in ~
- IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION
r special in terest to pilots including th e p osition of airhfieldd s. •:ad'1n l ,ec1 c.on~ .11 11 l
;:jrways. Remember; the larger the scale, the greater t e et.a1 1 av,nlahle u11 1h
~1ght. Charts should be numbered and a:rrah ged in order of use. It is also a .,.~~n
i~ea t~ havhe an ~merg~ncy set of charts in an easily accessible spot to reliev: and
d1art.
The choice of m a p for any particular .fli.g_h t will. d epend on ma n y factors.
-I
s1tuatton t at might anse. ·· ,:.,,. . ·.·,· Y . cl' t·he length of the J·ourney; th e cruising \1e1gh tan d spee d ; an cl otnl e.r
FLIGHT PLAN NING SEQUENGE
A logicatsequenc_e is as fqJlows:
:
.'
,ncltt 1ng . . ·. bl rr
. . , bl means of uavigauon. Bad weather can a1so cons1c1era y a11ect 11. e c 1101ce ,
1
L, , . ·. . .
~~:':otl e_tl~e wea~12<:!.! t!i~_larg~r t~e sc~le .9f '.!l ~R th ~~_sh ~ ld be us~d . '11-ic. d 1oice
J.
► R · n · i:: • · •· •• r- d t rmined by the proper ues ot the ma ps ava1]able fort e a1ea to be f1 ow n •
evt~w a . l~hormation relevant ·to the 'flight, e. g. flight rules, navigation is tnen e e
wam~gs,_;e tc. .· . ,: · ! . ·. ·.· · · ··. · . , .over.,
> Stii'?:y the "fim~~~of dl?~cal situa(iari·, and.obtain wµidvelocities and ~~mperatures
reqwred ' or,planmn:g:,;.~, , . , · .
.. Visual Check Points. Avisual check point is a signrncant feature or landm-trk
,-J > •o'r near the aircraft' s planned track. It musL be large enou gh to be vi ible ,
· [:; '. , ~~t: ~mall enough to pinpoint the aircraft's yositio n_. I t should stan d ~ut i rom its
.► Select a flight planni:ng_cj1art and, if different, a set of charts for the route. . -· · , su.r,roundings and therefore should be uniqu e. It 1s _not al~ ays pos 1b~e t find
> Determine the :oute.Jo b~ followed; consider the aim of the flight, High,t rules, . s~ch a feature, but combinations of features can provide useful alternattves.
th e me~eorologicals1tuat1on, .the availability of navigation aids and any other ,,; ;:l:5General Features of a Visual Checkpoint. Coastlines can u ·uall y pnwi de
factors mvolved. ' ,..,.. position information, but an inlet on t h e coast wi ll b e of more use t t1an :
► fli~rah';,Vt,-!µ1 tra
.g og.,-
... c~~, , µie.~ure,, p:a~k a_~gles and distance, and recor d
. . .
~h~m ~n t~e,. ?
J{"~d"me
'Jt>ng, :straight, featureless, sandy beach. It may be p~ssi~le to u_se th e beach a~ a
, dine feature for checking track or groundspee<l , but it w11l be difficult to 1dent1fv
. ► Determine sa£e ;1i~ctly one's position on a beach without refere nce to ano ther feature . An in \c1.
appli~qle. altitudes, and decide on fl'1ght alt1'tude ·or flight level, as a· promontory, apter, · a sma11 woo d e d area or some c1·ms ·n J ,
r.r are th e sorr n f 1 p
one would b e looking for to pinpoint. one's posi tio n along a coast. Wh e n c..rn,'.,mg
► From know.l edge of.r.fr~raft p_erfor_mance, determine RAS for each flight stage. , a coastline, checking the direction in which it lies with r e f Prence to th e n rnp:1 , .
i-~~-r RN?,1A)og, an~ m ,comunctton with altitude and temperature, calculate ;combined with a check feature should dispel any ambiguity in position.
Water features such as rivers, estuaries , canals and lakes can be inYaluable ·
· ► . Calculate. headings to steer for each flight stage, and log them. . '.,yi,sual checkpoints. But beware: the changing seasons can drastic-cl.Uy al te r th e
0:\·}1¥ePearance of such features. A river in flood will be almost un recogniz~ble [rc11n
► . Co?1plete the log Qy'_the calculation' of groundspeeds and fuels . · the information presented on a map, whilst drough t conditions could cause :1 1al~
► Carry 6d_t,a 'inen~l re-~ppraisal of'the whole plan to check for obvious errors. : to disappear completely. In winter, a frozen lake may well be indistingu i h ab\,.
from its surroundings if it is covered in snow.
> Prepare the flight charts.
. .. "
Mountains and hills will often provide a valuable source of check orn t_:
► , Note positions,;of alternate airfields, and determine fligh t planning data from , however, it should be remembered that the higher one flies , the flatLe r the gro u nd
.destination to alternates. , , , _
f. beneath will appear. If the ground is obscured by low cloud or fog. th e ops ot h IL
Us~ of '?SU~fo~_ s erva~o'ns and application 'to in-flight navigation: Visual t, · may still be visible and, therefore usable as check poi.n ts. It is also po ·,·i.b le for the
•• • . • , • . f . ,. . • . . . . . ' . . ., . '. . .
nav1gat1(m , 1s a· techJiiq;u¢ often errtployed _-i.n light aircraft, which operate at !·•-
relatively low speeds-·an'd heights', when
mai.ntaine(i •with._the gro_und for most of the}light. ,
wea.ther is good and visual contact can be r·' tops of ,hills or ,mountains to be hidden in cloud, not only ma king id entification
d'ifficult, but also a potential flight safety hazard to the unwary.
,u When flying at low levels ground contours become m ore igniftcan bcca 1'if'
Map Reading~A~.r~iiautical "series Topo'graphical Maps will show features \ · even quitesmall hills and htllocks become more obvious witl, the bette< pm p •n ivc
such as rivers, roads, railways a.rid· terrain. They' will ·also contain information l. offered at thatheight
V. 18S
184 (
t
PA:RT I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
Villages, being quire smaJJ k · --

o ver an area where man ri1la. , can ma e good check points, but when fl . / IN-R.JGHT NAVIGATION
o Lhe-r ca-tu.res. y \ ges are scattered it is important to cross-refer :\l cbeck poin ts, (e.g. when approaching an aiJ:way) a'_ line feature, such ·as a railway
Towns, being thar much larger then vill . fine or coaslLine, is usually better than an 'isolated poinc;·because it is quick and
!o/:: theirdshapde, but it is a wise pilot that wiU ::o:ss-~:cf~~hb;thide~tified simply
e roa s an railways associated with a town. er ieatures such
easy to see. ··
Plotting Visually Derived Intersecting Lines of Positio~- Pinpointing the
. On the other hand a city can usuall be i . . aircraft's position is achieved by estimating the_range anq bt;a~ing fro.m a cb~ck
be~~ a large feature, it also has its drawb~cks ft:~•fied from its . sh~r size, but p<>int or by combining bearings from two different check pom_t:s and refe~g
pos1uon accurately from such a larg f; . ill not be possible to fix one's that position to the map, Adjustments ~ ~en be made to headmg ~nd speed m
. mall e eature and once again it w'Il I b order to maintain•the desired 'track and t1mmg. ·
companng s er nearby features th;;•_one's posi tion w·ub ' b1 :_h1 on y _e by
Rail 1 e esca illS ed preasely Single observed position line to check flight progre~. ~tudy the route to
ways are prominent features easily visibl fr th . . .
particular stretch of railway (as with an 'Ii , ti e om e air, hut 1dentifying·a gain a mental picture of what t~ expect alo:°g ~e way an~ h1ghlight.features along
reference to other features such as b rd .ne I eatf re) m_ay not be possible without the crack which will be suitable to use il:S v1su,a l check·po_mts. The chosen features
is u eful (and other line features for ~~es, eve ~ossmg~ e_tc. Where a railway should be 5-10 minutes· flyirig time apart arid, if poss1~l~, _spaced_equally over
the 'Ieg distance. (Allow plen'ty of time for route study; IIlltiaJ1f, yo~ can expect
paraUeJ to the desired track, then it will mp~~:rd)etsuwsehfuenl Il l !Ski~aral_lnfcel or ne~rly
Al · I if · - rac ng I ormauon . to spend about the same length·oftiine on _route .study as the .flight 1s planned to
tdernauve y, th: feature _crossed the desired track at right angles, then timing. -- ta.Ke.) '·
an gro undspeed mforniauon can be derived.
Prepare and Align a map /~hart for us~ 'i n Vi;ual Navig_a tion.
Roads can also ~e an invaluable aid to tracking and/or timing as weU as being (a) A few mµiutes befo~e flyipg over _a,pre 7planned check p~~t, establish
a source of check point; however, a number of points should be borne in mind: µie aircraft's appro-xirna_te positio~~.i~.:;c ~culate a D;R posmon .
a) Minor ~oa.ds are more easily recognizable in sp arsely populated areas; in towns (b) Determine the position ~fthe, ~~eek-point r!!1ative to the DR position
there will be too m';9y roads to be able to identify any pa rticular one. and decide where the feature should be relative to the view from the
IJJ Roads can disappear from view, hidden by terrain or woodlands or urban cockpit. . _. _
complexes. (c) Relate the map informati~n ~9 w~at <;ad.b e seen from the cock~iL Look
for the chosen feature in the predic~ed position. If the f~arure 1s exactly
c) Mo~orways, like railways are easily distinguishable from the air, but a long where you expect it to be, then the aircraf~ is on track and o~ time . .
tra1ght stretch of motorway presents the same problem as a stretch ofrailway: If, ho·wever, the feature is_not itnniediately visible,·then the aircraft _IS
ic is impossible to pinpoint position without reference to other features. A either off track, or·not on time,-or:a·comliination of the two. (B~ar m
motorway junction or service area, however, is much more useful. mind that it is possible that-the,featute may~be obscured from view and
DR Positions and Actual Positions. The easiest way to navigate visually is by could become visible.later--). l t"ts' then necessaryto widen the~ ?f the
selecting ground features which are marked on the map and looking for them area around.the aircraft. Bear.in mind that~e aircraft's DR_pos1uon
on the ground. If the weather is fine, this is not difficult provided that unique, is constantly changing anq, therefore, the chosen-feature's relative
prominent ground features have been chosen. But if there is cloud below or the position. wiU:~e.<!_lso:,cha~gi~g: -. , __ _ __ -
visibiliry is poor it may be difficult to find the selected features. (d) When the check;feature is-sighted, estim~te the range and bearing ~d
note the time. Returnito tpe j n~p .arid using·the observations, establish
)(In bad weather, ~e b-!st soh~,tfon is to navigate from ground to map. Look affaccurat~·posiilon ohhe aircraft. -·-, :...._ --- ·
for prominent features on the ground through -holes in · r.h e cloud, and then
(e) Ha\;ifi'gJif~d tlie :positiorf of tne~airciaft, take_actio~ _t? 'keep or return
identlfy them on the map. The flight ,plan timings can be used to help in this, but
to tracki~hd aajus_t §peed.:t~ at~ieve -the reqmr-ed tmun~
ca re should be taken because, depending-on the map scale, certain features that
a ;-e easy to see from the air may not be marked on the map. For really important Ang!e ~iqhs.~~-aij~n!;The.~~tu~e.at wl\ich . we
.fly will ,effect h?w, tatu:::
appear. At low levels, m_<;ts~and aeJ:i~l~ can pi;oy1de very good check pomt, eca
186
'• 1a1
- . :ART I • GENER.AL f\.lAVIGATION IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION
o ftheir ver;r.ical extent, but th h . . A fix ·1~ defin ed as the exact position of an aircraft at a specified ime. 11
to ~e dearly .visible .. Generali e ~gh~r on.e flies the lar er . --
, ;iy be derived from visual, radio .or radar observations or any c:ombinatic n 0 1
~~eir _shape in plan form wh~ s~eakmg, n~<;\rer object/~ill~e ~ast ~eeds to bt 11
,hese navigational aids. The obseTVations from different sou rce an v be m ane
t _e!1tified from their ele~atio~ e eatui:es at greater distan~es e._ 1 enttfiable froll\
?4ck wltereas masts b~'d' • . ; Henc.:; towns, cities and will be mpre easil sunoltaneously or at different times and tran sferred to a common time to comu uct
identify ivhen some
• i
d' ~-
ges,_clnircH •s'te'eples ' and•I11. h l~ es are useful dose /0
Jstance away. . · . · 1, , g ground will be ·ea' . a fix .
Size of F ·· • · . • · · ·· · · Sier to The mpst accurate fix is th at derived from the aids least likely to b1: in cr m r
~ature. Large feat . ' q ,' •
~e~ ar,~ easily'distin u· · a~d intersecting at a large angle i.e. 60r or 90°. Therefore the mos accurate ti x
. .
h ave noted with cities · ·. ·
is obtained from a twin DME fix because the DME'. has the least error a nd the
a small or narrow fea;t,~~t a_n accurate positio_~ is :mo~e ~1:1yatndb1debnt~ed as we .
' Un' . . . ' . . . o e o tamed f:rorn .,, ..., , position lines can be chosen to cut at between 60° and 90°. If this is not possih\e, or
. iqu~ness.ofthe Feafur .' _. . ,. . . : the Airborne Search Radar cannot be u sed to obtain a similar fix , the aid should
choose featur "ch ·.•.. , . . e._Avo1d choosing • -be selec,ted to produce three position lines intersecting at l 20° becau e hi · w·1\\
exam 1·.
• . e1r v_ei;tical ext t b _ _. ·

thta~md and:::
es Wl_ .ch,ar~1:=,~~ri~qc's wllich <, ' · : · com mo~ or ambiguousJe atur .
becau~/~;the ~~ve}A?t~,g ;t.h.at ;~erials . umque_in their vicinity.
s , ~ out,quite ·n -
F~;. tend to criminate any errors inherent in the equipment.
,clump of trees may.-p r ovici~ :~ :' fu~-~~~,at e, of aerial 'farms' Sim;~ Iat a ~lstance
area w~l be vir~:ally inip-~ssit:e t~ , ~;ck ·P?in~, but a ~lum~ of tre:/ i: : ; ~l~e~
use u_m q~~~ ~ss
Contrast and c ·' ,;., . .
~~
yo~r criteria for
_.: .
1
c1:~~~i~~ :\~:ikth
e:efore u~eless. Be su~e ~o .,·.,
point.
sun th . ' . . _
' e s~~p~ ()1olf_r.. Vanat10ns in contrast_, co~
of .the year 'and l Ji~ •a • .
0
l .
~~• hght, the position of the
..
'f..
effect on ilie appeararite6'ftn·e'-•t <; , m ~n ~nt , f p r ec1p1tation etc will all ha ,.•.,
featu
effects .
,b ·•u·· 'b
r,;.:S '\'.I ' ea .lot eas'ierif suffi . ' 'th· ,
• · · .-. -• ... · ' . Jcrent
ieatures tcf be fot d R . ,
. •, ought
. ·- and imacn· · -
.
ecognizing and identifyi
c .
ve an
b.na ion is applied to theseng
m.
-.
BeaconC
• Navigation.' ,., in . • ~ _d,e scent. Climbs
. -,' cJ"-.1!: d d
~lSl~s:- _
DR pnn9ples; It is' not sfo.t'e
an . escent~ are usually calculated
changes of altitt.1c!e·-' .·;, ,, ,;:,, ' ;,_ ',... normal to fix the aircraft's position d .
.· . ,. . • . unng The plotted position lines do not intersect at one position bu t fo rm :1 ·roe er\
: Assuming_ ~~ ,ai~~r~ft is...: . . d .
.ili~t . hat' . However the centre of the cocked h at is at the same positi.on as the corr c\
level to another. then it is _. , ·_ . requ11'.e, to chmb at a constant CAS from one fix should h ave been.
up the climb .. ~~xt d~term~~~e=~7::!cula_~e the m~~n_T~J at a point half way NDB/ADF : The traditional way of presenting ADF bearing info rrnarion to
and again -the -W/V hai.fway'• . h '1.· b, -?• either by mterpolation or inspection
. - , •. .,up,t ~ c 1m :is used. .. . ' the pilot is by means of the Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI). The ~harp end of
,r,-: t, ...-v" t_he needle points to the NOB, and the bearing dispiayed on the RBl i. relaGve
. '-- ~ < ' •' •.. 't· 1 • ·: f'••!
·to the forward end of the aircraft fore and aft axis. ln order to obtai.n a Q OM ti
Time ri. wrv Hdg \IM-J -Hdg, 'J>ey Hdg'> diiservt>tfoi:u .RAS Press ·Temp TAS God Dist Time ETA 0
is therefore necessary to add the aircraft heading ( M) to the relative bearing. ln
m m (M) (C) .,.,. ., i Alt Spd
order to obtain a QDR it is then necessary to add or subtract 180° to the QD L
'
350 ~00/, 338 -
,.,, .. ... -2000 , 180 188 53 17 1032
Finally, in order to obtain a QTE (bearing to plot), it i.s necessary to ;,-pph th e
so .. ,).,. . . ., ,
25.000@
' ',
, ~
: 1500'/inin variation at the aircraft.

. .. . . Flight
·, ·•
1
.•
The more convenient method of presenting ADF bearing inform;i.t ton 1, 1 '
center11·ne r· k f; ,. -h ,. . , -' , ,U. s~ .o f. F'ixes to Revise
Nav1gati_on Ill Cru1smg . Navigation
. . Data. The
rac s o t e airways -a · · d · , • . : means of the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Again the sharp end o\ the nccd k0
wind d1·recti'on· s · · · ' · ,.- · ' re g~ven m . egrees magnetic. Route forecast points to the NDB and the top of the instrument represen_ls the forw arr\ enc\
everythin t . --: ·.are given
. 'm ·degree tr' I · h c
. . . .. s .. ue . . t is ;t ~re1ore necessary to convert the fore and aft axis. The compass rose within the RMI 1s s\aved 10 a rni t,1h
conve . g o a comm~n -1?-.o_~'_th~;:et~r-~~.~e, and for flights along ~rways it is more
ment to convent the wmd·d1rec··t1on·. to·'·d egrees
.. . ,, magnetic.
. , ,,,. . , , •. · ·
189
· 188
PART I ~ G,ENERAL NAVIGATION
IN-FLIGHT NAVl(;ATION .
an;•
♦
gym magnetic compa,s, and therefore the aircraft', magnetic heading i, shown . , .UUIIZlng the 1 In 60: . · . . Band
against the datum at the top of the instrnment. The sharp end of the needJ , '. Calculate the track angle enor (TKE), g,ven course from A"' ,
is tln,s pointing at the QDM ·on the compass rose. In effect the RMI has done h 1 · 60 • /
♦
C (· • •
e , · 'I off-course utihzmg~ha'~.Ke

fix, heading t e , 10at a_•n ~ff-co_urs~ fix to_d,rectlY_
. • .• v
mechaaicalJy
heading~ whatwhen
QOM) the pilot
usingis the RBI. to do mentally (i.e. relative + magneti' ·:· . /, · .
required Calculate the · I 60 R I r~ach ej
th
: VOR bearings
VORindicator)
magnetic may (omni-bearing
or an OBI be p1·esented toindicator).
the pilot on either an,- :;RMI1:(Piti·
•;.[;J,•.:, . ,
-r:{j::, , 10· :" -~J
• -
♦
- n~xi check point/destination u~ing the m u e.
"/~-<-_,.Calculate the average drify angle based l!-~on an o~-cour~!! fix, ·
1
, - ,whethe, .,'
An OB! bearing may be given as either QOM or QOR (depen'ding on riftobservation
Conection, The tang_eot of an angl"o""' . "';,fcalculated b dividing
that ad'ac:;,t the
side whlch
,J,c TO or the FROM flag is showing). · . !, ,ho,..;1
Remember that, with a VOR, the variation at the station is used (rather then
length of the side oppo:te ~~;p~[O:~~~-:r.::i, is
·1
··
is not the hypotenuse. P~. . ·
lhe variation at the aircraft, as wi_th an NDB). Since this is the case, the .variatio·n . ~-:·-<i!lµstrates a navigatio~ tr.a <;~~,f~~bl~rn.,
, ,
..
at figure, _whlch
-
to be applied w;JJ_iemain constant for cash VOR regardless of the position of the •· • · ..........
aircraft. The beanng m'tist be converted to become a true bearing whi_ch is plotted · - ,..,_... •
against true north at the beacon. ' ~ A ~ ·· - - - ,- ~ - - - ·-- - -
To achieve a more Occurate

. ,.
plot of the position line, draw the local meridian i ··
..
_,._, .
· •• .. _ • •
,..-
Dbtu<A, • l"nn
-=•
(true north) pas~ng through the VOR station position, and plot the position line
a., a QTE (tr ue bearing) from this local meridian. Ij . . . _. . . . ..'._,.......__.
'""'":'.' -_... . · · . c
DME, To plot a OME range position line, arc a curv, of the appropriate ! . . the distance off ttacl<--arul the distance along track are
!-
radius from the D ME station, as shown in the following example. It is not normal
co accou
range. nt for che difference
Remember between
that a TACAN i:1dicated
is elfe:tively
i, effectively a co-located \'OR and DHE.
(slant) range
a military DME,and
andtrue
that (horizontal)
a VORTAC
In Figure,. asswrung
fi:··.··•-_JmownE, the value oflb~ ~c~dei'rs tan
rack error angle=
ror_can
. . . . I (TEA) can be found from the formula,
e 'o,gff~x. ·
distance along 60
track
]. (fj ✓-·
·
-/,~ /}("--
If
1
When discussing visual check point, it wa!". noted that line features can be Closing Angle: The value of the dosmg ang e
used ro check tracking when aligned with the track and to check timing when f follm.ving formula · · . · 1 (CA) can be found from the
aligned across track. Similarly, a single position line from a feature can be used • ;_:_:_:::::..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _;.;;...._ _ _ _ _ 7
for che same purposes. Tracking information can be obtained from a feature on
vr close to track, whilst timing information can be obtained when passing abeam
" brure.
I!
I
An aircraft is tracking eastwards with a groundspeed of 240 kt. The following !

beari ngs arc obtaintd from the NDB
0826 NDB bears 040° RMI

0828
0830
NDB bears 349° RM}
NDB bears 300° RMI
rr
1 CA
distance off X
= distance to go
607
,_J •
(D,' cf. 1o
.
00.
Determine the aircraft position at 0830. 1 •
·- Total Correction:·Total Correcu_ •
o n is a sum of TEA and CA
Since all of the bearings in this example are from one station this non-
-~in111/taneous fix is known as a running fix. Invariably tht> time used for any
m:inuf.actured fix is the tim,! of the LAST position line.
Total Gorrecti9n = -TEA + Clo,ing Ang-~ ;:i. .,
..
190 191
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION_ _ _ _ _ _ _-.:..._~- ''. .
-=-~=------,,~......;.-::----~;.;.;...-=--;;,;;;;.;...;.;;;;..;..;;:..:..:.:.;,.:..~.::..:.::::.:.:: IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION
Questions ·, )_: TEA+ CA= 7 _8o + 8.80 = 16.6° to starboard

·I I)
~ ~~·
0
· . • fi th aircraft's position is arou~d the half-way point. In
. The ideal ume to IX el . equal to the closing angle, giving a n alte rati on of
An aln,rart. departs from p~lnt E, lnte,dln_g ,: , \h• ;li,reot: ~ cl< to,polnt F,:, this case, the track error ang e is
160nm away. Having Oo~~ (o~ 8-?,!l~ ,.- ~-~ -is obt_aJned which.~uts tb:e aircraft , heading of twice the track error angle. . .
11nm to the port of the intended track. Determine the alteration of heading Questions are ofte~ set '~ h ereby the TEA is known and the a ircrafts
required, if the alrcr!lft-isto track dfr~tly froni·the fix to point F, displacement from track is reqmred.
Ans.
, - -;/ Distance along trac k.1s 600 nm. Distance to go 300 nm, distance off tr ack
T, EA, =.. n X 60 { . • --:;:; "'1 . ' a,. 0 .· r ~
. ~ 20nm. Find TEA, CA and total correction.
An alteration of h~d;ng :o.starboa:

8
£7 ~ id
cause the afrcraft Lo L<a<k
parallel to the original tr ack E to F, howeve~ the·aircraft is required to turn fu rthc.~r i
l \ "t\:J
to track direct to F ,~ . f
,.,.. ,,.~; ~ : :~. ~ - Pm~lnt ~ . 1·; Cloalng angle
, ·. ~- . tt----~
} , IOOd -- .- - u ...
; ~ , Wtncll · F
_....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _....,.J
Ans. 0 = i x 6 0 /
, Requ~ired t~-tuni i~ known as

th~ closi.f!-g.angle (CA), s~e Figure. The closing :EA - ...12_
- Et6oo
X 60 =2°
angle is equal to tn e ~ngle subtended·at the destination between the direct track
E to F and the new track .fix to F._ . -· _ Ck'~ = ~ x 60 e =
20
300 x 60 = 4° ·::.-- CA--
T he CA is effectively a TEA in reverse. The fo r mula therefo re becomes :
;, Total Correction = TEA + Closing angle = 2° + 4° = 6° ~
CA _distance off x 60 D~ift is always rounded off to higher side.
- - distance to·go" .. -
therefore C4
~ ·11 X.60 = 8 80
Q3. After flying for 2 hr 40 minutes at G/S of 360 kts, an A/C is 30 nm star_hoard
of track. If the remaining time to go to destination at a G/S of 240 kts ,s ~5
~ 75 . min, what should be the heading to reach destination if the A/C was original! _
flying on Hdg 358°.
The additional angle through which the aircraft is:
,_ _ _ I S . a - - - - ~ - - , , .,. _ ___
The aircraft is therefore required to alter heading at the fix position by:
192 193
IN-FLIGHT NAVIGAnoN .
Distance flowri = 360:><2.66 = 96 0itms ,'\n aircraft b tra.c klng outbound from a VOR. Tb_e lnt;ention ii to maln~n the
centerline of an airway wblch is defined by the-300' radial-from the VOR. A _
Remaining Distance = 240 x ¾ = I 80nms · back-bearing from the VOR shows tbe aircraft to be on the 195~ radial, and at
TEA= 30X60..,.. 960 = 2° the same time-the DME gives a range of85nn(from the VOR. Determ\n_e the
aircraft's displacement from'tbe airway centerline.
CA = 30 x 60 ..,.. 180 = 1o0 - , ..~ .
Total Correction = 1o0 + 2° = 120

TEA =distance _off x 60 ·
Heading = 358° - 12°·= 346° · distance gone
:-~
Q4. After_ f1!'1ng. for 1 hr 30 min at G/S 150 Kts on ate is 15 nm off track. If the . ·1 · therefore . o 85
= = 7 nm
remammg time to gc, to -destination is 45 min at a G/S of 180 kt Fi d I • ·
nngJe. s. n c osmg_ tl . distance o
. ff TEA x distance gone
= . . _6 0 .
5 X
60
rr.·;-- ·.
An s. \,/': ,
:.. J;_· . DISTANCKAND TIME: . _ . _ ..

/ ·; : · . '·(a) Flying a ~eading 90 ·~eg to the _Navigatio~ ·Aid: The formulase . for
etern)ining time and distance ~t~ ~ s~tj.<?n are_~lso derived ~om the One to_ Sl)(ty
Riile..-.The distance to a.station caii.Be:ca!cula_ted:,byFP,ying an.aircraft.perpendicular
M~--given bearing (or rad1ai)'aii'cf by"'nbting the elapsed tiine'between bearings. For
vcMons of convenience, increments of 10 degrees ~hanges in bearings are desired.
;_b(t,Gqe to -Sixty proportion-is:the -bas.is:for ,obtainil)g the-desired for..nula .
BS
,/
· Distance to station =
CA = i 5 X 60 + 136 = 6.66 = 7o .
Closing Angle = 7° Time to station =
6)f x~miriute,tfldwn: b~tween _bearing change
,Degrees between bearings _
Q5. After flying for 2 hrs 30 min at G/S of 240 kts a/c is 20 nm right of track, if :{~":_.·: ~-,, ,\ ~· .-~ , '-<: s <>l; -rit' .. ~' ~"' :,. .
1
remaining time to go to destination fs 1 hr. what is the new hdg to reach the f 1~t~- To determine the time/distance to ·a'· station -the'se,steps are to be followed.
destination, if a/c was originally flying on hdg 270°. i~· A.fter ti,ming and identifymg the VOR ·station: ·
Ans.
1 ~
11
/ . ~:::~o'!J:t:~:zt~i~0n::1tlf;e:~~ \
Lt~
A240 600 B
0
0
Turn 80~ ,right,.qr left, of the i~bound c9.urse, rotating the OBS to the
nearest 10° i~c~eme11:t opposite the di~estion of turn.
Maintain;h~adi)ng'. Wlf~n\ n'lCDI c~nters, note the time.
Maintair,-Jrig_the ~31-me heading, rot~t~ t)le OBS 10° in the same
direction asj_~~ step 3,,above. ·
\
Nottf the elapsed titne,wneh th~ C{Or again centers.
1
TF..A= 20
600 X
60
= 20 CA = ~ x 60 = 5° Total Correction = 7c
Use the formulas shown earlier to detennii1e the Time/distance from
240
the station. ·
New hdg = 263°
195
194
IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATl()N
- -..;;.;;...::.;;.-=-=--...:.:..:::=.:.:~~::.:.:=~~~~~!.,_...:.....::.::..___::,..:._
---'---=~ - - - .PART I~ GENERAL NAVIGATION _ _......;,...;••_Jt .
stat on..
A ~siriiliai-' protedure can !be , us~d to qildilate Time/distance 'fro'm a
· , · ., , , ,. · ., .
!~DB'. · \--· '" • t
., ·h ADF lnd1ca es a wi
; ·'.l'. e · GPH
·ng tip bearing change of 15° .In 7 .5 min. T h e fu <'l
TAS is 85 K. The distance to beacon b:
'consumption 1s 9•6
(b) 1~g
!! ,c ~~~.t .h~~g;_4.r
60, ~MJ o~·-~-s~tio_~ , ymi travel l 'NM ;0 }
every t'adia~ (1 degree) that }'(?U,<;rQS!;i, _Ifyqu ~9ss 3,radials, you have traveled '3·.
:~r •
30'inin, 42.S nm, 4.8 Gal
'.~b) · ~2 min, 48 nm, 5.58 Gal
NM . For this to work, you must maintain a constant heading ·
J Problems that use the 60: 1 rule will supply J ..
·c) ' 48-min, 48 run, 4.58 Gal
· ·' · .. h ct' g the ADF reading changes from 045 to 090 m 5
· Maintaining a constant ea m .
."- in. TAS,is 120 Fuel_co)'lsumptl~n is 5 GPH. The distance to beacon is:
.
• The number of radials crossed, anc:C , ,

--- ~ ;:.,::: .,-t.if ' ' • • •
• The distance traveled, or ···,* ·s,..n1in, ,l0,nm,.0.4 Gal
• The ?"ue
~ i-§pt;_e~d,ih?-:~e to cros~:tlie.·giVeh.radi;ls.(wh1ch,,is ,then b) 6.7 min, 13.4 nrn,.0.6 Gal
used to calculate the · · r ·· c) 1.0 min, 20 run, 2.5 Gal
• distance traveled). , ~\Maio~aini~g a con!t~f!!.!1'.J~ding ~h~ 4!.>F r~ding changes from 315 to _270 in 7
13
► The ~ea~°!g·~_.~. w? may be given, b_u t is not impot tant '(~xcept that a conHa~{ ·· min. TASis 120 Fuel consumption Is 18 GPH. The distance to beacon 1s .
heading 1s mamtai~ d).' •?:·;;!, V: t1 , • · : ,,, ., ,_, · .. . .
1
: -~)- 7min,14run, 2.!Gal b)7min; l3nm,2.1Gal c) 9.3min,l 8.7run,UGa1
-Distance to,statlon., =
~ ,,::-·.
.,,. r..,. \4" t .,,.
' ,'.I'~, x_~~tes,fl~~

,.
Degr~s tij;tween beanngs

_. ,.
· \Qt4.', n bound on radial 090. Pilots rotate_s .OBS I? deg ~o the ~eft & turns the .
, afrcraft to .right by'lOo & notes tlie .ti~e .. While mamtaimng a constant head mg /
k
1
• -t~ .... .: . .. ~ ,. ..... ,, • ~' '
- it is noticed that the CDI is centered in 8 minµtes. Consider nil winds. Based ;x
► This metho'd does ' not~-app_ty:.for..- problems where .the -relative bearing 'to an on this you 'canconcltrdHbaftl\~time:to station will be ·
ADF changes 45 degrees (use·the·isosceles triangle method); or a) 48 min b) 8 min c) 16 min
• The,relative -be~Jjfa~
,,_ .,
~~fi~!~
;r
sJu;(e the isosceles triangle method); or ~J Flight log (including navigation ,records)
• A course change 'is involyed.
Enter revised navigational en-route uata, for the legs conce~n ed , int o th f'
► ThisJ qrm_ la i~n'! eXfcµy ~ox r:~~, 1esP,etj~~ly if you cross many radials or if you flight log. (e:g. updated wind and ground speed and correspondin gly losses or
get dose'to"the:..v oR.·-:~ : .'...:__ ..... : •.--- .: .
., <'-: ,;;~, t ,,. ~ . ,' gains in time and fuel consump tion) .
Q7. With a TAS of 115 Kts' the relative bearing on an ADF char.ge from 09° to 01)~ 0 Enter, in the progress of flight , at each checkpoint or tu r nin g . p<)int. the
In 1 ½ mJn. TlieilfstihicHi>' beac'on' fs: "actual time over'' and the "e.stimated time over" Cor the next ch eckp uin t HI \'' Lh c
a) 12.5 nm · b) 24.5 nm i;) 34.5 run flight log.
Q8. The ADF ind(cates.a ·~ng'ti~-beati~g cb~ng~iof 5° in 5 min. TAS Is 115 Kts. Q15. Set course at point' Nat 1;000' Climb to PA= 27,000' ROC = 500 FPM
The distance to tieacon ·1s: '' 1
Trk = 045° TAS = 280 kts. Find WN = 070°/35 kts Fuel consumption =
a) 36-nm 'b) ' 57:S'rtm ' · c) 115 nm 800 kg/ hr. Vartation + 3°. Deviation +-.7°
'- • • ' ( ' , I , -~ : , '( i ,, f, ,
Q9. The ADF indicates a wing tip bearing cba~ge of s• in LS min. The time to (i) Dist, Time and fuel used during climb
beacon Is: : · · · ·· · ·
(ii) Hdg (M), Hdg (C)
a) 18 niin b) 24 min c) · 30 min
Ans. (i) Dist to climb = 26,000' ROG = 500 FPM
Qt0. Wi'tb a TAS of 90 K the relative;beadng on an ~F changes from 09° to 10° \n 26 000
2 ½ mJn. the distance & ttmibeacon Js . 'Fime = • = 52 min
1
500
a) i5 run 22.5 min b) 22.5 nm 15 min c) 32 nm 18 min
G/S = ·248 kts Hdg (T) = 048°
196 . 197
IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION
DiS t = G!S X time= 248 x E._ = 9J5
60 ~ nm
Fuel= 800 52
6() = 693 kg
(ii) Hdg (T) = 0480 Hdg (M) == 0450
Remember Track is always true.
Hdg (C) = 038°
Q16. Route 600 nm. A/C climbs at G/S of160 kts for 0·30 min . . .
is 250 kts. Descends for 0:20 min G/S 180 kt . .,., t 1· 0 . . During c~1se G/S
route? ' s. io 8 ymg time on cruise and
Ans.
,,.
460mn
) 24 min/60 nm:
21. SG=0.74
G!S(a) = 160 Jets. ISA FL M.No. OAT TAS· Winds Dist Time F/C Fuel I
Time =30min Used \
Dist =80nm. Dev
· G!S (C) = 180 kts
Time = 20 min Dist'~ 60 run
Cruise dist = 600 - (60+80) = 460 nm +15 310 0.75 270 30 424 0.14
Speed = 250 kts Time= lb 50 min t••,
,.f..,
·~ {,cc, 033° -2 290 0.54 330 25 700
nm//kg IG
11 ky/nm Ltrs
Total= 2h'40 min ,,-
Ql 7. Duri?g climb from 1,000 ·PA to 9,000 PA, 50 air nautical miles are covered in
·':.t:- :043o -5 300 o:76 240 2'2 503 35 USG/
Hr Kg
20 mm. Trk 090° WN == 270/ 30 kts. Find rate of climb and distance covered.
a) 400/60 b) , 100/40 c) 450/40 TRK ISA FL ,M;No. ,_OAT~ ~cTAS Winds _Dist Fuel
Time F/C
Ans. Vertical dist = 8000' Dist = 50 air nm Dev . Used
Time = 20 min Trk == 090° (R) ~
WN = 270°130 kts TAS =(50x60)/20 == 150 kts ·t
~?
160° + 15 310 '0.75 -32 4.54 270 30 424 0:55 0.14 900
GIS = 150+30 = 180 kts Dist= 60 nm ' nm/fkg IG
r •
-,
033° -2 290 0.'54 -45 320 330 25 700 2:16 ll 10,405
Rate == \~OO = 400 FPM kg/~lffi Ltrs
' 043° -5 300 0.76 -50 442.6 240 22 503 1:05 35 USG/
Ans. (a) 400feet per mimttes/60 nm
Hr Kg
1'98
199
IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION
r
PART I • GENER.AL NAVIGA~ION
~~
, A«ording to th•\ ch•rt the minimum obstruction domn« ,ttttud, (MOC .,)
·
Kr 15 is 8500ft. The meteorological data gives an outside air temperature of -'2.0"C al
Q
{ Ff> gs. Th• QNH, given by a mot. station at an olmtloo of 4000[1, is 1003b p ,.
- I WMt is th• minimum pressure altitude whkh should b• nown o«ording to
Pressure RAS kt Temp Devn :fuel' Flow SG
Altitude (ft) kg/hr
-- 1 the given MOCA?
16000 210 ISA+7°C 2600 0.80 a) 8200ft b) 8500ft c) 8800ft
20000 200 ISA+ 5°C 2600 0.80 ' Q26. A• ,1ror8!1 is nying at MACH 0.84 ,t FL 330. Th• stati< air rempcr,turc ;
. -4s c and the headwind component 52kt. At 1338UTC the contro\ler requests
22000 21 0 ISA + 4°C 2600 0.80 0
·- · the pilot to cross the meridian of 030W at 1500UTC, Given the distance to go
is 570NM, the reduced MACH No. should be:
c) 0.76
Assuming a 40 kt headwind all ievels. at -~ a)<
0.78 b) 0.80
a) Determine the ground n a utical miles flow
tab ulated pressure altitud n per 100. kg of fuel for the three . f.
!..<
,. · 1_QZ1,
I Flight Planning chart for an aero plane states, that the time to reach the
es. 1( ' 1 cruising level at a given gross mass is 36 minutes and the distance trave\ed
Sta te which tabula ted p r essure alti tude WIil
b) range. . give the best fuel economy for t_• Is I 57NM (mo-wind). Wh•t will b• the dis ta•"
traveled with ,n " ' " ''
f. tailwind component of 60kt?
c)
Ans. a) 8.84
2000
Calculate
8.96
. fu e1 required
nm. the minimum
9.80
. m
. Imperial gallons for a flight of
b) FL 220 c) 5612
t ',Q28. ~• ~:::an• rues at an ai:.,:::Okt. It rues ,::m ~ : : and b"k rn •
r Distance AB=480NM. When going from A to B , it experiences a head vind
component=60kt. The wind remains constant. The duration of the filght ,,; I be:
a) 2h 35min b) 3h OOmin c) 2h l Omin
Q23. What is the ETA at C?
Q29. A sector distance ls 450NM long. The TAS is 460kt. Th• wllld ,ompon<nt ;s
,, I. · 50kt'tailwind. What is the still air distance?
20nm C a) 406 Nautical Air Miles (N AM)
30nm B
A
b) 414 Nautical Arr Miles (NAM)
ETA 'B' is I 030 UTC. ATA 'B' is I 027 c) 499 Nautical Air Miles (NAM)
ATA 'N. is 1010 UTC
b) 1040. c) 1038. Q30. A d0scentis planned fr om 7500ft MSL so as t o arrive at 1000ft MSL 61<
a) 1035. from a VORTAC. With a GS of 156 kts and a r ate of descent of soo ftl roin. T h e
Q24. What is the ETA at Z? distance Crom the VORTAC when descent is started is:
a) 21.lNM b) 27.lNM c) 30.2 M
I
z Q31. An air craft at FL370 is required to comm••" descent when 100 • M lrom
y 20nm a DME facility and to cr oss the station at FL120, lf the mean GS du ring th e
X 30nm
\r! :..
descent is 396 kt, the minimum rate ol descent required is apprnxhnatel,~
ETA 'Y' is 1447 UTC. ATA 'Y' is 1450 UTC
ATA ·x· is 1420 UTC b) 1510. c) 1512.
a) l 650 TT/MIN. b) 2400 Ff/MlN c) 1000 H IMIK
a) 1506.
...
201
l
t-'AKI I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
Q32. At
NM0422. . a n au-craft
· ·
at FL370, . on tbe dlre~t track to VOR 'X' lBS
GS 320kt, 1s
distant. The aircraft is required to cross VOR 'X' at FL80 F Chapter
rafo of d f ' • or a mean
: e,;cent o 1800 FT/MJN at a menn GS of 232 kt, the latest time at
which to commence descent is?
a) 0451. b) 0454 . c) 0445 .
Q33. Assu~ing zeru-wiod, what distance is covered by a11 aircraft desce d. 150
FT with a TAS of 320 kt and maintaining a rate of descent of 3000 ~~~IN?OO
a) 16.0 NM. b) 26.7 NM . c) 19.2 NM.. .
14
Q34 . What will be the rate of descent when flying down a ?o/t0 , lid sl
groundspeed of 250 knots? g e ope, at a
k-
!
a) 1575ft/min. b) 1737ft/rnin. c) 1773ft/min. f.•
t
Q35. Aircraft height 2500 FT, ILS GP angle Jo. At what a
THR can you expect to capture the GP?
. . .
pproxunate distance from 'iL . " . .
a) 8.3 Ntvl. b) ?.O NM. c) n .1 NM. ·.
t )j\itroduction to Mas~ a~d Ba~9.l1!Je .
.:_,,J.<·;_,-:: _:· Good,air:manship•.requires thanhe loading; mass and center of ~av1ty of.the
Answers
{:·.~·,t~f ;';:~;."11 c9mply With .the limitations speci!iCd in the approved Aircraft Fligh I
,
-~~>: · /1t•s the responsibility oft.he commander of the aircraft to satisfy himself that
Q: l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 J·. · "·:.:.''this requ.ir:ment is m~t. · ·

- - - - ,1 - - - -
l >,'--Defin1tions:
A: - - C C b a a a b - - ,f Balance Ar1t1 (BA) is the.distance from the datum to the center of gravity of
. ~" a· rnass. ·· .·• · ·
1r>-. \ ' '
/c.:"" , l
.Center of Gravity (C •of ,G)~The .C of G :is-defi.ned as the point through which

Q: ~ I 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 l.w the force of,g1~avity acts uporr_a mass; t0 give it its weight. The C of G is also the
A: - b b a a a b a C b C a
i' ··' point of balance-of the aircraft and·w.ill, thus, affect its stability. Consult aeroplane
~~ .
C C
flight manualfor takeoff,landing,and cruise -configuration.
t·
t Datum ·(relative to ·an aero plane) is that point on the longitudinal a.xis (or
extension there~?;~omW~ich the,cente11H,f grayities of all =.es are referenced.
,. ~ry ·op,er~ti~g.~~r~ex (DO~) :1s the mdex for the pos1t1on of the center of
, : . : grav1~y·at Dry Oper~tmg Mass. ·
Lo~d_i1:1gJnde~ .M)..is ~ p:on~dimens_1on.<!l figure that is a s~ed down value
' ' . ., . .
of a niom~n,t It-i~ \1S~~ 1to ~i1:n,plify :m~~s and balance.calculations.

l\ · Ballast: ': Ballastis remov~ble or permanently installed weight in an aircraf
,,, 103
t
202
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION MASS AND BALANCE • AERO PLANES
used to bring the center of gravity into th e allowable ran d. c d in the aircraft's flight manual and also on the aircraft's L, pe
ge. ,, , d tum an ts 1ou n . . b L M C l d' I
Center of Gravity Limits C t f ,. .. • a d 1 t If a general MAC 1s not given ut a e A ( ea 111g ec g -
and most rearward center / G en_er-o -~ravity limits, means the most fonvaril
operated safely CG li .ts o
:,. , . certificate
rav1~y position within which an aircraft may b '. . . .. mean aerobynhamf1c ch1?rl
/ta i
s 1_ee d) and a Te MAC (trailing ed ge mea n aerod ynamic chord )
uld be referenced as an ar m measured out from th e
· m1 are sp ecified l · d' ' · -~• .. · en ( ot o w 1c 1 wo
lateral (left and righ t) r · . h" . ongitu mal (forward and. aft) andJo , ;;IV are giv . , . MAC an be found by finding the difference between )'Q UI
I im1ts wit m whICh the aircr aft's ce t f . r '.· -r datum lme) t11e n yum c
ocated during flight. T he CG lim,its are ind icated . th n. e\ o g~~v1ty must br: l LeMAC and your Te MAC.
T he area be tween the limits is called th CG m e a~rp ane ight manual.- t' . . . " \ · ·t <linal stability. th. at the CG be located. ahead ol th <:
e i;ange of the air craft. · ¥',. It 1s important 1or ong1 u . . f f .
Center of GraV1'ty Datum 1s . from h . h all
. a p omt •. .·center o f 1•e; f
11t o a wm .
. g Since the center of lift is expressed as ;i pet cenv1gc u t 1c
.
in the calculation ofthe-c~!}te; of-Gravity. . w IC measurements are take11 MAC, the location of the CG is expressed in the same terms.
The reference datum-is a:r e(~refit e.\p lane that allo~s at ~urate and .". un:corm:: .J;~~. Mass Conversions
meas~rements to any eoin t ,o n the aircraft. Thl loh tfon 'o£the:fef:renc~ da~~in / ·I;- Pounds (lb) to Kilograms (kg) lb X 0.454
· I }t
hestab!Jshed
· 1 · , -',_· '£ .,. . ,_ . . · . e·atrcra ·fl.
by the ma nufacti.11:er ahd i~ d.efined·i·n·-th·, ,, · ··
. 1g h t manua
'.f
. t
. T ht: j" ,
! Ki' lograms (kg) to Pou nds (lb) kg x 2:205
~r~onta re:~r:e.n~e } atum::, s ,fill imagmary vertical' plane or' point, arbitrarilj,
1 i ·;:• Volumes (Liquid)
e_ some~ ere along the l6ngitudina] axis of the ~ rcraft, from which al' f Imperial Gallons to Litres (1) Imp . Gall x 4.546
honzontal dis_tances are measu red for weight and balance p urposes. There is nc:
fix ed r~le for Jts ~ocation, an d it may be located forward of the nose of the aircraft.
l all L. (\) us GaH x 3 785
~ US G ons to ttres .
F?r hehcopt~;"s, _1t ma Y be located at the r otor mast, the ·nose of the helicopter, 0 1 i Lengths
even at a ,p omt m space ahead of the h elicopter. While the horizontal reference - 1.; · Feet (ft) to Metres (m) ft x 0.305
d atum:can b~ anywherethe.manufacturer chooses, most small training h elicopters f Distances
h ave the horizontal r eference d atu m 100 inches fo nvard of the main rotor shaft i Nauticai mile (NM) to metres (m) NM x 1852.0
centerline . .This is to keep all th e computed values positive. T he lateral reference
d a tum is u sually located pt 't he center of the helicopter. . rl:
. Arm : The arm is the chord wise (fore-and-aft) d istance from the d atum to ( CENT1iE
'
a.n y point within the aircraft. OJ.
l . GRAVITY
DATUM
Moment: Moment is the product of the mass and the balance arm. The t
m om ent is <! measure of force that results from an object's weight actin g through f
an arc that is centered on ·the zero point of the reference datum distance. Moment
is a lso referred to as the fendency ·ofaffobjecMo rotate,or pivot about a point (the l
zero point of the cf a tum, in this case) / The further an o~ject is from this point, the
g reate r the force it exerts. Moment is calculated by multiplying the weight of an
o bject by its arm.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC): A specific chord·line of a tapered wing. At \i AFT OF DATUM
the mean aerodyn amic cho_rd, the center of pressure has_the same aernd ynamic E · ~-- \ FWOOF DATUM w POSITIVE fl "'
force, positio n, and area as it does on the rest of the wing. The MAC represen ts the
width of an equivalent rectangular wing in given conditions. On som e aircraft, the
lt NEGATIVE ARM
center of gravity is expressed as a p ercentage of the length of the MAC. In order

to m ake su ch a calculation, the position of the leading edge of the MAC m ust be
t Calculation of C of G for the Basic Empty ~ s .
The Datu m is level with th e end of the _spmner.
t
known ah ead of time. Thi!;,position is defined as a distance from , the reference
205
204
PART I • GENER.AL NAVIGATION
MASS AND BAL:ANCE • AERO PlANES.
by The d . is weig
. h "aircraft · h e d an d t h e mass on each undercarriage leg is indi -
• ment which are mandatory for all 6p~rations like -fixed ballast; 'engirie
we1g mg eV1ces. caLed
CG = _..:,Tc.::::.ot::::a::...,l_
~:int, hydraulic flui~ and fuel and oil quantities (both tr-apped and unuiablc)
.ID ,he rurcrafl and engme system. .
Total Mass
Maximum 'lake-off' Weight: Means the ~ u m we~ght, a~ordin~ to its
Certificate of Airworthiness or Flight Manual, at which an aircraft u pernutted to
DAljUM ~d .
I
RemQvable Equipment: Means items of equip~ent whic.h ~re earned' ~n
some of or on all flights, but which are not included m Empty weight and which
are not mandatory for the type of operation being conducted.
Weight and Balance: When the weight of the aircraft is at or be\ow the
allowable limit(s) for its configuration (parked, ground movement, tak.e-off,
landiog, etc.) and its center of gravity is within. the ~o":'able ran~e~ _a nd ~th will
remain•so .for the duration of the flight, the aircraft JS said to be withµi weight and
CG Calculations: balance. Different maximum weights may. be ~efined for ¢:fferent situa,tions; for
ex~mple, large aircraft may have mkimum landing weights that are lower tha~
maximum take-off weights (because some weight is expected to be lost as fuel 1.&
Wheel Mass (lbs) Ann (inches) . Moment(lb in) .btirried during·the fti"g~t). The center-of-gravity may change ·over the duration of
Nose 1000 -25 -25000 ,
,{ /, the flight as the aircraft's weight changes due to fuel burn,
';i.; ' .• : . .·, ' . ' . •,
Left Main 2000 +3·5
'. ' .. ,.· INITIAL ,WEIGHMENT:
+70000
Right Main 2000 ,, +35 +70000
. ( ·,' ·. · Weighi~g of Air;raft, On every occasion ·of weighing, a 'weighing schedule'
Toca! Mass 5000

':i'. ', ·is-compiled. , _
Total Moment - 115000 ·. -- , . The Basic Empty Mass jiµd ceµter of Gravity of a new aircraft are determined
1
,: • by the manufacturer.
Center of Gravity= Total Moment
Total Mass
= 115000
5000 = 23
11 t.~ .x: > Every aircraft shall be ~ei~hed befo~e-the issue of Certificate of Airworthiness.
,,; ·- . In :'case a new aircraft -is -imported ·from outside the country, weight schedules
Changes in Cg Location During Flight Due To Consumption Of Fuel: '} ,' is~µed by the ~anufa~turer:or the previous operator weight schedule balied on the
l m~nufacturer s certificated weight and balance documents would be acceptable.
It would ·now be. -w_i,se to d~t~rmine if the use of fuel during the flight will
move the center of gravity to a point outside the C of G en\'elope.
'Mass' is the amount of watter in a body. ·
I ·_
'tr'
Requirements for: ~w'eiglii.Jig Aircraft of AUW mo-re than %000 Kg. Aircraft
'ha~'i~g AUW more than 2O00:kg. shall be re-weighed ·every five years unless it is
'W. h' 18 . th
I req_urred to be-re-weighed after major.repairs/alterations. •
eig t e force produced when mass is subject to gravity.
A body Nill always have mass, b1:1t-ifthere is no gravity then it has no weight.
;,:.
,.
} : ~eq~ire~~n.~ f~r .~~~-~~g~g~f ~
.~craft of all up weight (~UW) less
· t~.~ ~000 Kg.,. A;lrcr~ w.e1g~~g less than 2000 kgs. need not be Teweighed on
'Mass' and 'W'ieig
· ht' are mterc
• h angeable
· in the text in this lesson. • ·, E~mtine basis, unless:it'is requ_ire.d to~ reweig\led after major r~pairs/alterations.
•••
exch~~h:~;;t~t
1
:~equirements for Reweighing after major Repair/ Alterations:

~;ans the measured_ or computed weight of an aircraft,
J. •td
buL · d" g al_l removable,eqmpment and other items of disposable .An airqaft sha).l,be_requ~r.ed to be reweighed if it has undergone maj9-r Tepair,
, ·.
· • me1u mg t11e weight of a11 Items
· of fixed operating equipment or other ", Qr major alteration _o r there.has. been major change in the interior arrang~ent
107
PA~ 1. • GENE~ NA.VIGATION
MASS AND BALANCE - AER.O PLANES
of pilotlpax/cargo compartments which -
balance data and which cann t b . affect already determined weight anu Airworthi ness Office for approval before adoption.
ment. Decision of the DGCA : the ,a~cui:ately computed without fresh weigh
repair/ alteration, or change : _e t e~ t e :urcraft requires reweighing after major . Every operator including scheduled, non-scheduled, State Government :11:d
. m en?r 1
arrangement, shall be fi nal. . , rivate aircraft operator shall prepare load and trim sheet for aircraft where th e
Director General of Civil Avi ti • • • • • ~anufacturer has provided necessary cl??1mentation :or _tbe yurpose. The load
aircraft at any ti~~ if he ~0 -0 ' 'd ' _a on ~y require .the, re-w:eigh ment of ·an . and trim sheet shall indicate the compos1uon and the d1stnbut1on of the total load
. st ers 1t necessary.
FORM OF WEIGHT SCHEDULE· . f carried on board the aircraft as well as the calculated C.G. position for "take-otr
and landing" configurations before the commencement of the flight. Such load
After the air~raft ha~ been, we.i h~d ' .' ' ·· . . · i ,
sheets shall be prepared and signed by the Pilot-in- Command or persons duly
AME in Category "B" 0 g as required, an .appropnately licensed ·
Weight Schedule. . r a person approved for the purpose shall prepare a r trained in accordance with CAR Section 2 Series 'F' Part XXII and responsible for
" . . supervising the loading of aircraft. In case the load and trim sheet is prepared
by a person other than the Pilot-in-Command, the same shall be submitted to the
APPROVAL BY·AIRWORTHINESS O FFICE: "' ' .
to' R;'g7:n:t:t schh~ule'. ~effir being prepared·and duly signed sha1l'be submitted
rwort mess O ce who wou ld approve the same. · ·
Pilot for his scrutiny and signatures before· the commencement of the flight. One
copy of'the load sheet shall be carried on board the aircraft and one copy shall be
retained by the operator for record purposes for a period of at least four month ~
DISPLAY IN THE'AiRCRAFr AND P~SERVATION OF RECORD: from the date .o f issue .
. · _A c;opy of th e a~proved weight sched1:1le ·m ust be displayed in the aircraft at ' STANDARD WEIGH T OF FLIGHf CREW/ PASSENGERS:
a su1tab_Ie and ,promu~~nt p~ace. All;persons_concerned directly with the loading For preparation of load sheet and calculation of center of Gravitv, the
of the arrc~aft shall be duly 1¢'ormed_of th,_~ var ious w:eight figu res for exercisi ng min imum standard wei gh t (including handbag) as given below, shall be applied
proper·we1g~t and balanc~ control of the aircraft A copy of the weight sched ule in all civil registered aircraft:
must be retained along w1th other documents of the aircraft or in the aircraft
logbook, till it-is replaced ·by,a fres h schedule. l. Crew 85 (75 + 10) kgs.
COMPUTATION OF cetiter of GRAVITY: 2. Adult passenger (both Male & Female) 75 kgs .
For all flights, it shall be the · responsibility of the Pilot-in-Comma nd to 3. Child (Between 2 years and 12 years age) 35 kgs:
ensure that the aircraft is sa tisfactorily loaded with respect to the total load, the 4. Infant (Less than two years) 10 kgs.
distribution of t he load and proper securing of the load in aircralt (lashing of the
load ). The distribution of the load shall be·such that the C.G. position will remain Note : For training flights the actual weight of the crew may be taken for rompi,I0111111. nf
~~ . .
within the specified limits at the time of take off, during the progress of the flight
and at the time oflanding. CALIBRATION OF WEIGHING SCALES:
In the case of scheduled operator, the responsibility for loading, lashing and The weighing scales used for the pu rpose of weigh m enL of passenger
computing C.G. position, for take-off and landing phases of flight as sta ted in the baggage, goods etc. shall be calibrated at specified intervals to th e satisfaction ol
previous paragrap h may be d elegated to a.person nominated by the operator, who the Q CM/ DGCA.
is specifically trained and authorized (by the operator) for the purpose , H owever, INSTRUCTIONS FOR SAFE LOADING:
center of Gravity positio ~ -comJ>uted by the nominated ·~erson sh:a JI'be si•g ned and > Specific seats shall be allotted to all passengers boarding at originatinp,
d ated by him and the sa me shall be submitted to the 'Pilot-in-~ ommand of the stations of flights so that center of gravity of the aircraft ca~ ~e . .
aircraft for his scrutin y and acceptance; the acceptan'c e would be denoted by the calculated accurately and the C.G. is kept within the perm1sslble hm 11~
pilot by affixing th e d ated signature. > During loading, it must be ensured that aircraft cabin floor loadin g
In case a method o ther' than the "direct calculating method" fo r the purpose limitations are not exceeded.
of co mputing C.G. is em ployed, the ·same shall be submitted to the Regional
208 209
PART 1. - GENERAL NAVIGATION
M~AND BALANCE--AjN:J PLAN~ _
► l~
s
Joa~ must be securely tied so that there is no possibllity of the I d
ng m flight and disturbing the calculated C.G. position . ua (b)The maximum allowable weight for that flight that mwt not ext:ecd .the least
► The load ~ust be tied at the specifie.d places provided in the aircraft of the following weights: , ,
and ~e tying ropes must be of sutlk1ent strength to withstand ti (i) Maximum allowable take off weight for the _runway in~cd to be
loads imposed on it in flight. le used (including corrcctfons for altitude, gradient, wind, runway .surface
► While placing cargo in the 'passenger cabin during m,·xed ' · condition and temperature conditiorui existing at the ta~~ off ~e.
( fr · h . version
passenger c~ eig t) ~perauon, the load must be placed ahead of (ii) Maximum tak.e off ~eight considering ~ntlc_i;~d fuc\ _a nd oi\
the passengers, m the cabin, the load must not block "emer enc · . " con~umption that ' allo~s compliance wtth app~ic~le _en r,~ute
meant to be used by the passengers during " em . ,g Y exit performance limitations.
ergenc1es '
OBSl:RVANCE OF SAFETY INSTRUCT10NS: . •
(iii) Maximum take off weight considering ~nticipa~- fuel an~. oil
1
The safety instructions ::-equired co be observed · consumption that allows compliance with the maxim~m . au~orized
by Pilot-in-Command of non-scheduled operat ' ~-s :bove, s~all be observed design landing weight limitations on arrival at the desunauon airport_-
and private airc:-afc operators. ors, aei ia work atrcraft operators
(iv) Maximum take off weight considering an~cipat~d fuel and oil
In c.lie case of scheduled operators a co h · consumption that allows compliance with l~dmg distance limitation
balance) shall be prepared which may de~il the ~re .ensi~e manual (weight and on arrival at the destination and alternate airports.
by the concerned staff. · · ety 1 equirements for compliance (c) The total weight computed under approved procedures-.
LOAD AND TRIM SHEET REQUIREMENTS: (d)Evidence that the·aircraft is loaded according to an ~p~roved ~chedule_ that
ensures that the center of gi:avi.~y is within. approved liroiLS, dunng the flighL
!"~ore sdttrtinghoperation the airline/operator shall prepare a load/trim
s eet an get t e same approved from the DGCA. · (e)'Narnes of passenger including ?reakup of male,"fepale,_child/infanL
T~e airline/op~rator shall compute the trim either manually or by use The Center of Gravity (CG):
of a coi:n~ucer m a~cordance with a procedure approved by the DGCA. ► The point that the total weight of the aircraft is said to act through
!h_e airhne/operat~r shall ensure that loading and distribution
1 1 ► The point of balance
s ~ ac~ord~nce. with ·the requir_ement of Aircraft Rules and any
special dtre~10n issued qyDGCA. 111 conformity with the Rules. ► The point of the ai_rcraft that follo_ws the flight p~th
It will be the responsibility of the airline/operator to ensur~ that the ► The point that the aircraft maneuvers about in the air
weight of the aircraft at the time of take- off does not exceed the
RTOW. . . . . ' ► The point that'the three axes'of the'a1rctaft pass through.
> Each airline/operator is responsible for the·preparation and accuracy of The position of the 'cc determines how stable or how maneuverable the
the load/trim sheet. airo-aft will be. Starting at the mid position of the fuselage , a CG moving towards
the nose of the aircraft -will progressively increase the stability and, at the same
> The _lo~d/trim sheet must be prepared in duplicate and signed for time, progressively reduce the -·maneuverability; similarly, a CG moving aft
~ach flig~t .by an Officer of the airline/operator who have the duty forwards the tail of the aircraft wilfincrease-the maneuverability-and decrease the
of superv1smg the loading of aircraft and preparing. the load and trim stability. Too much stability increases the flying control stick force and the work.
sheet ..
load on the pikit trying .to overcome them. Too much:maneuverability ak.es the
► The l~ad/~rim sheet and passenger·'manifest must at least contain the aircraft unstable and difficult to control. .
~ollowmg uiformatio.'1 concerning-the loading ofJthe ·aircraft,at take-off
time: · · Withregard-to·aer'o,piaiies,the CG is-not-fixed. It'rnovesin fliglit as a result
of fuel burn, flap positi9ns,-:an,~ .crew and passenger movements. It is ·the~~
(a) The weight of the aircraft, fuel and oil, cargo and baggage, passengers and j>perator's· respqnsibility .to· ensure that the CG movement is i:etained. with the
crew members.
't
210
21\
--
MASS AND BALANCE - AERO PLANES
PAR.T I - GENERAL NAVIGATION .
. fr -spin may be more difficult.
• Recovenng om a
li mits imposed by the manufacturer.
• Range and endurance will decrease. .
The ma~ufa~turer sets down CG range of movement limits to ensur~ that • Glide angle will be more diffi.cult to sustam.
the average pilot IS able to control the aircraft through all stages offlight widwut
undue concern or faugue. ·· · · · If the CG is too far forward, . _
JI"" . d ·1 1 d will have to be increased to maintam level
Factors_J?etenninin~ C_g Limits~ Aircraft Sta~ility: An airplane is designed • The downwar. . tat d oa·11 d has the san1e effect as carrymg · a dd'ilto
· na\
t~ have .stability that allo~s 1t to be tr1~rn~d so it will' maintain straight and level flight
. · This mcrease
. tat
ft . h oa f
to fly at a higher angle o attac . anc d ra g
k l
flight wi_th ~ands off the controls; Longitudinal stab_ility i~ maintai11-ep by ensuring weight; the aircra wi11 . ave
the CG is slightly ahead of the center of lift. " · will increase. . _
If the aired.ft is grossly nose heavy, th~ cer:ite: of gravity w1H move to well
. This produces a _fixed n6se-down force· independ~nt ,qf µie airs~eed. This • in front of the forw:frd ·c enter of gravity hm1t. _
is balanced_ by ii vanah,le~nose·-,.up---if,9r.ce, which -is ; P.rodµced ' by _a downward • · · c · d li ·t large balancin g
If the center of gravity 1s outside the 1orwar mi , a .
a~rodynamic force on the h?tjzo11tal tail _surfaces that varies directly with the download is required 'from the tailplane, i.e . large elevator d eflecuo ~s.
airspeed. · ' · · · · •. ·
The forward c of G will cause increased drag because of the r eqmred
•
Lift large elevator deflections. . . .
The increased lift from the wings to balance the lugh tall loads will cause
an increase in induced drag. Aircraft performance is redu ced .
The aircraft wi_ll be slow to respond to pitch inputs .
•
Variable
· Range and endurance are decreased.
► The fixed-wing airplane has movable controls that alter the _lift . on .vario "
airfoil surfaces to vary pitch,, roll_, and yaw. These changes m hft . m t\\,n.
. , . Fixed · nose-up force
-~ own.force dependent upon change the characteristics of the flight parameters. Weight normally dec,P" e~
Independent of alrapeed in flight d u e to fuel consumption, and the airplane center of grav1 ty changes
·•l~peed with this weight reduction. An airplane utilizes its variable fli ght con trols to
.umgftudintilforces acting on an airplane in flight compensate and maintain controllability through the various flight mode anc
as the center of gravity changes.
~ long as_the CG is main~ned within. th~ allowable limits for its weight, the
► An airplane has a center of gravity range or envelope within which it must
airplane will have adequate longitudinal stability and control.
remain if the flight controls are to remain effective and the airplane safely
► If the CG is too far aft, · ·
operated.
• It will be too near the center of lift -and the airplane will be unstable,
• and difficult to recover .from a stall . .If the unstable airplane should ever Mass And Balance
The mass and balance system commonly employed among aircraft consists
enter a spin, the spin could become flat and recovery would be difficult
of three equally important elements: the weighing of the aircraft , th e mai n 1.ai_n in h
or impossible.
of the weight ai:1d balance records, and the proper loading of the aircraft. n
• lf ~e aircraft is grossly tail heavy, the center ·of gravity will move well inaccuracy in any one of these elements nullifies the purpose of the wh0l e sy, 1ern .
be hind the aft center of gravity limit.
• If the center of gravity is outside the aft limit, large balancing upload Maximum Floor L~ad
elevator deflections are required. Each cargo hold bas a structural floor loading limit based on the we1ght of
• the load and the ,area over which this weight is distributed . To dc te n"li ne the
This will ~ead to r~duced longitudinal stability ... and the possibility of
overstressrng the arrcraft by applying excessive 'g'.
213
2f2
PAllT I • GENERAL NAVIGATION
MASS AND BALANCE -AERO PLANES ·
-~ irn~m weight of a loaded car o all . - - "·, .... .• ✓ . . - - - r -.
id e i• to tal weight which . d gd p th et th_at can be earned in a cargo hold _--~ for Service (APS) is the tQtal i;nass of the aero plane, ready for, a spc:cific..type of
, -n c.e vices, by its ~ea in sq~ar~ f;;t ..;;.':e~gh~ of the empty pallet and its ti~ q;,peration.excluding usable fuel and traffic load, The mass includes i~CJnll su.c h
o or less than the floor load limiL . is oa per square foot must be equaJ.
as:
factors Determinin Ma . i) . Crew and crew baggage.
• g xunum Permissible Mass : Structura, Limita . i
_-vJ operator muse comply with additional str . . . tions . i: ii-) Catering and removable_passenger S•!rvice. equipment.
- L en t,'-1 limitations the m· xim um l d ~ctural luruts such as the floor '
,,. ' '·· oa per ·running met h . iii)Potable water and lavatory chemical:,,.
1 ~r u ugo com partment and/or maxim - . . er, t e maximum mass
. ' um seaung !units.
iv) Food and beverages.
ejgh~ ha1 pronounced effects on the aircraft' .
a.er0dyuam1c properties with an m·
,
. .
crease m weight:
s perfonnance, hand10g and Operating Mass (0~) is the poM plus Tak~ ofr'fuel load but without traffic
► Performance is reduced: load. ·
A''· Take-Ofr°Mas~ (TQ~) is th~·~~s oftl}.e ,a ero ,plane ~ncl_uding everything and
Takt· off and landing distances
:otation spee_d , V2 screed hei
mcre.--.se g
h:1'.11andincrease.
_
VI _d ecisi_on speed,
VR
th e st oppmg distance will all
everyone contained within it at ~e start of the take~off,nm.
· Tuxi/Ramp Mass is :the mass of the·aero· plane at the start of the taxi (at
The climb gradient, race of climb and ceil . . . departur~from the loading gate). Sometinj_e s re(erred to asRamp _Mass.
The rate of descent w1·11 . mg height will all reduce. Maximum Taxi/Ramp . Mass. Maximum weight'.l'appr~v~d . for ground
increase.
The stalling speed wiJI increase and . maneuv~r. It includes weight of start, taxi; 'a nd run up fuel:
The safety margins and the effe ti maximum speed will reduce. Traffic L~ad/ Pay Load. The to~-mass, ot"passeng~rs, ;b aggag; _and cargo,
pet=d buffet will reduce. _c ve speed range between low and high including any 'non-revenue' load. ·
Drag and fu el co_p.sumpcion will increase. Useful Load, is th~ t9_tal 'mass,9 thepasse11g~.FS, baggage ct-nd cargo, including
Ra nge and endurance will reduce. any non-revenue load and u~bkfu~l. ,
► Wing- 1 oot stresse will increase. It is the difference between·the .Dry Operating Mass ahd the Take-Off Mass.
► Mat1t'uver abi lity will r educe.
'. • y ' •
Zero Fuel Mass (~FM)~~ DOM phis tr~ffic load but excluding _fuel.
- he a ircr a ft will be 1 . Maximum Mass. The ma.'<.i.mum authorized mass of the aircraft and all of its
. come e.ss responsive co contr ol in puts an d mor e difficult t O fl
1111g· r t Y· equipment as specified in the Type Certificate. .
- uo stresses and undercarriage loads will . . .
wt:a r. increase as will Ure and brake
Empty Mass: The manufacturer provides the aircraft operator wi.th the
empty weight of the aircraft and the location of its•empty weight center of gravity
(EWCG) at the time the certified aircrafeteaves the factory. ·
LOADING:
1 De nitions: Standard_ Mass: Crew, Passen g~rs And Baggage, ~-uel, Oil Watt:.r (Vo\um~
Mass Conversion Factors), CarrfOn Luggage·.. ' ·
Ba i c Empty Mass/ Basic Mas (BEM) 15 .
ndard ite m u h .
!.' _ s the mass of an aero plane plus Useful Load: (Tr~ffic Load +_\Js~ble Fuel). .
en i . and ux1·1·c as . ~nu ~ble fu~l and other unusable fluid s; lub ri ca ting oil in
iary umt.s· fo e e tul · h · · FOB: Fuel On Board, Total Fuel carried in tanks including F\ight!I'rip,
, ip t ; uppl . . ' x . guis . ers; pyrotechnics; emerg-ency oxygen Reserve, Alternate, Contingency fuel etc. .
ementa1y ele.-:troruc eqmpment.
P r-ating Mass (DOM)/ n · Ramp/Block fuet: ·FOB + Taxi. Ft~el
nas1c Operating Mass (DOM)/ Aircraft Prepared
21 ◄
115
FF: Flight Fuel/fuel bu rn/ · . - . MASS AND BALANCE • AERO PLANES

during flight. FOB less Taxi, ;:~:::.~!e~~~;l consump.tion. Total Fuel consumed
FC: Fuel Consump •·;on h • nate, Contingency fuel-etc. Regulated Landing Mass (RLM)/Maximum Landing Mass (MLM) is rli e
u per our . . lowest of the ·' perfor mance limited ' landing mass and ·structural limited' landin g
Structural Li · · mass.
nutations These are the limi . , •
loaded . Any load beyond this will be d -~ ~p to W~ch the aircraft can be Regulated Toke-Off Mass (RTOM)/Maximum Toke Off Mass (MTOM) is the
acceptable. en angen ng the 'structure arid hence is n lowest of the !performance limited' TOM and ' structu ral Limited' T O;\!.
. ~ Ot
♦
Maximum Structural Landing M . Note: MSTOM, MSLM and MZFM are published by the manufacturer. PLTOM a.nd
to ta1 aero plane mass on land· ass . (MSLM). the maxunu · m permissible
. PLLM are worked out by the piwt depending upon prevailing conditions .
♦ M . tng tn normal arcumstances. .
axunum Structural Take-Off Mass (MS Restricted Take Off Mass/Weight (RTOM/W) = FOB +MTL+ DON
p ermissible total aero plane h TOM) the maximum
place of departure and -arriva/ ;;:ch

weigh t given by manufactur; ass ~t t e start of the take-off run. The
<:1~ers for all conditions at the
circumstances. I t is structural a~rod s wei? ~-~nnot be exc~eded in any
Take off Fuel Load/Fuel On Board
(FOB)
Flight!frip Fuel + Contingency Fuel + NLl'rllcll ~
Fuel + Reservt
+ Passengers + baggage and cargo + any ·no n-
ap proved for the sta.~t ·of t}:te takeofrr:.1 c hmit of a/c. Maximum weight Maximum Traffic Load revenue' load.
(MTL)/Payload (P)
♦ M~ximum Structural Tuxi Mass is the structural limitation of the mass
Basic Empty Mass = Mass of an aero plane ,._
of J 1e aer o plan e at commencement of taxi. +
Dry Operating Mass(DOM)/Basic unusable fuel and oth"r unusable fluid ·+ \ubriGJung
♦ Maximum Zero.Fuel Mass (MZFM) is the maximu m permissible mass of Operating Mass (BOM)/Aircraft oil in erigine and auxiliary Unitst!ire exringuishers
,m aero p lane with no usable fueL Prepared for Sr:rvice(APS) . +pyrotechnics + emergency bxy_gen equipment+
supplementary electronic equ ip ment.
. I£_ the w~ g tanks ar~ empt~, the re is f1;1aximum permissible weight of ',vc
And
rndud mg all Its conten ts .1.e. baste-weight arid payload. Exceeding this weight Crew and crew b;,,ggage + Caterin g and r('movah\r
would cau~e unacceptable s~ress to the a/c structure. If any load is to be carried, it passenger service equipment + Potable water and
s~ou ld be m the {o_r m of fuel onl.y. The maximum authorized weight of an aircraft lavatory chemicals + Food and beverages.
wJt h~ ut fu el. This ts the total weight for a particular flight Jess the fuel. It includes
th e aircr aft and everything that will be carried on the' flight except the weight of Maximum 'Iraflic'Load (MTL)/ Pay
Load Calculations: In the examination vim ii\ bP
the ~uel. T he ma~s of the fuel contained in particular tanks may be included if required to calculate the mass/weight of the traffic load that can be c.1.rried, as liru iteu by on e
par ti cu larly ment10ned in Flight Manual limitations. of three limiting maximum weights:
Performance Limitations Such As - Runway Available For Take-Off And (a) Maximum Take-Off Mass/Weight.
Landing, Weather Cond itions (Temperature, Pressure, Wind, Precipitation); (b) Maximum Landing Mass/Weight.
Ra te-Of-Climb And Al titude Requ irements For Obstacle Clearance; Engine-O ut (c) Maximum Zero Fuel Mass/Weight.
Pe rforma nce Requiremen ts have effect on limiting the weight. The allowable (restricted) Take-off Mass is the \owest of:
► Performance Limited Landing Mass (PLLM) is the mass subject to the ·• MZFM + Take-off Fuel
la ndin g ae rodrome limitations or maximum weight approved for the • Regulated Toke-off Mass
landing. T his is take off weight Restriction due to prevailing conditions ., Regulated Landing Mass + Fuel used i.n fl ight
a t p Jace of arrival.
1
► Perfo·rmance Limited Take-Off Mass (PLTOM) is the take-off mass Step 1: Make the following table to fin d o_ut Re g ub t~d T ~ke ,o ff \'b,s Wei \:'. ht
subject to departure aerodrome limitations or take off m ass/weigh1 (RTOM/W). It will be the least of the follow mg calculauons •
Re tricted due to prevailing conditions at place of departure.
117
216
PAkT I • GENERAL NAVIGATION MASS AND 8"1,.ANCE · Ai::l'.0 PLANES
TOM
RLM MSTOM'= 42,100 kg MSLM • J~,000 kg PLLM'"" 33,000 kg
MZFM -
RTOM == Least of
RTOM = RLM + FF/ Fuel Burn/
MZFM .., 31,000 kg DOM= 19,000 kg Total Fuel Capadty = 12,500 kg
MSfOM,PLTOM or RTOM = MZH.1
(Kamp Mass :raxy Fuel)
Estimated fuel Consumption +Take off Fuel Maximum Trip Fuel= 9,000 kg Co~tlngency fu.el = 1000 kg
(RLM = Least ofMSL~PLLM) (fOF)IFOB Alternate fuel =SOO kg Final reserve fuel = 400 kg
Step 2: Apply folJowing formula :
What Is the maximum take,-off mass and maximum traffic loa~ ?
Regulated Toke Off Mass (RTOM) = TOF/FOB+MTL+DOM a) 42,100 kg/ 12,200 kg
DOM = Operating Mass - FOB b) 42,,0 00 kg/ 12,100 kg

f
c) 41,900 kg/ 12,000 kg
~
f . Ans.
······-•-· .. ·········- ···· ·•............................................................................................................................................
TOM kg RLMkg ZFMkg
42,100 33,000+9,000 42,000 31,000+9000+ 1000+500+400 41,900
RTOM = 41,900 kg ,,
Questions MTL = 41,900 -(19,00u + 10,900) = 12,000 kg .
Q3. Aircraft weight witho'1t (uel and payload ... 90t (alr':ra~ prepared for v.rvice
(APS) weight).
Ql . .MZFM is given as 47,000 kg, the MTOM IS 62,800 kg and the MLM is 54,900
kg. h·t us assume that Jhere are nu performance Limits so that the Regulated RTOW = 167t RLW = 139.SSi MZFW = 132t
T:.tke-off and Landing messes are equttl to the Structural Limited Take-off Reserve fuel = 3 t Flight time = 3 h 33 min- Diversion time = 51 min
ASS and the Structural Limited Land Mass respectively. Let us also assume Fuel now throughout 2.5 t/br
tha t the DOM is 34,000kg that the actual traffic load is 12,400kg, the take off What is the maximum permissible-TOW and payload?
fuei load is 16,000 kg and 8,000 kg of fueJ was u~ed in flight.
Ans. ·
Can ertra load be carried? If yes, how much?
TOMt. R,LM t ZFMt
T OM kg RLM kg ZFMkg 167 139.55+ FF8.,875 132+Tot:al FOB 14
Regulated Take-off Regulated Landing Mass + MZFM + Take-off •(3.55 X2.5)= i4S:425 . (3+8.875+0.85><2 .5) = I46
Mas.3 = C2,800 kg E~timated fuel Fuel = 47,000 kg +
consumption = 54,900 kg 16,000 kg = RTOM= 146 t
+ 8,000 kg = 62,900 kg 63,000 kg=
MTL = 146 - (90 + 14) = 42t
Max imum Traffic Load Regulated Take-off Mass - Operating Mass
62,800 kg- (34,000 kg+ l 6,000 kg) = 12,800 k~
M.1Ximum traffic: load - actual traffic load
12,800 kg- 12,400 kg =400 kg
119
218
PART I • GEN ERAL NAVIGATION
QR- T he weight of an aero plane. whl h is lo _l(:vcl non ai ce\er t
Q4. APS weight= 40.00 t RLW = 49 ..55t RTOW ,.. 6S.00 t
oct
MZFW .;, 48.00 t Burn-off = 12.89 t Reserve= 1.65 t vertic' l\y lhroll gh lhe center f • avi ty
Calculate the muimum permissible TOM and payload. b) \way alon the vertical • \ of the aer plan
c) vertically through the datum poinl
T he center of g-rav\ty of n cro pl ne in he
Q9 ,
TOMt RLMt ZFM t a) may cnly bo moved i permi tted by lhe regulating authority and
+ 12.89 - 62.44 nero plane's certi.f1cale of alrworthloess
1 65 49.55 48 + 14.54(12.89+ l.65) 62 .54
b) must be r:1alntained in a ftxcd position by carefol di-;tributio of he \oat\
RTOM - 62.44 t c) con be allowed to move between defined limits
Pay Load= 62.44- (40 + 14.54) = 7.9 t
Qt 0. The ~~nter of gravity \s the
QS. Load sheet reads a) center of thrust along the longitudinal axis , tn relation LO a datum line
Ale wt, ·no ~ueI;-no payload= 63,200 kg Max TOW= 99,000 kg b) neutral point along lbe longitudinal axis , in relation to a datum line
-Route fuel (excluding'rcserv e)-lS
- , 200· kg Rese~e (assume unused) =3,000 kg c) point where all lhe ai.rcraf\ mass is considered to be concentrated
If max landing weight is 76,500 kg, and MZFW 74,000 kg; find : Qll. The center of gravity of a body ls that point
(a) TOW when maximum payload is carried. a) where tbe sum of the external forces is equal ~o zero
b) which is always used as datum when computihg momen_ts
(b) ·.Maxlm'um payload.
c). through which the sum of the forces ofa\l masses of the bod;1 is core;,der tn ac~
Ans.
lTOMkg ZFM kg
Q12. An aero plane is loaded with its center of gravity .owards the r~r \i i . is
~LMkg
will result in:
I 99,000 76,500 + 18,200 - 94,700 ,,74,000 + 18,200 + 3,000 95,2'00
a) a reduction in power required fo r a given speed
RTOM = 94,700 kg · b) an increased risk of sta1hng due \o a decrease in tai \p\ane mo e.
Maximum Pay Load = 94,700 - (63,2 00 + 2 1,200) = 10,300 kg c) a reduced fuel consumption as a result of redui ed drag
Q6. The center of gravity o~ a11 aero plane is that point through which the total Q13. When the center of gravity is at the fon'Yard \imit, an er-o plane '-'i \ b t: :
mass of the aero,plane Js said to.act. -TJ1~ weight acts in a direction a) extremely stable and wi\\ require excessive elevator cor:.'Jo to r-~ ee itc
. a) governed _by the di~tribution of the mass within the aero plane b) extremely unstable and require excessive elevator control change pi•c\'
b) always_paral!el to the _aero plane's vertical axis c) ex.treme\y stable and require small elevator control to hange , itch
c) parallel to the gravity vec;tor · ·
Q14. What determines the longitudinal stability of an -;iero p :m e?
Q7. When an aero plane is stationary on the ground, its total weight will act a) The relationship of thrust and lift to weight and drag
vertkaJiy
b) The \ocation of the center of gravity with re ·:pect to the euua mt
a) through its center of pressure c) The effectiveness of the horizontal stabi izer, rud d er and nid
e r tn m
b) through a point defined as the datum point
tab
c) through its center of gravity
•12,\ _,.,
iio __ -
. \_I Ut,
PA:\T I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
·QJ.s.,. Aa MASS AND 8-'LANCE • AERO PLANES
aero J>Jane h Said to be "neutrally stable". This is likely to:
a) ~ the cent,;r of gravity to move forwards Q ~l: <r:beDry Operating Mus of.an aero plane iodudea:
• ment. potable
b) be caused by a center of gravity which is towards the forward limit a:) ·crew and crew baggage,-catering, removable passengers
• • A: '
SCTV1ce
•
eqwp
c) be cawed by a ceorer of gravity whkh is towards th e rearward limit water and lavatory chemicals - -
6 b) Passengers, baggage.and cargo t.
QJ - If the center of gravity is near the forward limit the..aero plane wiU:
c) Fuel and passengers baggage and cargo
a) reqaire elevator trim which will result in an increase in fuel consumption
bJ benefit fmm rednced drr.g due to the decrease in angle of attack i
f
- stage, the fio11owin& parameten in
Q23. At the flight preparation
available for determining the mass of the alrcraft:
_ particular
_ are
c) ,equire less p ower for a gi ve n a ir spee d
1. Dry operating mass, 2. Operating mass
QI7. During take-off you notice that, for a given elevator input, the aero plane
r otatH muc.h more rapid ~y than expected. This is an indication that: Which statement is col'rect: - _fi.
a) the cenrer of pressure is aft of the center of gravity a) The dry operating mass includ~ fixed equipment-needcil to cany out a spec1 c
b) the aero plane is overloaded flight
c) the center of g r a vity m ay be to wards the aft limi t b) The dry operating mass includes takc;_-off fuel _
c) The operating mass is the.mass o(the ~ro .plane without take;off fuel
Ql 8. If the center of gr~vity of 20 aero plane moves fo rward durinr: fligh t the
cleva to - contr'11 w1U: • E mp ty M.ass"_ includes·terns
Q24. In relation to an aero }Jlane, the term "Bastc y · the
mass of the aero\plane structure complete with its power plants, sys ' of
:.i) become J,eavier making the /l..:ro plane more difficult to maneuver in pitch
funushings and other _:terns of equipment considered to be an integral part
c.,) become lighter making ::.l.:.e aero plane more difficul t to maneuver in pitch the particular aero pl.Fne,configuratlon. Its value is _
c) become heavier making ti1e aero p lane more easy to mane uve r in pi tc h a) fo und in the la~ st v· rsion_ofth~ weighipg ~~ed~e as corrected to allow for
Q19. The position oftbe cen~r of gravity can always be determ ined by: modifications . ,. _
a) subtracting the total moment from the total mass b) printed in the loac"ing ~ual 'and includ_es unusa~\e fuel .
b) dividing the tota l momer.t by the total mass c) found in .the flii:it ~ual and is. inclusive of unusable fuel p~us fluids contained m
closed systems · ' ·
c) dividing the total mass by the total moment
Q25. When establishing the mllss br.eakdown ~fa~ a_er9 plane, the empty mass is
Q20. The stalling speed of an aero plane will be highest when it is loaded with a:
defined as the sum of the:
a) high gross mass and aft center of gravity
_a) basic mass plus special equipt_nent mass
b) high {;l o;;;s mass and forward center of gravity
h) st::i~cfu"\i em}i~Y ;,·,ass plus specifi~ equipment mass p\us trapped fluids.plus
c) luw gross mass and all center of gravity unusable fuel mass
Q21 . Wltb. the center of t ravity oo tbe forward limit which of the following is to be
e pected?
J ) A decrease in r.illge
b A tendency to yaw to the right on take-off ...
c) basic mass plus variable equip!nent mass
nose wheel assembly scale 53~0kg

left main whee~.assembl~'scaltM·23?0~g · ~
~ .n l.
Q26. An aero plane is weighed and the following r~ordings are made:
~
.
~ dj) -
c) A decr.~~se of the stalling speed
-- right main wheelassembly scale 11480kg '

If the "operation~( items" amount.to a mass ol 80kg with a.crew mass of
545kg, the empty mass, as entered in the weight sched~e, is:
a) 31960kg b) 30180kg c) 28400kg
222 ~. 113
1/
P.6JlT I -,,GENERAL NAVIGATION
MASS AND BALANCE - AER.O PLANES
Q27~·: ne~ff niasa of an aero plane ls 1170 . -.:....
.18000kg •.nd .fuel of 46000kg. What is th . 001kg,1com~rislng a _traffic load of
a) 99000kg • e dry.operating mass? · ·j 4 :A.revenue fligbt ·is planned for the transpor~ aero\plane. The take-off mass is
b) 64000kg . . , . , c · ,·.:.::, .~-, ~··,r, 11ot airfteld .Jimlted. Tbt: following data applies:
Q28. When pre.paring t0 . · . · ) 53000kg ,
f h · carry out ffie weighing\ -· , «r . _,
. a t e ~ollowing iw,not required?~, . ,
., .
~~ce ure,on an aero ]>lane, which
.·< iDry Operating Mass: 34930kg, Performance limited landing masll: 55000kg
·. ··c>Fuef.on board at ramp:
a) drain all en8i!:te tank oil · " . . ?fa'xi fuel:·350kg, Trip fuel: 9730kg
b) drain all usable fu~l .: · . . ~· .. ·.Contingency and final.reserve fuel: 1200kg, Alternate fuel: 1600kg
c) drain all chemical toilet :fluid tanks ,Passengers on,board: 130
Q29. An aero plane may be weighed .
•; ' Standard m:ss for each passenger:'84kg, Baggage per passenger: 14kg
· Traffic load: Maximum possible
~) in an en~lo_sed, Mn-a:ir coridtti~~--,1. h Determine the maximum cargo load that may be carried without exceeding
. . . """' angar .
b) ata specified "weighing Jocati·on•;·0 th .rfi· ·{he limiting aero plane landing·mass: ·
. . . n e a1 eld
c) in a quiet parking are~ clear ofthe,nortnal-maneuvenn· ..... ·. a) 453'0kg b) .5400kg c) 6350kg
QJO· T he mass of-an~eroipia'ne .
wet bbi' . o.. . • .
2
g area
.
.
g {~. "'.Th~ \ ~pty ~ass ~fan·3:er~ P,la~e-is given as 44800kg. ?peratlonal items
· , .·· '(including crew standard mass of 1060kg) are 2300kg. If the maximum zero
prforto)nlti~ eq.try·in!~ Sf:M!e, i,ngd~=e~~~: 000 Kgs must be determined
a) , atin.tervaJs,of 5 years ifno modification; ~ve•tak·e , 1
b,v .:~
' •- ,,. ·
:ntervats·of 9Jears · · , , ,~. . n pace
· ·.
..
carried.is:
a) 20700kg
.
b) 23000kg c) 18400kg t'\~-
[:P+.(~ (8tlf)f-O~
: . ,. fuel mass is given a's 65500kg,·the maximum traffic load which could be
:
c) at regular·annuaUntervals;· ' ; ,. •
Q36. Aero plane Dry Operating Mass: 85000kg _
Q3t. An aero plao~~riitJst~be re-~~ighed at c~rtain intervals. Where an O er • Performance limited take-off mass: 127000kg
an nfrcraft wefghin,g .~!ss th.an 2000 kgs, this interval is p ator uses Performance limited landing mass: 98500kg
a) 4 years for each ael'O plane . .· Maximum zero fuel mass: 89800kg
Fuel requirements for flight:
b) whenever a ;,aj~r rep~ir/modification.is carried out, which affect weight and Trip fuel: 29300kg
balance data.
Contingency and final reserve fuel: 3600kg
C)' wlien~ver tbJCirtfficare· of Airworthfoess is '.renewed Alternate fuel: 2800kg
Q32. An aero.plane fs.wctgbed prior to e!)try into service. Who is responsible for The maximum traffic load that can be carried on this flight ls:
deriving th~ Dry·gperational Mass from :'the weighed mass by the addition of a) 4800kg b) 7100kg c) 6300kg
the ''operational fterils"?
Q37. An additional baggage container is loaded into the aft cargo compartment. hu t
a) The aero plane manufacturer of supplier
J~
ls not entered into the load and trim sheet. The aero plane wUl be heavier than
b) The coinmander.ofthe aero plane expected and calculated takt?off safety speeds
c) The Operator
a) will not be achieved
QJ3. The responsibility for determJnatton·of.tJte.r,iass of ''operating items" and b) are unaffected but will be increased
"crew members" included withfn)he Dry Operating Mass.lies with c) will give reduced safety margins ·
a) the person compiling the weighing schedule
b) the operator
c) the commander
~ ------
224 215
Ai§tTlo,-a _
-
PART I • GENERAf MASS AND BALANCE • AERO Pt.ANES
QJ8, Fuel °
d ioadeci. on t an aero plane is 15400kg but b erroneously entered Into the
1oa and tnm sh,iet as 14500kg. This error is uot detected by the fli ght new "'lfuhoum structural take--<>ITntil • 48 000 kg
Q~ 3· ,. · 44 000 kg
but they will notice that IVla lmurn structural htnding mu :
Ma unum zero fuel ma s: 6 000 kg
,-•
a) speed at w1-stick will be higher than expected
b) VI will be reached sooner than expected Taxi fuel: 600 kg, untingency fuel: 900 kg
Alternate fuel: 800 k~, lnal reserve futl: 1 100 k& ~
c) the aero plane will ro!3t.e much earlier than uxpected
Q39. When considering the effects of increased mass on au aero plane, which of the Trip fuel: 9 000 kg
following is true? Determine the actual take-oil (Wl.lS: 48 400 'cg
a) Stalling speeds will be higher 47 800 k b) 48 000 kg c)
a) g l l ted for a given alr pee4 the
b) Flight endurance will be increased Q44. If an aero plane is at a higher mau than ant c pa '
c) Gradient of climb for a given power setting will be higher angle of attack wlll e will decrease.
a) remain constant, drag will decrease and endunmc . .
rior to departure an aero plane is loaded with 16500 litres of fuel at a density d durance wiU mcrease.
f '7!;0kg/m"3. This is entered into the load sheet as 16500kg and calculations · b) remain constant, drag. will i.ucrease an en
are carr~ed out accordJngly. As a result of this error, the aero \>lane is c) be greater drag will increase and endurance will decrease.
a) lighter than anticipated and the calculated safety speeds will be too high
, ru bt using the following da.t.ac :
Q45. The crew of a transport aero plane prepares a g ,
b) heavier than anticipated and tl1e calculated safety speeds will be too high , Dry operating mass: 90,000 kg, Block fuel: 3 o OOO kg ' _
c) lighter than anticipateC: and the C!ilculated ~afety speeds will be too low :: Taxi fuel: 800 kg, Maximum take-off mass: 145 000 kg •
Q41. A flight benefits from a strong tail wind which was not for~cast. On arrival at ,. , The traffic load available for this flight \s:
destinatio.n a straight in approach and immcdJate landing clearance is given. ) a) 55 000 kg b) .55 800 kg c) 25 SOO kg
The landing mass will,, ,be higher than planned and
will be steeper
'~
, ·;;fl
0.,.i1. The Dry Operating Mass of an aircraft is 2_ 000 kg.Tbe maximum ~f~
t
n) the approach path mass, landing,and zero fuel mass are identical at 3500 kg. Toe block fn ..
15
b) the landing distance required will be longer is 550kg, and the taxi fuel mass is 50 kg. The available mass of payload ·•
c) the approach path will be steeper and threshold speed higher a) 1 000 kg , b) 950 kg - c) 1 500 kg
Determine the La11ding Mass for the foUowing single engine aero plane. · . ·r.. .✓. Q47. The maximum qua.ntlty of fu\:l that can be loaded in.to an ~eTo_pt~·s tanks 79is
Sta.ndard Empty Mass :1764 lbs >if , . given a.s.3800 US Gallons. If the.fuel density.(specific gr-avity) u gi en 'lS o. .
Optional Equipment : 35 lbs \' . · :.</ the mass of fuel which may be loaded ls ~ ~ .
R . a) l3647 k~. b) 11364 k.g. c) 1438; kg. ·
.XgGJ :::. r<s
Pilot+ Front seat passenger : 300 lbs
Cargo Mass : 350 lbs ~,
.; ·
Q48. Dry operati'1g mass = 38 000 kg
Maximum structural take-off mass= 72 000 kg
VJ OG _. ., ---:::::===r'
Ramp Fuel - Block Fuel : 60 Gal.
Trip Fuel : 35 GaL ·! Maximum landing mass= 65 000 kg
'. . ' .. . ' '
~ .
Fuel density: 6 lbs/Gal. Maximum zero fuel mass= 61 000 kg
. a) 2659 lbs b) 2449 lps c) 2599 lbs Euel burn ~;s·ooo:kg, 'fake--offFuei = 10 300 kg
.e roa~~rnm allowed take-off m~ss and payload are respec:ti e\y :
b) 7 \ 300kg and 23 000 ~ c) 7 \ 300 kg and 25
3
73 000 kg .a,nd 27 OOQ kg oo kg
226
- PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION MASS AND BALANCE - AERO PLANES
-: , t bi schedule indicates that the empty mass b 5, 320 kg.

Q49. A revenue flight fs to be made by a jet transport. The following are the aero
plane's structural limits: . . QS3, An aero ~lane s w~er-:ing Ma!IS is 60120 kg and the Maximum Zero Fl:el
. The nominal Dry k Wh.1ch of the following ls a correct statement \n
Maximum Ramp Mass:·69900 kg, Maximum Tuke Off Mass: 69 300 kg Mass is g\ven as 7210 O g.
relation to this aero plane? .
Maximum Landing Mass: 58 900 _kg, Maximum Zero Fuel Mass: 52 740 kg . . f2800 kg and the maximum usefu1 load 1s \4nO kg.
0
) operallonal items have a mass
The performance limited take off mass is 67 450kg and . . a . . r28oo kg and the maximum traffic load fo r th,s
b) operational items have a mass 0
the performance limited landing mass is 55 470 kg.
aero plane is 11980 kg. .
Dry Operating Mass: 34 900 kg, liip Fuel: 6 200 kg . . 0
f 2800 kg and the maximum traffic load for th_,s
c) operational items have a mass
Tan Fuel: 250 kg, Contingency & rm.a l reserve fuel: I 300 kg aero plane is 14780 kg.
Alternate Fuel: 1100 kg
· Q54. The crew of a transport aero plane prepares a fli~ht ~sing the fo\lowin~ dat a:
The maximum traffic load that can be carried ls: _ Block fuel: 40 000 kg, Trip fuel: 29 000 kg, Taxi fuel. 800 kg
a) 25800kg • _ b) _. '17840kg c) . 18 170 kg - Maximum take-off mass: l 70 000 kg, Maximum landing mass : l 48 500 kg,
QSO. The following data•is extracted··rrom an aero plane's loading manifest: - Maximum zero fuel mass: I 12 500 kg, Dry operating mass: 80 400 kg
Performance limited take-off mass 93500 kg Toe maximum traffic load for this flight is:
Expected landh:ig·mass-at destination 81700 kg1. a) 32 100 kg b) 32 900 kg c) 18 900 kg
Maximuin certificated,landing mass.86300 kg;- Fuel on board 16500 kg .Q55. The Zero Fuel Mass and the Dry Operating Mass :
During the flight a diversion is made t:r an 'en-route alternate which is not a) differ by the mass of usable fuel. /
'performance limited' for landing. b) differ by the value of the traffic load mass.
Fuel remaining at lan'd ing is 10300 kg: The landing mass: c) are the same value.
·a) is 87300 kg.and exce§s structural stress could result { QS6. The following data applies to an aero plane which is about to take off:
b) is 83200-kg which is in excess oftbe regulated landing mass and could result in { Certified maximum take-off mass 141500 kg,
r overrunning the-runway
Perfonnance limited take-off mass 137300 kg
c) must be reduced to 81700 kg in order to avoid a high speed approach. Dry Operating Mass 58400 kg, Crew and crew hand baggage mass 640 kg
QSl. An aero 'plane is to depart from an airfield at a take-off mass of 302550 kg. Crew baggage in ho\d l 10 kg, Fuel on board 60700 kg
Fuel on -board at take-off (including contingency and alternate of 19450 kg) is From this data calculate the mass of the useful load.
121450 kg. 17450kg b) 78900kg c) 78150kg
The Dry OpeHtting Mus ls 161450 kg. The useful load will be: Q57. In relation to an aero plane, the tenn' Basic Empty Mass' includes th e. ~ as.s
a) 19650 kg b) 121450 kg c) 141100 kg of the aero plane structure complete with its powerp\ants, systems, {urmsh mg.
2. Total mass: 7500 kg and other items of equipment considered to be an integral part of the
particular aero plane configuration. Its value is
Cente vity (cg) location station: 8~.S, Aft cg limit station: 79.5
a) printed in the loading manual and includes unusable fuel.
How nui1-tttnu shifted fr e a~ partment at station b) found in the latest version of the weighing schedule as corrected lo a\\o, for
150 t :station 30 in ot ~ v e f i i e \cg . modifications. _ _. _
Joca · · ~ c) inclusive of an allowance for crew, crew baggage and other operating ttems. it is
b) ·68.9 kg: . c) 73.5 k . entered in the loading manifest
119
228
--
MASS ANO &AL,ANCE -AE~ P\Jl.NES
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION 4-5000 \bl

·o6l, 'pLTOM 40000 lbs
Q~S. An aircraft baste empty mass is 3000 kg. The maximum take-off, landing, and pLLM
zero-fuel mass are ldentical,.at 5200 kg. Ramp fuel ls 650 kg, the taxi fuel ls 4000 lbt
Flight fuel
50 kg. 800 lbl
Reserve fuel
The payload available is : l5000lb•
DOM rry additional reserve fuel wltbout affec.t\ng
a) l 600 kg b) 1 550 kg c) 2 200 kg
·nd: (i) Traffic load, (il) Can you ca
Q59. In relation to an aero plane the Dry Operatlng M1&ss is the total mass of the Fi traffic load, If so how much,
nero ~)lane nady for a specific type of operation but excluding: a) (i) 14200 lbs (ii) 1000 lbs
a) usable fuel and crew.
b) (i) 15200 lbs (ii) no
b) potable water and lavr.tory chemicals.
· c) ( 1.) 15200 lbs (ii) 1'000 lbs
ii bl ) & return top maximum traffic load
c) usable fuel and traffic ioad. h fuel is not ava a e • r Q th
,Q63, From p to Q (w ere :xtmum traffic load is to be uplifted rom . e
Q60. On an aero plane without central fuel tank, the maximum Zero Fuel Mass is - is to be off loaded at Q & ma
related to: data given is: 610nm
a) maximum structural take-off mass. Distance P to Q 36~kg.
b) wing loaded f!ip fu~l. Mass 00 fuel & no traffic load
52400 kg.
c) the bending_moment at the wing root. Max landing mass
63000 kg.
Q61. If the details of an aircraft from M to N are given below. No fuel is available at Max take off mass
4000 kg.
N. Reserve fuel unused
Distance M to N 750nm Additional fuel (or each flight
500kg.
Average TAS · ~, 380K (T/O circuit landing ~tc.)
1350 kg./hr.
Wind component M to N 30KHW Mean fuel cons,imp~~~
240K
Average.fuel flow 5700 Kg/hr Mean ground sp~~t\j }~ Q
280K
Fui:I reserve (assume unused) 500 Kg ,: · , · . Mean ground speed Q to P
Ac mass less fuel & traffic load 52000 Kg ·\·\::;¥_·.~_--.
Find: (i). fuel to be lif\e~ at.. F.i _(ii) Maximum traffic load P to Q
Max T/O mass atM 91000 Kg .. ·fr' :~ " (.iii) Maximum tr~t1i~iload Q to P
Max T/O mass at N 88000 Kg . a) (i) 10372 kgs (ii) 70 5? kg.s (iii) 1\900 kgs
0
Max landing mass at N 77500 Kg· b) (i) 11872 kgs (ii) 7459 kgs (iii) 10400 kgs
Max lr ".lding nass at M 75000 Kg c) (i) \1172 kgs· (ii) 7959 kgs (iii) 10900 \cg5
Find: (i) Max tniffic load from M to N, _ (ii) Max traffic load from N to M
a) (i) 14,573 kgs (ii) 22,500 kgs
b) (i) 14,503 kgs (ii) 22,500 kgs
c) {i) 14,573 kgs (ii) 22,000 l<gs . ,)
131
230
--
MASS AND BALANCE • AERO !'LANES
PAI\T,1- GENEAAL NAVIGATION .. ,. t N and return to M carrying mu .1\afl~c load
, be roadc from i n °
7. A'Olgbtdi1s to tlon fuel is not available at N.
80000 lbs ,,, each rec 80nm
Maximum· structural landing mass 64500 lbs Distance to M to N 70 K.
Dry operating mass 50000 lbs Mean ground speed M to N 110 K.
Flight fuel 6000 kgs Me.an ground speed N to 41 0 Kglbr.
.
Reserve· fuel
.;, ~ ... ' ~
Find the traffic foad that can11>e carrled
~ ... . \
1500 kgs. Mean fuel consUJJ1ptlon
M,ax take off Mass at M
6180 K.g.
5740 Kg.
! . '
a) 13000 lbs ' bi 11193 ibs c) 22500 tb_s Max landing mass at N 5800 Kg.
Q6S. An a/c'ls to·ny from A to B ... Max take off mass at N 5460 Kg.
Max TlO .piass structure limited 8_2,900 lbs .Max landing mass at M 51 SO Kg.
Max mass without fuel & traffic load ~o,oo·olbs MaJC zero fuel mass 4400 K.g.
Fu;l -R~~•f~m;itu·_~: ·' · ' Aircraft mass iess fuel and traffic load 250 Kg.
PLLM 64,000 lbs . , . Reserve fuel (assume not used)
~. . Calculate:
a) For flight A to"B ' : 16,000 lbs
Max traffic load which can be carried from M to N
b) R~erv~ fiJ'.~l."~- . ,."' ' 8;000 lbs . n: load which can be carried from N to M
If the afr,cr.aft )ands af'B'- after having consumed 500 lbs of reserve fuel what is the Max traulC .
Maximum traffic load'ttiat;can be ca.rrlea. . a) (i) 763 kgs (ii) 780 kgs
a) 6000 lbs, ~ b) 8000 lbs ·c) 6500 lbs . b) (i.) 763 kgs (ii) 530 kgs
c) (i) 513 kgs (ii) 530 kgs
Q66. In aircraft _to fly A to B 51.001one
Max pernii~sil>le:ti klliff mass . 82,000lbs Max,T/o mass 50.00'Ione
Max niass witbou-i fii~l ,.and traffic lo!'d so;ooo'Ibs RTOM 44.20'fone
• .';J
M~ ~etnit.ssibl~ l~,ndi~g mass

~ ~J .
690o'o·16·s Max landing mass 43.20 'Tone
Fuel required _ , RLM 45JOTone
(a)·For-fliglit fi'onj.A·fo u· 1 16000 lbs
3000lbs
Max zero fuel mass
APS mass
27.S0'Ione
(b)'Reserve . 4.1 'Ione

Trip fuel 1.00 'Ion
(i) W.hat is -the Max tr~ffic _
load that can be carried?
Reserve fuel
Is·it posslble·to carry -ad~lq _
.;al;re~~r,e fuel without affecting the traffic
(il) 9 ; . / Find the traffic load that can be carried c) \ 4.7 toU
loa~? b) \7.3 tons
a) 17 .6 tons
a) (i)l6000, (ii) cannot carry
b) (i)l~OOO, .- (!i)can~ot~
c) (i)I3000, ·(ii) 3oooibs
133
f·. I"
23'.2
Q6D• Max Take olT 111ass
MaxJmum landing .mass 80000 Lbs · MASS ANO BALANCE ., AERO PLANES
Dry operating rnass 60000 Lbs
TAS 48000 Lbs
Track 200K
WN 350
Distance 350/20
Fuel consumption 1350nm ~ .,
I
Reserve fuel 2500'Lbs!hr I
'i--Q: ~I 22 ,,23 24 25, 26 27 28,' '29 30 31 32 33 I ~ - I 35 36 I 37158 I
39J "°J
Find the traffic load that can be carried. 3500 Lbs
11) 9750 lbs b) 8500 lbs
··A,: 1-;i. · ,a
.. ,,
a . i:. a b !,b ,C
C
a _a . _::a b. ,C
- b I ~a l _
:
cla lc.J a.. j a · J al
Q70. Max structural TIO mass c) 15409 lbs ..:: . - ..;;
'
~
....~Q:
,. ::.. ~41+:::T:;ir::;;-,-:~~14•7 48 l49'l!50
42 ' 43' 44 45 · 46 - 47 l4l8 49 51 52~-, 53:I 54: I 55' 1561 5'7 I 5'8 I 59· 60
Max structural landing mass 55000 Kg
Max zero fuel mass 52000Kg A: b C a C C a a C a b a b b
DOM 38000 Kg
Fuel cons 29000 Kg
Distance 1600 Kg/hr
Reserve fuel 1500nm C b a
TAS 2750Kg
,,,
260 Kts
Winds - headwind, 20K till halfway, thereafter changes to 60K tail wind.
(I) Find Max traffic load in stiD air.
(ii) Find Max traftic load with winds.
a) (i) 9000 kg (ii) 9000 kg
b) (i) 9000 kg (ii) 8000 kg
C) (i) 9000 kg (ii) 10000 kg
234
PERFORMANCE
relatjng tot.he change of pressure, t.empera1ure anr.l density wi1 li Ii ir.;! 1 ,JI ih c
Chapter atmosphere.
Las: The airspeed is t.he reading obtained on a pilot-static ainpf:<:cl 1nuic:-itn1·
, . calibrated to reflect standard adiabatic mmp;essible flow at mean s<"'a level.
15 ' ' ' :, .

. Induced Drag: Induced drag and its win g tip vortices are a c1i rec1Cl)meq ,1 e 11
;r the creation of lift by the wing. Since the Coeflicient of Lift is large when th
.Angle of Attack is large, induced drag is inversely _proport.ional to rhe square or
. Hie speed whereas- all other drag is directly proportion al to the square of th e
r·
speed. The effect of this is that induced drag is relatively un important at hi):;h
PERFbRMANCE ~
·;..
',
speed 'i'n the cruise and descent where it probably represents less th an 1uc1(, of tulal
.drag. In the climb, it is more important representing at least 20% of total drag. At
~ . 1~~. . },
. slow speeds just after take off and in the initial climb, it is of maxi·.m1m importance
1 apd may produce as much as 70% of total drag. Induced drag will alway: increa e
Definitions OrTerins And S
'. ·" . ·d .· ·U .
w.ith aircraft weight. .
. pee s ~!fed --
. Al~tude: The altitude shown on the ch . . . Maximum Structural Landing Mass: The maximum perm issible total ina ·,
height m the International Standard Atmos a~ts I~ pr:ssure alutude. This is the .
df an aero plane o n landing (under normal circum"tances).
occurs. It may be obtained by sett' th· . p11ere at "."h1ch qie prevailing pressu re
h Pa (29. 92 inches or 760 mm f mg _e sub-scale of a.pressure altimeter to IO 13 ..· Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass: Th e maximum perm is ihle total ma~~
. . o mer<:ury). · ·
6f an aero-plane at the start: of the take-off run:
Angle of Climb: The angle bet~ . h.. h ·. . . ,
climbing airplane. · · een t e onzontal and the flight path ot a Net Height: The true height attained at any point ;n the :ak e-<JIT l1i):\h l pa1h
using net climb performance . Net height is used to determin e the net fi iqht
Angle of Attack: Thi acute an J b h . . path that must clear all obstacles by the statutory minimum to cumph ,, itl1 th e
and the chord of an airfoil. g e etween t e d1rect1on of th e relative wind
Operating Regulations.
Climb Gradient· The ratio · th
a percentage, as obtained from ;~~ fo~::~ ·
umts of measurement, expressed as
Net Performance: Net performance is the gross performance diminished to
allow for various contingencies that cannot be accounted for operationa iy e.l~..
variations in piloting technique, temporary below average performance . etc. 1l is
. · The verti ca1 d.xstance ot·an o b'~ect above mean sea level. This may
be .Elevation· improbable that the net performance will not be achiev ed in oper ati on, proV1<led
given 1n meter or feet.
the aero plane is flown in accordance with the recommended techni ques .
h Gr~ss Heigh~: The •true height attained at any point in the take-off flight Outside Air Temperature (OAT or SAT): The free air L,tic !;uubie1 t\
fi:i~u~smf gross climb performance'. Gross height is used for calculating pressure temperature.
~ ?r. p_u_rposes of obstacle .clearance and the height at which wing flap
retraction 1s m1t1ated. Take-Off Mass (TOM): The mass of an aero plar.e, including ever thing a nd
everyone contained within it, at the start of the take-off run.
Gross .P erf~rm~ce: T~e average performance that a fleet of aero planes
TAS The 'true airspeed' is the speed of the aero plane reb,i ve tn t\1 c
shohul? achieve ~f sat1sfactonly maintained and flown in accordance with the
tee mques descnbed. undisturbed air.
Total Air Temperature (TAT): The static air temperature p\n~ t\(foh.1ti
·'- Height: The vertical distance between the lowest part of the aero plane and
u re re 1evant datum . compression (ram) rise as indicated on the Total Air Temperature indicator.
The term 'weight' should be considered to have the same meaning as 'ma~!
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA): A structure of assumed conditions
237
236
· PERFORMANCE
' , --;-· ke-Off Safety Speed - The target speed to be attained at the ~Teen
Speeds - Jet Transports: .,. : : . v-2: : one engine inoperative, and used to the point wheTe acce~rat1on to
Vmc: Air Minimum Control Speed - The minimum tlight speed at which ·the ,/• 11e1~ht traction speed.1s m1t1ate
. . . d. · · ..
aero plane is controllable, with a maximum of 5° bank, when the critical engine tlap re d hic)l the pilot ,should aim to cros!t
suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engines at take-off thrust. Vt :Threshold Speed · .The spec hat "!'h d \ d landing field lengths are
threshold to ensure that l. e sc e u e .
Vmcl : Approach and Landing Minimum Control Speed -The miniri1um che runway h. d The speed!i at the tlue,s_h o\d are: .
speed wiLh a wing engine in·)perative where it is possible to decrease thrust to idl~ · eon~istently ac ieve . .
or increase thrust to maximum take-off without encountering dangerous flight • Vto _ all engines operaung
charac:eristics. . • Vtl _ a critical engine inoperative
-- ,\. ~ , '.
VI: Decision Speed· The maximum speed d~ring take-o:f at which the pilot :· \ :;. - . • Vlo - landing gear operatjng ~pee,d . b - ·ned
must take the first action_(c:g. apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) , : , ·· · . . . hich directional control can e-:mamtai:
to stop the aero plane w1thm the accelerate-stop. distance available. It is also the ·· ,,· Vroca: is the mm1mum spee~ at w . h d Vmca is a calibrated a1npeed and
minimum speed during take-off, following the failure of the critical engine at Vef, , rt;ith,:tbe critical engine,inoperanve. ~ubhs e Maxunum weight decreases Vmca.
b h . craft manuiacrurer. . l ded . ft
which the pilot can continue the take-off and achieve screen height within the .
at ' .s·., cl,etermin~ d. y _t e air . al the weight.1'hus, a lightly oa aircra
cake-off distance available. VI must not ·be less than Vmcg, not great~r than Vr . ~\~fft an,a1rcraft g~n~~~tes,~us~ equ. .r lo~ded ilicraft.
and nol greater than Vmb_e. ·· · i l generate less tota1-1.i ft,than a hea~1e.; d f h
. . . . . - f imaginary screen placed at the en o t e
Vlof: Speed at point where airplane lifts off. · · Screen Hei~ht The hei~ht ? a~ t • the beginning -of the Landing Distance
ake-Off run Distance Require 3 an a .
Vmcg: Ground Minimum Control Speed - The minimum speed on the ~quired. ~ '
ground at which the take-off can be safely continued, when the critical engine
suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engines at take-off thrust.
;'pM(:: Power Manageme_nt C:o~puter. ·
Vmbe : Maximum Orake Energy Speed - The maximum speed on the

; .' QRH Quick Refere~ce Handbook.
,:":'f ..
g,-ound from which an ae'ro plane can safely stop within the energy capabilities of ,~~\!ATIONS~ ..
the brakes. L'5;T = D + r, \Thru~t equals ·dr~g ~l~s part ~£weight.)
Vtmax : Maximum Threshold Speed - The speed at the threshold above
·-'.;,2.~. F = m x. a '(Force equals mass times~a.c ceieration.)
which the risk ,1f exceeding the scheduled landing field length is unacceptably T- D_
high. 3. , Angle of climb = w
Go-around action shouid normally be taken if it appears that maximum
L}m~s hold speed will be exc~eded. This speed is 15 knots greater than the all-
). (Angle of climb ~~u.alU\:l!}}~t:~~~ dr~g ~iyiil~d by ~~ro plane weight.)
engines operating target threshold speed. 4. Climb Gradient= {Charig~.1 in H~ight + Honzontal Distance} x lOOo/o
c.·.•1,.2 v~s· :·· -·
Vref : Reference Landi~g· Speed - The speed of the aero plane, in the
. pecified landing configuration, at screen height, which is used to determine the
landing distance for manual !anding~--
• , • - 1 • 1· • lift =.
Where CL. th~ ·co,~ff~cient'.dr\ift'i;,_ i 'nul:Ileri~ ~~t?r \the dependenc: ;
shape, incl~ation, air viscosity, an~ co~J>r~ss1biliry 1s very comple, ·
0
0
~ :i
0
Vr : Rotation Speed . The speed at which, during the take·-off, rotation is 'this variable is called, the lift _c?~ffig.ent, ·designated CL) .
iniciated with the intention dbecomin,g.airborne. P is :the density of thk'~r ·
V4 : Steady Initial Climb Speed -The all engines operating take-off climb ·v is the forv/ard s'?eed of the ae!ofoi\ . .
sp eed used to the point where accelera~on to flap retraction ~peed is initiated. V4 . S is the wing area which i;eroain; co~stant. _ . ~· __ .
:+h otild be attained by a gross height of 400 feet. Thrust Required~ Dr~g:+.(Weight x ,sine ang\e -ofc\unb).
6.
238
PART I· GENERAL NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
7· Lift Required = Weight x cosine angle of climb. of at least 400' (obstacle dependent). (V 2)
Performance - factors to be considere·d: . Third (Transition) Segment: the hori~<:mtal distance requi~ed to
accelerate at a constant altitude to facihta.te flap/slat retraction and
'Iah off Flight Path:
acceleration to final climb speed.
Thechtaedkeoff ~gbt path is considered to begin when the airplane 1..:: •. Final Segment: end of third segment to at least _l 500' (obstac\e
rea a height of 35' b h . . uas .
of 1500' above th rfaa ove t e sui:£ace and continues to the higher dependent) with flaps/slats retracted , max . conti n uous power, and fin al
·mb d ·. e hsu ce, or the pomt the ·single engine·en-route
Cll
L
arge
spee 1s reac ed.
aircraft ·.
athhave numerous takeoff.configurations which affect
climb speed .
TAKE-ot'f PATIi "'OFl\.E
~\'-" ;
2
<leparture p profiles. .
·me a flap or slat selection is to be retracted an acceleration is
Each_ tJed ------~f'Ollft• '' ''
I
reqmr . . ' . - -~
' --Q&MI.J"--
- - Q...........
'I
'I
\ I ' I
: .1--~-U11lACT t Id n :
• An acceleration auring climb · h · · · · · ' ' .
period oflevel flight. . wit one engm.e moperatJve results in a . ..
~ \ "~· t
''
Climb . Gradients·· In an. aircraf1t_ w_1·th multiple
·
1
takeoff configurations and fla . ·" "'..,,· ~

I
.
I .
'
retraction schedules a climb gradient must be· calculated t k. · p· '
,.r:~~..=nr =+--~=-----.::..-,,
I I I I
period of acceleration. a mg mto account each· ''.
I •
'' --1 ''
..-...
• C!imb Gradient:_ the rati~ of the change in height duri~g a portion of a
cbmb, to the horizontal distance traversed in the same time interval. · - '.
1-AJQH"l'MTM
'I
~~~
~,
I
• The climb gradie~t required is predicated on one-engine inoperative

performance ~n,d 1s expressed as a percentage. ·
• · Alt. gained in ffet/horizontal distance in feetX l00=climb gradient Cruise
Fuel Economy: As the weight of the aircraft decreases with fue\ bein g bu rn t.
• Net ~lim~ Gradient: the aircraft's actual one engine inoperative climb so there is less weight to heave through the air, and consumption wul bl'! reducer.\ .
gradient reduced by 0.8%. · ·
It is commonsense that as an aircraft gets lighter, with .the fuel being con urned .
• This 0.8% r~duction in actual climb. gradient provides an additional its performance will improve assuming that there is no significant wind chan ge.
safety margm for obstacle clearance. By an improved performance, we mean a smaller value for the ratio of fuel f\uw to
• The aircraft's net climb gradient must meet the ·required climb TAS . This is usually expressed as nm/kg, often referred to as tbe econom fagm e.
gradient of the departure procedure and dear all obstacles by 200' Modern turbo-jet aircraft are usually operated at a constant Mach . -m fact on
horizontally or 35' 'vertically within:the aerodrome boundary and 300' some routes it is an ATC requirement that this is done. Usually the Cap tai n ha
horizontally-outside the aerodrome boundary. . very little choice in the speeds at which he may operate.
• A_standard_1/2 departure procedure_,w,ould require a single engine net Methods for cruise control: Apart from the speed selected and the wind ,
climb grad1~nt of.200ft/D:m ,or _(2QQ/6076).X 100=3.3% over which we have no control, the other factqr having a marked eff ct 0n t\i e
Climb Segments: · · · economy is FL.
The take~.ff flight .~a.t h :is di~ided into ·segments, whith relate to aircraft
I
The Operations Manual (OM) will lay down the various method~ \)y which
configuration. A typical segmented profile is as follows: the aircraft can be operated.
• First Segment: from the end of the takeoff distance to the point the The economy of operation (kg/nm) wil\ improve as the a.i rcraft gets \i~h1er
Janding gear is fully retracted. (V2) •
It is fairly obvious that less work will need to be done to move a lighter airc rafl
• Second Segment: th~ point the landing gear is retracted to an altitude
, 2◄0 t given distance and so less energy and less fuel will be required.
141
PART 1 - GENERAL NAVIGATION
PERFORMANCE
Stepped cruise- Tl . --...
.d eal method would. beo!e~ the be~t pos,~1ble rang~ out of~ modern jet aircraft ti
m.u .m . . - o a cru,se--c imb. In this, the aircraft . tak le
'Typical rates of descent vary from 2600 (at TOD) to 700 feet per minute (at
. . t um possible level where the ideal airspeed for lS en up to the tower altitudes).
~s_mg the engines at their maximum continuous ec~nomy can be achieved
• The final approach O.aps and landing gear are ~ ually deployed below 5,000
l.i~hter h-i th fuel used, the aircraft is permitted podwe~:ettmgs. As the aircraft gets
feet and change the character of the drag coefficient.
snll maintaining the power settings and the re ~~e~~ y to increase _altitude while
not pop!..llar with ATC and c nly very high flyi~g ( est s~ee~. This technique is • The aircraft mass changes by a relatively small amount of fuel for a vehicle that
be fo und using this method A - appr . . supersonic) aircraft are likely to could carry huge amount of fuel at takeoff. ·
· • •"UJ ox1mat1on to this h d •
c~ _fJ . as hio·h as possible ar the beginning of cruise an:I1et o is for the' a!rcraft DECLARED DISTANCES
weigh t r educes sufficiently to be able to ope t h lheo , :-,'hen the aircraft The following distances shall be calculated to 1?e °:earest meter or foot for a
·ceppi ng up to thac level. ra e at t e next av;;tlable flight level,
run\\lay intended for use by international commercial air transport:
Air Density: The performance of an aircraft is de end " (a) Takeoff run available (TORA);
temperacure which in turn determine air density Th p en . o~ pressur~ and
ex ) res d h I. . . . e pressure ts conveniently (b) Takeoff distance available (TODA);
, ,f e ast epressurea_t1Lude,1.e.thealtimeterreadingwithl013hPaontI
uoscale. The cemperature ~s normally described by the temperature deviation.1e (c) Accelerate-stop disLance available (ASDA); and
(<l) Landing distance available (LDA):
Temperature Deviation = Outside Air-Temperature (OAT)(-) ISA
CALCULATION OF DECLARED DISTANCES -
Temperature.
Where a runway is not provided with a stop way or clearway ~nd the
It is quite often stated th at air temperature affects operating econoiny Th' · . threshold is located at the extremity 0£. the runway, the four declar-:d distances
f . al · ·fi · IS IS
not o pracoc_ s1gm 1cance. Cruising at-constant Mach No., a higher temperature ; sho~ld normally be equal to the length of the runway.
produces a _higher TAS at the exp·ense of more engine power and so higher fuel
~o\ _s. Pracncal tes~ show .,that the two effects tend to balance out producing no . . Where a runway has a displaced threshold, the LDA will be reduced by the
1gnificanc change m the overall economy (kg/nm). distance the thre_shold is displac;:ed. A displaced threshold affects only l1:-e LI?Afor
.approaches made to · that threshold; all. declared distances for operanons m the
The higher TAS will, of course, give a slightly better flight time. · reciprocal direction ~re unaffected. · -
Descen r Performance
• The top of descent point typically starts 80-120 miles away from the destination H= \
airport (depending upon the cruise altitude as~igned). I.! T O
TORA .· I .
D A ~_.:_
.· -~6ft =:\
\_
• A descent on commercial ~ans-port aircraft is initiated by setting the engine , ·' TODA
ASDA . . ... ·· ASDA
thrust to a very low power condition (i.e. idle thrust). LuA
Once in rhe airport terminal area, thrust adjustments are necessary to .Where a runway is provid~d-with a stop way (SWY), the ASDA will include the
com pt·nsate for altitude holds or flap configuration changes as needed. length of stopway. ·
T he most economical descent would be a continuous descent flown at idle
rv11di1.ions until a point where flaps and landing gear are deployed . At such \ ·\swY\
point adjustmenrs in thrust are required to maintain a safe rate of descent in
lbe final approach. - -
TORA--\J
.
• Rate of descent is controlled by the-sp·e ed profile and the assumed residual - ASDA :
r.I1r-ust. · . .
H3
242
PAAT I • GENERAi:. NAVIGATION
.
~ere a runway 1·s ·p·rovi·a· d •h
· - . ,t·, ~ ;r·~
. '· · i~ ,j :: ,, , . PERFORMANCE
·-"';·~1~'..;' - .;....::,.:;.-'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,;__ _ __;_..;;;..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
th I • · e wit a cl , · · · ~t ·· . ,,
e e~gth o~ clearway. · earway (CWY), the TODA will inclqdt }l ·•· ,;/ i :...
Questions
. Ftgures illusti-ate a runway provided . . . ;~
displaced threshold. Where more th .with a clearway or a stop way or having . ,
one of the. ~ec~e~ distances wi!l be ~~~~e. o:::hese feature~ exi_st, more .t han . ·The induced drag of an aero plane
the same prmc1ple illustrated Figu . b 1 ifi~d but the. mod1ficatton will follow a) is independent of the airspeed
features exist. ·· re e <:>w_ill4~trates a situati~m ~h_e re all these'
b) decreases with increasing airspeed
. c) increases with increasing airspeed
-. SWY: C · The stalling S!)eed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the aero plane
is·controllable in landing configuration is abbreviated as
a) Vsl b) Vs c) Vso
r----....;· ASDA Regard~ng take-off, the take-off decision speed Vl:
,..____ TODA,---~
a) is the airspeed on the ground at which the pilot is assumed to have made a decision
A suggested format for providin 1•n£ . . · to continue or discontinue the take-off
in below. If a runway directio g bormattop on declared ,distances is given
b) is an airspeed at which the aero plane is airborne but below 35ft and the pilot is
because it is operationally forb~~:~~~ e huse! ~r take?_ff o,r landing, or both, assumed to have made a decision to continue or discontinue the take-off
usable" orthe·abbreviation "NU" , . ds ou e declared and the·words "not
• , , • entere . . c) is the airspeed of t~e aero plane upon reaching 35ft above the take-off surface
1
Q4. An lncr~ase in atmosp~efic pre,sure bas, among other things, the following
· c~nsequences on landing performance:
a) a reduced \anding distance and improved go-around performance
b) an increas~ landing distance ·and impr~ved go-around perfonnance
c) an increased landing distance and degraded go-around performance
QS. An increase in atmospheric pressure has, among other things, the fo\lowinl,!.
·J
.-
·- '•iUOm ·
RUNWAY
J consequences on take-off performance:
a) a reduced take-off distance and degraded initial c\imb -perfonnance
b) a reduced take-off distance and improved initia\ climb performance
c) an increased talwoff distance and degraded initial c\imb performance
Runway TOR.A ASDA TODA LOA Q6. However does the thrust o[ fixed propeller vary during take-oft run? The thrust
, 09 2ooo· m \. 2300 m · ,;2580 m 1850 m a) has no change during take-off and climb
27 2000m 2350m 2350m 2000m b) increases slightly whi\e the aero plane speed bui\ds up
17 NU ' NU NU 1800 m c) decreases slightly while the aero plane speed builds up
35 1800 ffi I 1800 m ·. · 1800 m NU Q7. A constant headwind component

a) increases the angle of flight-path during c\imb
Suggested format for pr?:vid~11g in'formation on declared distances. b) increases the maximum endurance
' •·-··~ ................. ....................... ........, .... ............................................................................ ................ ....... ................ .
~ ;,
c) increases the best rate of dimb
244 HS
PERFORMANCE
, Q2l. When the outside air temperature increases, then

a)- the ~eld limited ~e--offmass_and the climb_limited take-off mass increases
the field limited take-off,mass incr~~es but the clil$-limited take-off mass
b) 115kt c) 130kt decreases
QJJ. A muJtJ engine aero plane is flying at the minimu~ control speed (Vmca). c) the field length limi~d take-off mass and tbe climb limited take--off mass decreases
Which parameter(s) must be maintainable_after engine failure?
a) Altitude b) Straig;it flight Q22. What is the,ef(ect of a head wind component, compared to still air, on the
maximum range speed-(IAS) ,and the speed for maximumdimb angle
c) Heading, altitude and a positive rate of climb of J00:ft/min respecfr,ely?
Ql 4. The crltfcal engine inoperative a) Maximum range speed decreases and maximum climb angle speed decreases
a) does not affect the aero plane performance since it is independent of the power b) Maximum range speed increases and maximum climb angle speed stays constant
plant
c) -Maximum range speed decreases and II\aximum climb angle speed increases
b) iuc~eases the power required because of the greater drag caused by the wind milling
Q23. What is the advantage of a balanced field length condition?
engme and the compensation for the yaw effect
a) A balanced field length provides the greatest margin between "net" anu "gtoss"
cJ dec:eases the power required -because ofthe' lower drag caused by the wind milling take•otH1igh\ pa\11,s
engme
QJ b) A balanced field length gives the minimum required field length in the event of an
'fhe Npeed VJ is defined as
engine failure
a) take-off decision speed b) cnoine failure sp"~-d c) k ff c) A balanced take-off provides the lowest elevator input fort:e requiremeats fot rotation
er-• "" ta c-o climb speed
246
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION PERFORMAN CE
Q24. Which of the following factors f .__

take-off? . avours the selection of a low flap setting for-th~ 'th ant,·skid inoperative is not permitted
c) Takc-o ff wt
a) :tt~;tt~I;;:::; diS ta nt obstacles in the climb-out path, long runway and a htgh Q
.
30
f
In the event o eng
inc failure below Vt, the first action to be taken b y the p ilr, t
.
. . In order to decelerate the aero plane ts to:
b) High field elevation, no obstacles i th
and short runway , ' i ' ,
br .
n e ~ im •,o~t path, low amb1ep.t temperature
· a) deploy air brakes or spoilers
b) reduce the engine thrust
c) Low_field, eievation, no obstacles in ib.e·climb-:otit path short
amb1eot temperature _ . ,
runway and a low c) reverse engine thrust
. f h r ll · d"istanccs can the length of a stop way be in d uded?
031 , Jn which o t e o owmg .
Q25. The stop way is an area which allows an increase only in: a) In the one-engine failure case, take-off distance
a) the accelerate-stop distance available , b) 1n the all-engine take-off distance
b) the take-off distance availablif c) ·1n the accelerate stop distance available
c) the take-off run available · Q3"i. 1f the,ficld length limited take-off mass has ~cen calculated .using a Bala n ced
. Field Length technique, the use of any additional clearway m take-o ff
'. p~JiFoR~c:it ·oF-AERoPLANEs performance calculations may allow
Q26. Provided a.!J othe~ parameters-stay constant. Which ~fthe following a) a greater field length limited take-off mass but with a lower Vl
alternatives will decrease the take-'off ground run? b) the obstacle clearance limit to be increased with no effect on V l
a) Decreased take-off mass, increased·p~essure altitude, increased temperature c) a greater field length limited take-off mass but with a bigher Vl
b) Decreased take-off mass, increased density, increased flap setting Q33. A "Balanced Field Length" is said to exist where: . _
c) Increased outside air temperature, decreased pressure altitude, decreased flap a) The accelerate stop distance is equal to the tak.~-off distance avatlablc .
setting b) The one engine out take-off distance is equal to the all engine take-off d1s.ance
Q27. During the .flight prt!paration a pilot makes a mistake by selecting a Vl greater c) The clearway does not equal the stop way
than the required. Which problem will occur when the engine falls at a speed · · · b ,. ·t d T OM"
Q34. Which of the following sets of factors will increase the clim · 1m1 e · ·
immediately above the correct value ofVl?
a) Low flap setting, low PA, low OAT
a) The one engine out take-off distance req~ired may ex.cecd the take-off distance
b) High flap setting, low PA, low OAT
available
c) Low flap setting, high PA, hi.gh OAT
b) The stop.dis_tance required,will exceed the stop distance available
Q35. If there is a tailwind, the climb limited TOM will:
c) V2 may be too high so that climb performance decreases
a) increase
Q28. Which statement regarding Vl is correct?
b) decrease
a) The V 1 correcti.CJ:1..fu.:e- ufl'- Slope is negative
c) not be affected
b) When detennining the VI , reverse thrust is only allowed to be taken into account k ff ff ht path and the c\i mh segments
on the remaining symmetric engines. Q36. The requirements with regard to ta c-o ig
are·only specified for: . .
c) Vl is not allowed to be-greater than Vr a) the failure of the critical engine on a mult1-engmes aero plane
Q29. lftbe aotisldd system is inoperati,,e, which of the following statements is true? b) the failure of any engine on a multi-engined aero plane
a) The accelerate stop distances decreases
b) The accelerate stop distance increases
149
248
c) 2 engined aero plane

Q. The first segmen t o r the ta k e-off flight
. path ends
at completion of gear retraction
Chapter
' J at rea hing V2
c ,n 35ft above the runway
Q38. The climb limited take.-o1J mass can be increased by
a) selecting a Lower VI
b) selecting a lower V2
16
c) a lower flap setting for take-off and selecting a hi~her V2
Q39. During take-off the third segment begins:
a) when acceleration starts from Vlofto V2
b) when fl ap retraction is completed
c) when acceleration to flap retracti~n speed is started
Q40. For take-off obstacle clearance calculations obstacles i th fi t
be avoided • n e irs segment may
Introduction. . _
a) by banking not ~ore than 15° between 50ft and 400ft above the runway elevation Before flight in the commercial business of carrying passen~e~ or cargo for hire
b) by standard turns- but only after passing 1500ft or reward, a very comprehensive flight plan must .b e.made, givmg the Hdgs (M) to
c) by ba~ng as much as needed if aero plane is more than 50ft above runwa steer, the time on each leg, the fuel to be_consume.cl,. the_height to fly, the_alternat~s
elevat10n. ,' y available, and any other detail useful· for the trip. ·1t is a plan , a guide, and its
main purpose is safety, ensuring primarily that sufficient fuel is uplifted plus a bit
extra for mother. In the air, amendments to Hdgs and times will be made, with a
continuous check on fuel consumption and weather ahead, by actual navigation .
Answers The first prerequisite on arrival at the field is to obtain the \atest Met.
information for the route, and for all the, aero<;lromes likely to pe used; forecast
Q: I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
WV and temperatures at pertinent heights will be given, and from these, the
flight plan can be·filled in. This done, adequate fuel can be ordered and other
A: b C a a b . C a b C b b C b b a a b a a C
matters such as ra.qge; point of no retur!l,. can b~. duly entered. The complete
plan will be reported to A TC, so that in the air a full surveillance of the aircraft's
progress will be ~ept.
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 - '
Having gaped at that lot for a moment or ~o (and perhaps checked the
A: C b b a a b b C b b C a a a C a a C C a TAS, times, Hdgs on your computer), you will appreciate that here is most of the
information required for ·th.e trip and on the hip; but of course, t~mperatures,
WVs are forecast, fuel consumption may ·not go according to the book, ETAs will
invariably change, but.the plan-is there. ,
The pri~ciple~ of'tligbt planning
In the very first place,· with the information available before flight, the
250
lSI
PAAT I - GENERAL NAVIGATION
probl~m is one of :1ork_ with the computer to resolve this information into the
es~ntials ~or ~e flight 1tse1:f. Aftei;: this, .a~ the pilot considers fuel, it is aircraft
:,-
· ~;: ·
- FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITOP-ING - AEP-0 PLANES
~i nificant point to another.

. . The estimated time required to proceed from o n e
Estimated Elapsed T une.
. .
w~1gbt wh1ch 1s ~he gove~nmg factor; this weight decreases dramatically as the , .k,l ·. '. . ,g •
Estimate
d Off bl k Time· The estimated ume at which th e ain :ra(t wi1I
. oc . . cl ..
tnp progresses with the high rate of fuel consumption, and a mean consumption , 1\./. . m·eoce movement associated with eparture.
or a mean TAS per sector must be deduced. l: ' ,r cotn
· -1;.. . ' • E ~· t' ated Time of Arrival:
Fuel Plao~g'. The first step .in working out,a flight plan is to deduce the , '• · ... · 6 un h' h 1•l 1•s estimated that the aircr a(t will arn vt:
tempe~ture_d_~ 1at1on for each stage.'When -extracting performance for any pan ·. :.~·;_ ~ ~ For IFR flights: ~e time at~ blC £ ence to navigation aid s, rrom which it
of the flight, 1t 1s •~~ortant to check that the table being used is for the appropriate . ···~,'?:. over that designated point defmec y reher. dure will be comm enced or, if no
,. _, , . d d th . strument approac p1oce . ·11
temperattlre dev1auon range. · · ':J;;. , is inten e at an m. . d. the time at which th e aircraft w1
<f ', navigation -aid is associated with the aero I orne,
· Renrember the penalties are heavy -for s~rious arithmetical iriacc;macies in. w . · arrive over the aerodrome. . . _ .,
t_h e air: -you woulci fe~l foolish to find in mid trip that you)d uplifted 1000 kg too .
For VFR flights: T h e tune at w 1ic -
a,
1 · hit is estimated that the aircraft will me
ltttJe fuel. ·
over the aerodrome.
Aircraft weight';S: It is' necessa'~y to J<.e~p a 'rii"nning record of the aircraft
weight. ; Total Estimated Elapsed Time: .
For IFR flights: The estimated time required_fr~m ta~eofT tn arnve o_'er
Cli~b: Using- your calculator ob~n the distance gone on the climb, and that designated point, defined by reference t.o navig~uon aids , fro m : h,ch_t is
subtracting from the total stage length obtain the balance of the distance to go in intended that an instrument approach proceduTe will be:: com1.1e nc_e or. '. n o
C;rui sing flight . . . navigation aid is associated with the designation aerodrome . to ar n ve ovei t h e
Level: AI}-the time the temp dev and FL must be watched. destination aerodrome.
Descen<l:" Work ou( th~ descent path to find time and distance covered . For VFR flights: The estimated time required from takeoff to arrive o 'er the.:
destination aerodrome.
Other Factors: The altirnate, Di.version and hold, Circuit and Landing a~d
Reserve must be 'dealt with. Since a diversion i_s assumed to be after an attempt at Alternate Aerodrome: An aerodrome to which an aircraft rnc-y p roceed\ ·hen
landing which has proved unsuccessful, diversion tables have overshoot, climb to it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or \and at the aerodro me
a suitable level, reserve fuel all included in the Figures. of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include :
DEFINITIONS
ICAO ATC FLIGHT PLAN
Flight Plan: Specified information provided to air traffic services (ATS) units,
i (a) Takeoff alternate: An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft c~n \and sh on\d
this become necessary shortly after takeoff and it is not possible to u e e
aerodrome of departure .
(b) En-route alternate: An aerodrome at which an ai.r~~ft wo u~d b e ~b\e to \a
th
nd
relative to an intended flight or portion of a flight of an ·aircraft. after experiencing an abnormal ?r emergency conchtion wh1\e en rnute .
Filed Flight Plan: The flight plan as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot or his (c) Destination alternate: An alternate aerodrome to which a n aircraft nTil
design a ted representative, withou t any subsequent'changes. proceed should it become impossible nr inadvisable to \and a t th e ;i eroc\rom
I '
Current Flight Plan: The flight plan including changes, if any, brought about of intended landing.
by subsequent clearances. · Note: The aerodrome fram which a jtight d.eparls may /Je nn en-roul.Por n ck\ /n,o.tfo·,
Repetitive Flight Plan (RPL): A flight plan related to a series of frequently alternate aerodrome for that flight .
recurring, regularly operated individual. IFR flights with identical basic features, ATS Reporting Office: A unit established for th~ purpose of receiv_ing re,w r t
11 1
ubmitted by an operator for retention and repetitive use by ATS units. concerning air traffic services and flight plans sub1mtted before c\epai t e ·
253
252
---------.:..:.:.:..:.'.-.!....:..:::~~~~~~~-----------
PART I - GENERAL N AVIGATION
FLIGHT PLANNJNGANO MONITORING -AERO PLANES
REQ UIREMEN T TO SVBMIT A FLIGHT PLAN
• fl· .hr plan hall b su.bm;tted prior to operating: INADVERTENT CHANGES .
( J an _ilight or portion thereof to be provided with air traffic control
,...r yv1ce; Io the event .th at a con_trolled
hallflight inadvertently
be taken · d ev1ates
. from tt, current
(f,J any IFR flight within advisory airspace; ,, ; he plan, the following acoon s . . hall be taken forthwith
(wS ) Deviation from track: If-thh - craft ;s off track, acuon s . bl
. e ~r raft to regain track as soon as pracnca e.
(<J a ny ffight wfrh;n or ;nu, des;gnated areas or along des;gnated cou1cs, a . h heading oft e arrc 1 be
when o required by the appropriate ATS authority to faci litate the to adJUSt t e . . eed at cruising leve tween
prnv;,;on of flig ht fofonna6on, aJer6ng and sea,ch-and-,escue secvices; (b) Variation in true airs_p eed,_If the ave~•::;'!;:'; :riJu, or nun~ 5 per cent of~~~
Id/ any fl;ght w;th;n o, ;mo de,;gna1ed areas or along designated rn u tes, reporting points vanes o~ is e':Pe~e ff ght plan; the appropnate ATS urut s
tru e airspeed from that given mt, e i
when . o required by the appropriate ATS authority to facilitate
cuordination with appropriate military unjts or with ATS units in be so informed. . . fi the next applicable reporting
adjacen t Stales in order to avoid the possible need for intercep tion for . .
c) Change m ume es~ate.
. . If .the tune estimate or
ordestinationaerodrome, hi hever
w c .
th e purpose of identification.
( point, llight information region bo~ndary, s of three minutes from d1at notified
, bt,, TIUJ tum f/ighi plan ir used lo mean varwu.,Jy, full mfonn,u;q,, ,m all ;/ems C<m'frris,d
tlt-t f lig ht plan description, covering the wlUJte route of a flight, or limited in/ormation
m mt::; as is
comes first, is foun_d to be er~o~
to ATS unit, or such other ~no . o
prescribed by the approp~i.ate
. tion regional agreements, a rev1s~d
~ q:,med when the purpose i..r to obtain a clearance for a minor portion uf a flight such as to
1-n
ATS authority or on the b~1s of air n:Ja ossible to the appropriate ATS umt.
au an. airway, to take off.fmm, or to I.and at a controlled aerodrome. esti mated time shall be n otified as soo P_ . Ia the ATS unit shall be
1,
/fr /c., re any flight is und .:= rtaken it is essential that the ATS unit concern ed is
fo r med of the flight (A IP In dia). · ti Additionally, ~ h
d automaucally ~ ADS agreement is m p ce,
en via data link whenever changes occur beyon t e
d h
:r:~o~d values sripu lated by the ADS event contract.

ADH ERENCE TO FLIGHT PLAN
INTENDED CHANGES '
.x eJJ ( ,:s provided for, an aircraft sh all ad here to the currem fligh t plan or tJ1e Requests for flight PIan ch anges shall include the foll owing information :
a p/11 .1blc po n :on of a current flight plan ubmitced for a controlled flight unl ess a
.
C'f ic: 1 for a change ha been made and clearance obtai ned from the appr p riatc: Change of cr uising level · ' . . isin s eed at this
" · tr<1/r, control unu, or unless an emergency situation arises which n ecessitates t
m 11n ·dr te action by the ai rcral t, in whjch event a oon a circumstances pc: rm it , level;furcraft
revisedidentifi~ion; requeS
time estunates (whenedapp
ne~ca
c~:'5)m~
e a ~~:e~:~~fligh~ i~formation
.1," . uch e,,,e ,g, ,.<y autho,i1y i e xerc; e d , the approp ,ia,e AT s hall be notified region boundaries.
of J,e a, rion Ct1k n and thc1t ch ~ a tion h as been taken und er c:mcrg1.::ncy a u thorn y.
CHANGE O F ROUTE
CHANGES TO A FL IGHT PLAN
Destination unchanged . _ . flli ht including
I <ha n es Lo a flight plan subcni.tted for an IFR flig h t or a V FR flight fu rcraft id ::,1tification : fl ight rules; descnp~~n o~new roh~ctehorequgest,ed change
;x·r'3tcd ,t a con trolJ d flight shall be repr-irted as soon as practicable lo the b · · · th th position 1rom w 1
related llight plan data, e~rung_ WI .e . ther pertinent information.
,, p c p t te AT uni t. For other VFR flights, sie-nilicant cha ngt.::s to a flight plan of ro ute is to co mmence; revised tu;ne es umates, any~
'fi 11 1-> t pon ed · soon as prncticable to the ap propriate AT S unit.
•'°"' h,f,nnaiibJ, ulnnitt,d prior lo d
flarture n,gardingfud rndurance or total nu,r,/,e, of Destination <hll!lged , , . . revised route of flight to
Aircraft iden tification ; lligbt rules; descnptJo? ~; Jan data, beginning with
c m rm board, if i11eon·, ct at tim of departure, constitutes a signi_fu;ant change
· fl it plan and as .ruch m1 I be r. 'j;mrted. revise d destina tion a~rodrome, mcludmg relfated
the position from which requested change o rou~
flit t!
commence; revised time
.n.fi ation .
e~timates; alternate aerodrome(s); any other pertment 1 orm .
255
ND MONITORING -AERO PlANES
'. FLIGHT PLANNING A
PART·l -'GENER!A.L NAVIGATION of information that instrument me t cu.rn -
1
••
--'--- - - - - --'-,;..,;;.,;~__,;;.,;;...,;.,;;...,;...;.....;..,;..;,,,.:;,,;,,.;,;~.;_;_.---------- , ·. . _, .\• ~-.. . . ,. .
'.: ··, '{'/ .:, :
I an ATS unit is in possession t red along the route of flight . a p ilot
· -· . VMC · ·. · , • , W 1en n. b. ncoun e l · d
W EA1'HER D ETERIORAnON
.. BEOOW :tRE :,:;t
:::,\,.>. ~: , l conditions are likely to e ~ h uld as far as practicable, be so ac vise .
O
Wh en.tt . b ecomes ev1'd enLu1at
.1. fl.1g1t
1· 1 ~· 1VMG'm.accor
. .· · h 1ts\
d an:ce:.w1t · current .,..
J-.:5 · ., ing.·" from IFR fli ght
:\·Jogica . to VFR flights .' VFRjlight where it is li.hely tlw.L
flight plan will not be practicable, a VFR, flight- operated as a' controlled flight . ·-:: ~,. -c1,1fng _· . t . pilot changing from !Ff: fli~ht to ,. llo · g mami P.r.
shall:. ,, l'~-· . ,. ,, ... , ; .J.;• :'i.," ··r, , ..) ·' \'. 'i>' Note:Information oab . tainedshallbegweninthe1n win
.. (a) ', ~equest an-amendecl,dearance enabling the aircraft to continue in · .:. '~- 'flight in VM C cannot e_main CAL CONDITIONS REPORTED
NT METEOROLOGI
," VMC to destination .oqp pi alt~rnativ.e,ae_rqdr9me, ..or to leave the "INSTRUME HE VICINITY OF (locatw11)"
•
A
l
-
c~
·. airspace, wir~in,whi<;:h '.,ip ;rb,s1~-~_fa!1_ i_1 req'ui_red; oi·
.· .
(or forecast) INT
. .
r
. . ft's intention to cl,an ge i om
. (b) ifno clecl!an,ce in. accor,darice.-rw,)tb _(a) ab_o yecan be obtained, continue ~ · · oti.ficauon of an atrcra all h ATS
, ·,, . An ATS unit receiving n . bl thereafter, so inform ot er
to operate in VMC and not,j.fy the appropriate ATC un_it of the action t'i•'.~R-fo VFR flight sh_all, as soon as pracudcda e d except those units in r egwns or
be~g taken ei~her tc_> lea~e ,;,t he airspace con,cerned or to land at the
. nearest f~.if!~le:_a~rod.~o~f~;' i ~~:-. ~,, .', '. : ' ,,· ·. . ' ' . .
(c) if op_ei;f!ed Yf1$H! a wn~rpl-_ zop~-,:, i:equ~st ~,u thorisaµon to operate as a
,-~r~l:
¥:: ){ :.
"".
to whom the IFR flight plan was a resse ,d
through which the flight has already passe .
,
spe~1al. VFR fhght;. or -. .. . . \:. CLos-iNG A FLIGHT PLAN
,(d) re,qu~~t ,cl~~r~~;e:~~
,rules. ,
pp~x~t~_,i;
a~~~~da~c:::e:.~ith the .instrument flight
-·
. :, . . . { . . 'b ,db he appropriate ATS authority. a re port o f
Unless otherW1se prescn e y t. b dio at the earliest possibl e mo me n t
., ,, ,'.J •rrrr~. i rrival shall be made, either in persot:rosr y111.rtaat the arrival aerodrom e, b ,' a n y
· ·
1CHANGJN1(0M,VFR•FLIGHT TO ·IFR .FLIGHT
'. 1an.d'mg, to th
?,•after - e appropnate
· .,,..b..
· F\. bu • d overing the entire fli ght or t h e
., .. , _·,. , .. - , ,. ,. , , . . -":. ·.fii ht for which a flight plan has een ~~ m~tte c
' An airc.r aft operat?ci'inJ ccord~~c~ w~ili,, ~qe v'isual flight.rules ~hich wishes to . · ; g . .. · ortion of a flight td the destination aerodrome.
change to.compliar,ice with th~:mstiuinen(flight rules shall: · · remammg P · · ' ·. · h l
· Additional Provisi~ns Applicable in'India for filing of a flig t Pan: .
(a) if a flight plan wa;-submitted', communicate the necessary changes to •- ► Before any flight is.under:tak.en it is essential that the ATS u n tt
~ .~ffeC;ted to_~tt cur :-er:i-t -~~ght;p!anJ pr: , '. .,. . l- concerned is informed 'of the flight.
(b) when so-required, submit a•flight plan to the appropriate ATS unit '1 Incormation relative to an intended flight or portion of a A.ight , to b e .
and obtain a clearance prior to.proceeding IFR when in controlled I ► 1
f tl ICAO d \ flight
.f .provided
'
airsp·ace>. ·• · to an ATS unit, shall be in the form o · 1e mo e "
t plan .
CHANGE FROM IFR 'FLIGHT TO VFR FL1GHT l
f
► Flight plans for intended flights shall be submitted t~ the app ropn~~e
ATS unit at least sixty minutes before d eparture (esumatec\ o ff-1 1 \o ck
An aircraft electing to change conduct of its flight from compliance with
instrument flight rules to compliance with the visual flight rules shall, if a flight ~ time) .
plan was submitted, notify the appropriate ATS unit specifically t_h at IFR flight is ► A flight plan s\-1;all be submitted before departm:e to an_:".TS_r ep01~~ng
can.celled and communicate thereto ,the cha.J)ges to ,be made to its current flight office, during flight transmitted to the appropna~e AT~ unit on an ·
plan. . . - .. , .. ,·· ,,,... , 1 •• · ground control frequency, unless arrangements have been mac\ e for
. Change'fromlFRfliglittoVFRfligh'iiifacceptableonlywheriamessageinitiated submission of repetitive/stored flight plan .
by the pilot-in-command ·containing the specific ~xpressiori "~ANC~LLING MY SCHEDULED FLIGHTS
IFR F_LIGH!'' toge~er with the chapges, :i_f:any, ~o;~e made_to ,h is current flight
p~an, -~s re~eTved by a~,ATS u~it.· N? ip,vitati~n to ch~nge from IFR flight to VFR Flight pbn filed in printed form in respect of schedu\ed CTighls Lhrnugh a n y
fhght is to be made e,th.~r .directly ,or, by inference. electronic media available with ATS authorities shall be accepted .
~o r~.ply, ovier than.· the acknowledgement "IFR FLIGHT CANCELLED AT In such cases it will be the responsibility of the operator to obtain ATS,
.. . (Time) should normally be made by an ATS unit. COMM and MET briefing ,md the data/documents so obtained by the -en shall he
256" 257
· ' PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION F~IGHT PLANNING ANO MONITORING -,AEW PLANES
r etained-as d
recor s for six months.
. ..·O EJtATlON oF' ·NoN·•scHEDULED FLIGlfl'S INTO AND ACaC>SS INDIAN .AulsPAC&
The air traffic control ffi -. .
any other member of crewot c~r m_a~ however require the pilot-in-comlll . .' ' •der to ensure smooth operation of flights and avoi4 inconvenicmce to all
. tno1 . . . . d l d.
weather, ATC facilities o o l ep~t t m person when special briefing r an~ ,,t . , ' d operators of non-scheduled flights operating mto an across n tan
lo be comm . d r any othe1 aspect that may affect th , f, f ~&a.td1n, .. , nn:rne , . th . f A ·OR N )
'~ · e·shall specify the DG~ autliorily (YA No.) or AHQ au onty ,n: o.
umcace . · e sa ety o flights h:,, ,r-spac ' .
.!rl r..,tcl
11-.
18 of the flight plan. ·
< ~different form may be proy~ded _fqr use in completing repetitive fligh,t_plan
ings. · ·
name of pilots and trainees, if any ":{ 1}~ flight plan form sh~uld be pdnte~ and should include an English te.xt in
♦ number of persons on board ·~i~mto the,Janguag~(s) o~µie State concerned.
♦ duration of flight ·op~rators'and air- tra(fic services units should comply with the instructions fQr
♦ endurance. . pletiow of theJlight plan: form and the repetitive flight plan and an operator
a11r prior to departure :
Not,e: On aerodromes where no aerodrome tr. ,rr. . . h'. .
reservedfior local fl " , , , . •· aJ! ic..zgne 'lS esta ashed or no airspace has been J ~e:11.sure that, where the flight is ,. intended •to operate on a route or in an area
rimus
• up to 3000ft r,ytng, an area of 5 NM radius ae d
AGL rhall b .
,.r, ·
. ... ro rome r8.Jerence point and vert-ical ": •· where an RNP type is prescribed, 'the aircraft has an appropriate RNP approval,
. ~ . e treated as the vu:inity of aerodrome for VFR flights.
FhgJ, - plan for cross-count ff h d . ·w.'1.d tha~ alLconciitj.ons app~ying-t~ _that approval ~ill be s.ttisfied;
general aviation aircraft fi . ry ig ts con ucted by flymg dub aircraft and
shall be submitted to the ;;~~irf~elds w~e~e ATS :epqrtin~ office does not exist,
'. : p) ensure that,Mhere operation in re<luce.d ver.tical separation minimu.m (RVSM}
,; '· ' airspa~e is pla~ned, the air:craft has the required RVSM approval; and
. . ·P one, g1:vmg the mformauon as specified above
A flight plan shall in l d . . ·. . ensure-that,', Where the flight is ,intended- to operat~ where an RCP ~ is
in field 18. . cu e accumulated elapsed times to FIR boundary points
presctjbed,-.the:: airc~,:,has :~ . appr~pnate RCR. approval, and that.: all
to
conditions applying that. approval will be .s atisfied. .
258
PRIOR TO DEPARTURE Fr h
PART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION ,
SUBMISSION OF A FLIGHT PI.aN
1. '
. , , - FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITOR.ING - AERO PLANES
Fl' ht through intermediate stops. When an aircr aft fi le , at the dt'p ;irn 1r~
£ oc:
120 hours before the estimated , · b~-P tn_s shall, not '.be submitted more than
arrangements have been mad . o - .- ~1me.' of a fl1_g ht .Except when other
. d _ig s flight plans for the various sL.ages of flight th ro ugh i nt rmecl,atc
ae10 iome, . cl . . <l
· ·t'al clearance limit will be the first estmau on aero rrJme ;i nrJ !H: v
stops, t h e m1 1 · f n· I
clearances shall be issu ed for each subsequen t portion o 1g 11.
plan submitted prior to depa:~~~r s~~b~~s1on of r_epet1t1ve flig?t plans, a flight
reporting office at the dep· artur d u be,sub1mtted to the air traffic services The flight plan for the second stage, an_d each su bsequent ·ta~e. ril' ,1 Ri ght
e aero rome If h ·· •
aerodrome, the fljght, plan should b . b .· no s~c un~t eXJst_s at the departure throug l1 ·m t et-m ed 1'ate stops will become ,1ct1ve fo r ATS
_ ancl search
. ancl. re. cue
.
to serve the departure ae.r odro .. ' e1_sµ 1Ilttted ,to th~ lll) tt serving or designated SA R) ur oses only when the appropriate ATS unit h. as recei ved not1fi c<1t1on
. (, . . p P . I d d
. • ~ " . :-~ .. . "'- ~ ' ' -~ ~,• ' ·•,1 \. ' I I •' • I1 t the aircraft has departed from the re evant eparture aero rome, except
In the event of a .delay f30 , · · · . : · ' · : ,. ,: · ·
. .or•..a del
f,or a contra IJ e d flight .o_, . mm_~ tes ~n re~cess of.the,esumated off-block ti
. f . h ., . . . me , ·: ast aprov1·aed. that b)r prior arrangement
. between ATC. un its and . the dope rators,
, ·
flight plan h .b . b . ,i:!y o .on,e, _pur•for:an u.n controlled flight for which a · ~"t
atrcrd.l, operating on an estabhshed schedule may, rf the pt opose
I · ro ute1· ut
· as. een su m1tted the flight plan h Jd ·b · d d. ·. . '.tr ht.is through more than one control area, be cleared throug 1 1ntermer:. 1,1 t t-
plan submitted arid the old
. . .
fli\ 1
·.. · ' · ,s ou . t am~n e ;or a new flight
. ,.· ~ , g .t p _an pncelled, \Yhichever 1s applicable. :;, . · · st!ps within other control , areas but only after coordination between the AC Cs
DURING . . " .. ,I ; • ' • '. • '
concerned.
normaJl . F~l~HT.__ A fl!g~t , pJ~n !<?: b.e ,su~lllitteq. during flight should .
-d . Y be tr?_n s~J~ted,.t9 ,; the,h,JS. u~it: in, chai;ge .of•the,-FIR, . control area INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COMPLETION OF
a ~isory ar~a ,0 r ad:;sor:y rput~ ,i n _o r _on w,hich the aircraft- is flyin. , or in 0 ;. ·
THE FLIGHT PLAN FORM
thi~ugh W~lC~ ~e ~r~,ra~t,w1s~eno;fly or t6 ilie aer onatitica!'telecom!unication
. ·'h:e n t111s
station
·· h ''Id
servmg
. · the , ai.r
.. t.raffic•service.s
• · . . ,, unit , . concern'e·a · ·w
·• ···ts1·not
· ., • · • bl
pract1ca e, General. Adhere closely'to the 'prescribed forma ts and manner of specifyi ng
Jt s . OU . be, trar~mi_a~~ t<? ~noth~r A'r:s u~i't, ?r a:erdnautidi.! tele:communication data. ·
station for retransm1ss1on as reqwrea to the appropriate :air'traffic'services uhit.
Commence inserting dat'a in the first .space provided . Wher e excess pace i~
., ~ f~e-relevant, s~,~h as_: in r espect of ATC units serving
dens1ty airspace, the appropriate ••·
high- or medi~m- available, leave unused spaces blank .
Insert all clock times in 4 figures UTC.
~T~J.~~~ority ~houl,cfp_resc~ib~ c91:1ditions and/or li~1itations with respect to Insert all estimated elapsed times in 4 figur es (hours and min ute,\.
the s~bm1ss1on offltght plans durin'g'flight to.ATC'units.
Shaded area preceding Item 3 - to be completed by ATS and CO !\[ er v1,es,
· .if the fligh,t_pla~ is submitted
for the purpose ofobtaining air traffic control _unless the responsibility for originating -flight plan mes ages has been d k);<llt' cl
serv1~e, th~ aircraft is . require~ t<;> wait fo~ anair traffic control clearance prior
to proceeding undenhe ·conditioiKrequirfo:g compliance witli air ti'affic:' con trol The term "aerodrome" where used in the flight plan 1s inte,,ded to co,:er ;i ls r)
pr~edures.··~f tlie flight1plan.is -submitt~d for the purpose of obtaining air traffic sites other than aerodromes which may be used by certain types of aircr aft . e.g.
advisory serv1ce,;the_ai,rc(aftissrequired(to wait for acknowledgment ofreceipt by ·helicopters or balloons.
the unit providinK the service. , ,' . · Instructions for Insertion of ATS data.
· Acceptance-of-adlight •plan. The first ATS.·unit receiving a flight plan, or Complete Items 7 to 18 as indicated hereunder.
change thereto, shall: ... . -:-. : , . ·
Complete also Item 19 as indicated hereunder, when so requ ired h\· the
a) check it for compliance with the format arid data conventions; appropriate ATS authority or when otherw ise d eemed nccessarv.
b) check itforcomplete·ness-and, to\the extent possible, for accuracy; Item numbers on the form are not consec utive, as they corresp ond to Fielci
c) take action, if·ne~~s~ary;:fo' make it acceptable to the air traffic services; Type numbers in ATS messages.
and
Q ITEM 7: AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION (Mfu"'<.IMUM 7 CHAR<\.CTEllS)
dJ indicate acc~ptance ofthe'flight·plan or change thereto,
originator. ·
to the
'.:(:. . INSERT one of the following aircrart identifications.

alphanumeric characters and without hyphens or sy mbols :
11 0 1. <>,cerding -
I
'. ,,·!
260 . ·,/': 261

. .,
..... ,
PART I -· GENERAL NAVIGATION
--. . FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITORING - ~ERO P~ES
al <he ICAQ. designator for <he aircraft operatUlg agency followed by the flighJ:l<' , :_.·.··.• :" ''
•dcntlficauon (e.g. KLMS! !, NGA2l3,JTR25) when in radiotelephony thee,{ \
general aviation if
6 . ..
s,gn to be used by the aircraft will consist of th<"! CAO telephony desig.;ai . ,,.o" ·, . ,•, ·M ,f m,dnary · ' . b .
for)he operating agency followed by the flight identification (e, g. KtM5 1} :. ·, :: . ,. X ;r other than any. of the defined categones a eve. . , , , hen
0 NlvER!A 213,JESTER 25); ' ', !'' ·. .: .
~
· f f!i ht following the-indicator STS m Item IS, .or w th
R
·
b) the nationality or common mark and registration. ' ·
mark
.
of the aircraft (e . · . :-t., ,. --··re~r
t,
, ., .,, , . " spe<>fy status o a g
,t1 ess , '-tQ denote other reasons ~or sp,e~
tc,:;_ ¥3/
•fol10"(t~g
· the indicator-RM'K
. . .-m
fa handling by ATS, mdt.cate e
- __ _ ___ . _ _ .. . . .
. Item 18 · IT WAKE · AND
EIAKO,
l) 4XBCD, N256 /GA); when : · · · · · •g: CJ. .I ,... iTEM
g,,NUMBER Al!ID ,T•YPE OF AIRCRA
. ra.d''?leIep h on7 th e ca II s,gn
m ~
. to be used by the aircraft will consist .·• ,_.ti.'·,,. ,T ., uo,;ULENCE CATEGORY
."" ., . , , . cters). INSERT the numb er of rurcr~•, . _ct1·r
of th,s •denufinuon alone (e. g: CGAJS), or preceded by the I CAO , : L:,;:;, .'
N.umJ!er .of aircraft (1 or 2 chara . , :
telephony designator for the aircraft operaung agency (e g BhIZZARD - ·,. l\;, ,?,'.,1 • fuore 0 than one. - . t des·ignator as
CGAJS); . . . . .,' ,,) .·.. '; 0, ,""•e of aircraft (2 to 4' characters). INSERT . ,. the ,.appropna e
OR .f no such designator
2) t h e aircra
· flt 1s
· not equipped
· · radio.
with ·· · · · · ..., r; in· !CAO
·;p'es;ified · ·' DOF 8643
. , . , Ai,r craft, 'J1ype
. . Designators,
. - · , 1more than .one type,
·. · ig
Standards
10 .
for nat1onafay, . . C<?~mon arid registrati.on marks to be used are ' fi"-sp~,
~. ,, e n f~~ig~e_
: ., 'd • or
, m. . case
,. . offormatJon
·' ·, · flights·'compnsm m
. b d). type's) of
contame . d. ICAO ,An n~x 7 , ·ch apter 2. Prov,swns ·· forthe use ofradiotelephony , "1.- 'L
· ./•. INSERT 'Zfl'C?., and SPEC IFY
y · ·r·m ·Item 18 • the (nu ers an '
cal I s,gns are contained m .'Onex I 0, Volume II, Chapter 5. IC(\.O designato,s "x,J i;Crall preceded·by TY,P/ . ·' · ·; . .
B
~
and telephony designators for afrcraft operating agencies are contained in Doc t < • "'.. · · · . . . , (I character). INSERT ~n oblique stroke followed
r.:85 - D es1gnators
:.>
an d .Services.
· fior Aircraft
·
- .
Operating . Aeron:1utical Authorities ·1.
Agencies, . -. . .-. Wakef turbulence
.h . category
tt rsto indicate
.. t .. l;>y ,one o t . e ro 11owipg .1e •. e -- • .. ·
, ·
th.e wake tur!:>u. enc~ -category of the ·
1
~~~~~ u~~G=~~;~D TYPE OF FLIGHT . ;:., :, .r. irrcr;;t~ HEAVY, t~ iµdi~le, _;,, av'craft ,'YPe,!Yi~ ~ m31mum certificated Lal«:-
Flight rules, INSERT one of the following letters to denote the category of . ·
, · ·off mass
y. :·: ' •. ,
ofl36 000 kg or m.:ire;
M·_ Min,rn,M
.. - -. . . .
;;,; in~i~,ate an.¥~ .
CTAKt !YPe· ~th a maximum cernficated
fligh l rules with which the pilot intends to comply: . . take-~ff mass oflessthari 136 000 ~g but more.than 7 000 kg, ·
l if it is intended thatthe entire flight will be operated un<lerthe !FR •h · m certificated rake,olf
\/ ifit is intended that the entire flight will be operated under the VFR " , " ,: mass-of
. L .. - 7 LIGHT,:~o,i!1dicate
000 kg or less. , -. an•a~rcraft.-type--.
.,., -, ··w ·.. it ·;a_maxunu
Y if the flight initially will be operated under the !FR, followed by one or
1
·· · o ITEM JO: EQUIPMENT AND CAPABIUT!F.5, ,
more su bsequem changes of flight rules or Capabilities ConlP,rise the loll~\ving ~~i,me?,;; ', ,. .
Z if the flight initially will be operated under the VFR, followed by one or a) P'\'.Se~~~ Q(~eiei,.\u{s~"\iff~Ple' e.q uipmen; ~n b"'."d the :rcraft,
more subsequent changes offlight rriles. b) , equipn:i~nt and gB•l>ili'!~i ~O.l).\ll\eµsu!ate. wtth flight ':e
Specify in Item 15 the point or points at which a change of flight rules is qualifications; and · ·· . · ,
planned. ·
lype of flight INSERT one of the following letters to denote the type of
c) . wh,ere,:~P,p,licilbl~/ auµ>orizatio~ (rom the approp.r•ate a;th
Radio commilniC~ti~n; naVig~tion a,id approach aid equipmen .an
;"Y·
flight when so required by the appropriate ATS authority: ·.. capabilities:, , i . '' ' '
S if scheduled air service

INSERT'one'. letter as-follows: . , .
N if non-scheduled air transport operation
.
N if no COM/NAV/approach , .
aid eqmpment fior the route to be flown
, is
?'
262 t· /
it ·, ', ,
t ,, 263
:! ;-·
FLIGHT PLANNING A ND MONITORING - AERO PLANES
ilities preceded by COM/ , N AY/ and/or DAT, s
carried , or the equipment is unserviceable or oth er capab ·,
' appropriate. .. . .
OR S if standard COM/NAV/a . · h 'cl . r · n navigation capability 1s provided to ATC fo r clearance
flown is carried and serviceable ppt oac . a1 ~qu1pment for the route to be .. ► Jniormatton o
and routing purposes.
AND/OR
, "llance Equipment and capabilities.
INSERT one or mote ofthd following letters'tom
. . . di cate the serviceable COMJ $\lrvei TN if no surveillance equipment 1or
r
th e route to be "11own ·, earn·~cl .
A GBAS landing system Jl CPDLCATif INSE~ . rviceable OR INSERT one or more of the fo\lowm~
BLPV
J7 CPDLC FANS R PBN approved or. the. equipment 1s• unse of20 characters
, . ble . urve1'll anL<>
to describe the serv1cea
VDL·Mode2 1/A SATCOM '(Iridium) ; TTACAN descnptors, to a maximum '
(APV with SBAS) J2 CPDLC FANS KMLS equipment and/or capabilities on board:
UUHFRTF
CLORANC 1/AHFDL LILS VVHFRTF SSR Modes A and C '
DDME J3 CPDLC FANS Ml ATC RTF W RVSM approved A Transponder - Mode A (4 digits - 4 096 codes) ,
El FMCWPR 1/A VDLMode 4
ACARS
SATCOM X MNPS approved c Transponder - Mode A (4 digits - 4 096 codes) and Mode C
1._?(CPp~c FANS
(!~SAT) YVHF with 8.33
E2 D-FIS ACARS · 1/ASATCOM ,M2J\T<;!_RTF (MTSAT) kHz channel SSRModeS
E3PDCACARS ·, E Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft i_~entification , pre sure
·(INMARSAT) M3 ATC RTF (Iridium) spacing capability
FADF ,·J6 CPDLC-FANS OVOR altitude and extended squitter (ADS-B) capability
Z Other equipment' H Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification . pre "U r e
GGNSS 1/ASATCOM Pl-P9 Reserved for carried or other
HHFRTF (¥TSAT) RCP capabilities altitude and enhanced surveillance capability
I Inertial Navigation· I Transponder - Mode S, includ1ng aircraft identiftealion . bu n
f
pressure-altitude capability , . . .
L Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft 1dent16cc1.t1~n , pre s re . ,
NAV/approa?h aid equipment and capabilities available:
altitude, extended squitter (ADS-B) and enhanced surveillance capab,lny
► Any alpn;num~ic characters not indicated above are reserved. p Transponder - Mode S, including pressure-altitude , bui no aircr.1ft
► . If the ,Jetter S is u;s~d, standard equipment is considered to be, VHF identification capability .
RTF, VORal)d ILS.,'uilless 'another combination is prescribed bv the S Transponder - Mode S, including both pressure altitude an d aircraft
appropriate ATS authority. ' identification capability
► If the le~ter ~ is 'used, the _types of'external GNSS ?,ugmentation, if any, X 'Transponder - Mode S with neither aircraft identification nor
are specified m Item 18 following the indicator NAV/ and separated by pressl\re-altitude capability .
' a space. · Enhanced surveillance capability is the ability of the aircraft to dow n-hn k
aircraft derived data via a Mode S transponder. ADS-B
► See RTCNEUROCAE In~~roperability Requirements Standard for
Bl ADS-B with dedicated 1 090 MH z ADS-B ''out" capabiliry
AT~ Bas;line I (~TN _Bl I~:rEROP, Standard- DO-280B/ED-110B)
B2 ADS-B with dedicated l 090 MHz ADS-B "out'' and "in'· capability
f?r aata ltnk services air traffic control clearance and information/
air traffic control cominuruca:tiorui rrianagemerit/air traffic control Ul ADS-B "out" capability using UAT
U2 ADS-B "out" and "in" capability using UAT
microphone check. ·
Vl ADS~B "out" capability using VDL Mode 4
► Ifthe letter 'R1 is tised,' the performance-based navigation levels that can V2 ADS-B "out" and "in" capability using VDL Mode 4
be met ,are specified in· Item 18 following the·indicator PBN/. Guidance
ADS-C
mat~rial on the application of performance-based navigation to ·a , . · Dl ADS-C with FANS 1/A capabilities
specific route segment, route or area is contained in the Performance- G l ADS-C with ATN capabilities
based Navigation (~BN) Manual (Doc 9613). Alphanumeric characters not indicated above are re er ed .
► If the letter Z is used, specify fn Item 18 the other equipment carried Fxample: ADE3RV/HB2U2V2Gl
265
264
- - · ..... V"'\L. , ..... l"'\Yl\..:l>\I IUN
. AdclitionaJ surveillan · , ...:..., •·

u1d1cato r SUR/ ce application should be listed in Item 18 fi 11 · b FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITORING .:.. AERO PLANES
• oowmgte '
CJ ITEM .&3: DEPARTURE AERon . . . ·. d . h h l VFR
I 'SERT the ICAO f _ I R~ME AND TIME (B CHARACTERS) . ', / ·- ,figures (e.g. \f0840), or for uncontrolle •VFR fig ts, t e etters :
•s 'fi oui - etter locauon indicat f h ·; , '. : - ·(c,) Rou _ te (including changes of spe_ed , level and/or flight rules)_., Flights along
.t sp ec1_ 1ed in Doc 79 I 0, Location Ind' . or~- t e departure aerodron-1e i' d l d
bee n assigned , 1ca tors, OR, if no location indicator hao t ·•,··., · •designated ATS routes INSERT, 1f t~e departure aero rome 1s ocate ~n or
~ connected to the ATS route, the designator of the·first ATS route, OR, if the
INS ERT ZZZZ and SPECIFY · I - departure aerodrome is not on or connec.-ted to the ATS route; the letters DCT
aerodrome preceded by DEP; , ' in tem l S, th e name and location of the . ,, , _ 'followed by the point ofjoining the first ATS route, followed by the designator
OR, the first point of th _
th
\f -~t; ·, , ;
.· 9f the ATS route. , .
!) EP! .. ., if the aircraft has no~~{::teffofit e rnarker radio beacon preceded by· _,. ·: · :.:s!<_ ., ·:~•,0-:/_:_'FHEN INSERT each ~oint at which either a change of speed and/or level is
is . . d fi . o rom the aerodr OR . • i..-•v .• ·,, r , d ch f fli h l
recei " e rom an aircraft in flight, ome, , 1f the fligb t plan.,· J 1 :~·?piarined·to ·commence~ or ~t change of AT:S route, an /or a ange o g t ru es
INSERT AFIL, and SPECIFY. . . .- j'/ plannea;, ' .- . . ·
1. d . Of tl . ' m Item 18 the !CAO c d A• S d
- · ,,.When a tr.ai_isiti~n _is planned b~twe~n ~ lower_ an uppe~ _n T route an
·. ,· .- . '
~ icator ie _locat1011 of the ATS unit from ; . iou r-letter; location
d ,Ha can be obtamed, p receded by DEP/ . hich supp lementary flight plan he'.r'o1:1tes are 'onented m the same d1recuon, t~e pomt of trans1t1on need not be
THEN , WITHOUT A SPACE -~er'te~. ' \ . .
INSERT for a ff I I '. . . ' FOLLOWED IN EA:CH ~.€ASE \:>y the designator of the next ATS route
time (EOBT , OR fci g itflp_anhsubmittedbefore departure tlie es timat •d ff. bl ·gJrient, even if the same as the previous one, OR .b y per, if the flight to the
O
or es timated._"time over
' or the
a igfi stt_ plan · d fr om an aircraft
. rec etve ' - ock
in flight,e the actu . .. ·· w1·11 b e outs1'de a d ~s1gpate
· po~nt
_xt- · ,, d .route, _µn 1ess b o th p~:nnts
· are define db y
0 ITEM 15: ROUTE r pomt of the route to which the flight p l li al eographical coordinates.
. an app es, _ . , _ , .
INSERT the first cru~in '.:T s eed as.
/I.,/. flights ou~ idt: designate9- ATS-routes INSERT poin~ n9TIDal~y not more
wirh uur a space between the: ~HEN 1; (a) a_nd the first cruisi ng level as in (b) fJry~p ~O minutes flying _ time or. 370_km (200 NM) apa-r:i, including e~ch point ~t
d escri ption as in (c). · ' ollowmg th e arrow, I NS ERT the rout; ,,•,y,-h~ch.-a change -of speed or level, <'.! change of:, track, or a change of flight rules 1s
pl<!J1ned .
(,1j Crui si ng speed (·m aximu1n r; ch ·
aracters) INS ERT th '11
.J . , OR, when required by appropriate ATS authority(ies}, DEFINE the track of
fi rst or tne whole cruisino- portion of th ·f·l . h . e rue airspeed fo r th e
. b e 1g t, m terms of: >flights operating predominantly in an east-west directfon between 70°N and 70°S
Kiloc:1etres per hou1; expressed as K followed by 4 figures (e.g. K0830) or ?Y refe rence to significant points formed by the intersections of half or whole
degrees oflatitude with meridians spaced.at intervals of 10 de.g rees oflongitude.
Knots, e xpressed as N followed by 4 figur es (e.g. N 0485), or . ' ', For fligh ts operating'in areas outside those latitudes the tracks shall te- defined by
True Mach number, when so p rescribed b h . ,., significant points formed by,the intersection of parallels oflatitude with meridians
the nearest hundredth o( . M h Y t e approp -;--1ate ATS authority, to ·1:ior mally spaced at -~0• degre·es 'of 11:>ngitude: The distance between significant
M082). umt ac , expressed as M fo llowed by 3 figures (e.g.
:points shall, as far as; possible! not · exceed one hour's flight time. Additional
(b) Cruising level (maximu.rr. 5 h significant points shall be estabJ~hed as ·deemed necessary. .
for tl 1e first or th e wh l ·, ~ ar_afcters). INSERT the p lanned cr uising level For flights -operating pTedominantly in a north-south direction, define tracks
. o e portion o the route to be flown, in terms of:
Flight level exp d Ft· · by reference to significant pointsforpied by·the -intersection of w:hole degrees of
,,. . , ' r~sse as ' oilowed by 3 figures (e.g. F085; F330), or longitude with sp~'dfi.ed ·parallels'oflatitude.which are spaced at 5 ciegrees.
Standard metric level in t f . .
(e.g. SI 130), .or Altitude i l ~ns o metres, expressed as SJollowed by 4 fig ures -INSERT DCT: between:·successive 1 points. unless both points are .defined by
(e.g. A045; AIOO), or Al ? ~m . reds of ~ee_t, expr,essed as ,4. follo wedby 3 figures -geographical coordinates·_or by bearing and distance. USE ON LY the conventions
titu e m tens of metres, expressed as M followed by 4 in (1) to (5) below an.d ·SBPARA'I'Eeach sub-item by a s-eace.
266 l) ATS Route(~ to 7 characters). The coded desi_g nator assigned to the x;oute or
PART I - GENE~~ NAVIGATION
route segmen t including, where a . -- -

to the standard departure o; a Pf>I~?nate, the coded designator ,assigned .
KODAP2A).
-
!"n v _ r oute (e.g. BCN I , B,l, Rl 4, UBlO",
- FLIGHT PLANNiNG AND MONITO R.ING - AERO PLANES
Examples: LN VFR , LN/N0284A050 IFR

. S) cruise Climb (maximum 28 c~aracte~s). T~e l~tter C fo llowed by an obliqu e
-, stroke; THEN th e point at which cruise climb 1s planned to start , expressed
2) Significant Point (2 to 11 ch· aracters)
- _- - , d d d ... ,- ., exactly as in (2) above, followed by an oblique stroke; ~HEN the speed to be
• · Thee · - --
a.'ISlgned_to the point (e. g. LN·, MAY· HADri e - e~ignator (2 to 5 characters) _ ' maintained du r ing cr uise climb, exp ressed exactly as m (a ) above , followed
been assigned, cme of th e folio . , - Y), or, if-no coded.designator has · by the two levels defining the layer to be occupied during ~uise c!imb'. each
"'110g J,Yays: _ level e xpressed exactly as in (b) above, or the level above which cru ise c\11nb 1s
Degrees only (7 characters)· 2 fi , - . . - .
"S" planned foilowed by the letters PLUS, without a space between them.
followed by "N" (North) o r
longitu de -in degrees, follo~ed ~ ..
correct number of fi~res h y
~~ii
s !'1res_ d escnbmg latitude in ·degrees,
follow~? b:, 3 figures describing
ast) or W (We~t). Make up .the
Examples: C/48N05 0W/M082F290F350, C/48N 050W!M082F290PLUS .
C/52N050W/M22 0F5B0F620.
4 6N078W. • w ere necessary, by insertion of zeros, e.g.
O ITEM 16: DESTINATION AERODROME AND TOTAL ESTIMATED
Degrees and m i_nutes_(11 characters) · ; . . . ELAPSED TIME, DESTINATION ALTERNATE AEROl'ROM-r;:(S)
d egrees an d ten s and u n ·t· ( . _, _. 4 fi gm_-es descnbmg lati tude in Destination aerodrome and total estimated elapsed time (8 characters).
(S ou th), followed b 5 fi l s ~ rmn~t~s followed by "N" (North) or "S"
, d Y gures descnbmg longit d · d INSERT the I CAO four -letter location indicator of the destination aerod rome
an u nits ofmin utes, followed b . "E"(E . u e m egrees and tens as specified in Doc 7910, Location Ind icator s, OR, if no location indicator has
" W" (W: , ._ . _ . _ Y _ast) or
- eS t). Make up the correct' number 0· ffi · · been assigned, INSERT ZZZZ and SPECI FY in Item 18 th e n ame an d location of
insertion of zeros; e .g. N W. l~res, where necessary, by the aerodrome, p receded by DEST / . T HEN WITHOUT A SPACE INSERT the
4 620 07805
B·e a rin g and distance from a refere . . total estimated elap sed time .
reference point, followed b th b n~e _pomt: T he id~nti_fication of the
3 fi gures:' ··vin de e· y e . eanng from the pomt m the form of For a flight plan received from an aircr aft in flight, the total estimated elapsed
p oint in '&e fo~ fr 3esfi~gnettc, foll?wed by the distance from the time is the estimated tim e from the first point of the route to which the fligh t plan
applies to the ter mination point of the flight plan.
h igh latitu de where it is ~gures ~xpressmg n autical ~iles. In areas of
~frenceti degrees.magn: : ~ :i,~:i':,"J':;:: :;::~yo:yu'.~:'
1
a e -up t e. correct number: of figures where necessary b -

1
. .
Destination alternate aerodrome(s).
INSERT the ICAO fo ur-letter location indicator(s) of not more than tw o
.
of zer os
from VOR, ;~Ju;
.
·
s ou
180
0 • '- , •
e expressed as DUB180040.
, Y msertlon
fohmt, Id. b magnetic at,a distance of 40 nautical miles
destination alternate aerodromes, as specifie d in Doc 7910, L ocatio n Indicators.
separated by a spate, OR, if no location indicator h as b een assigned to the
destination alternate aerodr ome(s), IN SERT ZZZZ and SPEC IFY in lte rn \ 8 th e
3) Change of speed or ·level (maximum' ·21 characters) The point at which a
name and location of the destination alternate aerodrome(s), preceded by ALT N .
change of speed (5% TAS or 0.01 -Mach or more) or a change oflevel is la d
: ~~o;:e~ce, exp~essed exactly as in (2) above, followed by an obliqde s~:~e OITEM1 8:OTHERINFORMATION
and ;) ~ e crui_smg speed and the cruising level, expressed exactly as in (a) Use of indicator s not included under this item may result in dala being
uant 't · a ovlel ,bw1thhout a space between them, even when only one of these rejected, pro cessed incorrectly or lost. Hyphen s or obliqu e strokes should only be
q 1 tes w1 e c anged. used as prescribed below.
!~tr}e;; 1:~N~2 8 4A045, MAY/N0305Fl80, HADDY!N0420F330, 4602N07805W!
5 ' 6 0 7BW/M082F3J0, DUBJ80040/N0350M0840
INSERT O (zero) if n o other info rm atio n , OR , any oth er necessarv
information in the sequence shown he reunder, in the form of th e ap proµ ri atc
Change of indicator selected fro m those defined h ereu nd er fo\\o,~ed by :r n obh q\1e str okt·
4) ch f .flight ru fes (maximum· 3 characters). The point at which the
ange ~ lli}ih t rules is pla nned, expressed exactly as in (2) or (3) above as and the informatio n to be recorded:
appr~p nate , ollowed by a space and one of the following:
V FR if from lFR to VFR, !FR -if from VFR to IFR I
,,
l
STS/ Reason for special handling by ATS , e .g . a search and r escue missio n . " ~
169
268
FLIGHT PLAN""ING AND MONITORING :.:.,AERO_Pl:ANES
oll w :
ALTRV: for a fli rht . . ~PECIFICATidNS t ,
g operated m accorda ·h . .·
ATFMX · fi01. . . nee w1t an altitude reservation; .. ·''.
a flight approved for e . , - S2 RNP APCH with BARO-VNAV
·
appropriate ATS authority; xempt:on from ATFM measures by th~ · Ll RN·P 4 .
· E>J,_B·asic RNP 1 all per.mitted Tl RNP AR,APCIJ with·RF
FFR: fire-lighting; , (special author-~zation_requircd) -
'. sensors ,
. ''F2:RNP AR APCH witliou.t RF
FLTCK: flight check for calibration of navaids· : 02 1Basic-RNP l GNSS
(special authorization required)
.. 03 Basic RNP I DME/DME
1-J AZMAT: for a flight carrying hazardous mat:ria1 ·
04 BasicRNP l DME/DME/IRU
H EAD: a 01ght with Head of State status · '
SI RNP APCH
HOSP: for a medical flight declared by m, d'cal h ..
~ 1
aut onaes ·
.· Com· · b,mat1ons
· · · of a1·phanu~e;ic . ~h~~~~ter~
. ~ot indicated
. above are,reserved.
H UM: for a flight operating·on a -human1'tar1·an . . '
m1ss10n· ·
MARSA: for a flight for which a T ' . , ' . ' ; NAY/ Sigt1ifkantdata.related1to,navig~tion i~wipm<:t1F, other th~ specific~ in
separation of military aircraft; • mt ttary enuty assumes respo_nsibility for. 11..ri·. • db the•appropriateATS authonty.Jn~c;ate. GNSS.augmentatlon
P' 'iathis~e1~d~e t y,wt' th
. a•· •s p·a· ce·betweehtwo:ormore methods of
d er s 1n wa or; ,·. · , , . . · . augmentation,
.
MEDEVAC: fpr a. life critical medical emergency ·ev . , t NA.V/6BAS S.BAS. .·
. actJatton; , .
NONRVSM: for a -non-RVSM ca abl n· . . . .• ,,"'. COM/ Indi~te co~m~nications,,tpplic,ati~t;1s ,or capabilities not specified ,in
airspace; P e ight mtendmg to operate in RVSM- . ' r' . . ,
IJem 10 a) . · '-.-. ., ,,, _ , ,; . . - . ,
SAR : for a flight engaged in a search and rescue mission- and DAT/ Indicate data applications QT capabjli~ies not specifj.ed in LO a).
STATE · for a flight en
.
cl · ·i· '
;,gage m m1 Hary, customs or police ser vices. SU~ Ind4de,survehia~ce·~ppli~~ti~~s ,~r:~p~bilities,.not specified in Item
Other reasons for spe::ial handlin b · · 1 .0 b).
designator RMKJ. g Y ATS s.hall be denoted under the
DEP/ Name ~d locatioJ?-_of demu:_:tµr_e -aer.odr9_~ e,. if Z'{.ZZ is inserted in Item
PHN/ Indication of RNAV a cl/ RNP ... 'rn, or the ATS unit from whi~ ,WPP~~Illf1\~n' f!ight,plan.9ata can be obtaintd, if
0
desc.Tiptors below as apply to the~ ~: capab1~t1es. InclucJe as many of the AFIL is inserted in Item 13. Foraeroiliomes·not listed in the relevantAeron~utical
of Jlot more tha n , g , up to a maximum of 8 entries, i.e. a total Information Publiciti~11, indial~{l~61'.ti~n ;{s ·follows: With' 4 figu~es describing
latitude in degrees and tens and units of niinutes followed by "N" (North) or "S"
RNAV SPECIFICATIONS
(South), followed by .5' figures·describing·longitude;in degrees and tens and units
of minutes, followed by,,"E't :i · ·
Al RNAV 10 (RNP 10)
B5 RNAV 5 INS or IRS DME/DME/IRU (East) or "W" (West).·Ma_k eup thecorrectn~mb~r of figures, where necessary;
B I RNAV 5 all
B6 RNAV 5 LORANC D1 RNAV l all by insertion of zeros, e:g . 4620N07·805W (11 c~racters). · ·
p e r mitted ,ensors
Cl RNAV 2 all permitted sensors OR, Bearing-and·'d1st.ance from-the: nearest· significant point; as follows:
B2 RNAV 5 GNSS
permitted sensors D2 RNAV 1 GNSS
B3 RNAV 5 DME/DME The identification of the sigl}ificant 'pblnt follow~d ,by· the b~aring, from the
C2 RNAV 2 GNSS D3 RNAV I DME/
B4 RNAV 5 VOR/DME point in the fonwof 3r·figures· giving degrees magn"<?tic, followed by the distance
C3 RNAV 2 DME/DME DME from the pointin tlie :formr_of ,3.figiiresiexpressing:nautical ·miles. lri areas of high
C4 RNAV 2 D4 RNAV 1 DME/ latitude where it'. is determined by- the appropriate authority ,that reference to
DME/IRU deg:r.ee~ mag~·\e.!if.is irr,tRractical, ~degi_-ees ~rue ~y be used. Make up ~e correc~
number of figures, wh_ere ·necessary, ,PY t~sert:Ion_of zeros, . e,.g. a .pomt .of. l~O
210
271
PART I ~ GENERAL N
. . AVIGATION
magnetic at a distan ce of 40 .
FLIGHT PLANNING AND MON ITORIN G - AERO PLANES
as _D VB 180040. OR nautical rniles from V " " .
marker radio bea ' ':['he first..point of the OR DUB should bee ~-
con, if the aircraft h . route (name or LAT/LON "Ptesst!( p£R/ Aircraft perfo rma_nce_ data, in? icate<l b_y a single letter as sperifte<l in
I tem DEST/ T:-
Nam e and location of d as.. not• taken off fro m _a n aerodrome G) or th
t procedures c
1or r a~1gatto n S erv1ces-:-- Ai rcra ft O
Ai' N ·
. perat10ns (PANS-O'PS,
1
16 · ror· aerod esttnatton a · ·d · ~ - . 8 16 8), _Volume I - Flight Procedures, if so prescnbed by the ap prop riate
Publication, indicat/~:=~ no~ · list~d 'in 'the rel:::n:o;e, ·if zzzz 'is inserted .
st 0
,~;-s authori ty.
near~ significant point,:as ~:i~~~NGD~r bearin;r:nn:~t~n~:f;matio; ALTN/ Name of destination alternate aerod rome(s), if ZZZZ is inserted in
OF/ The date of fli h . · ;er EP/ ~~ove. ·. . orn the ·r ltt'rn 16. For aerodromes not listed in the relevant Aeronautical Information
YY equals the year, MMe~ utaJ~epanure in1a six::figure ,form t . · ½. l'tiblication,. indicate ~ocation in 0TI_LONG or bearing and distance from the
REG/ Th . . 1 . th e month an d DD equal ;; (Y¥MMDD, where -~ carest sigmficant pomt, as described m DEP/ above.
if d 1'ffi e n ationality or , s e d?y). , ' t . n . . . .
erent from the 'air fi . com~on ·mark and regist . · ~- RALT/ ICAO four letter mcl1cator(s) for en-route alternate(s), as specified in
1
EET./ Si . . er~ t _~enti:fication -in I tem :7. r:atto~ mark of the aircraft; '. ; l(, < boc 79 IO, L~cation Indicators, or name(s) of e?-rou~e alternate aerodrome(s( if
estimat dJ, J ~ tfica!1t- points qr FIR, b , . . · . ::ft, .Jlo indieator 1s allocated. For aerodromes not hsted m the relevant Aeronautical
so pr e .; a~sed : tunes,,froin, take-off t ~un clary•'?es1gnators and accum 1 , ,: }, ,, :,.)ri'formatibn Publication, indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and distance
app esc_n ed on th'cf :'· basis :,0 £ reaio
ropriate ATS author·
i°
~uch P?tnts or FIR boundaries u ahte?_· ,i "·'· fiom:.'the nearestisignificant point, as described in DEP/ above.
o· na iair -navigation . a • w en . ·;,. ,. _, . . .
Exam le .. . . . Jty. greements, or by the·~ ·}. , ,.,/. · TALT / !CAO f?ur letter md1cator(s) for take-off alternate, as sp_ecifi~d i~ D0c
'P :s. -EE.1'/CAP07.45 XY. . Z0830; EET/EIN. , ·\'/·· -~ 7~.-.10, L_ocat10n IndICators, or,nam~ of ta~e-off alternate aerodrom_e, if no md1cator
SEUSELCAL Code £ . _N02 04, .~ , ~· · is aU?ca~ed. ~or _aerodrorrI:es n_ot listed m the relevan~ Aeronau~1cal Inlormauon
TYP , ~- _, ... ' ,_ or ~ craft so equipped. · . ;. :':", ·pubhcati?n,. md1cate !ocat.Jon m !-AT(LONG or beanng and distance from the
of . 1/ Type(s) of aircraft,. preceded if . . . , · i•', nearest s1gmficant pomt, as descnbed m DEP/ above.
ai rcraft.a nd·separated•b "
Exa le · ·
mp · TYP/2F15 5F5 3,,82
. necessary without a s a b
Y one space, 1fZZZZ is inserted in It~mce Y number(s)
9· · '
:1.
. . . . . . . .
RIF/ The route d~ta1l_s to. the revised destmat1on aerodro1:11e, tollow:d by :he
JCAO fot,1r-lette~ location md1cator of the aerodrome. The revised route 1S subject
· ..~~0:t1Aircr~ft .id dress ( , .. . ,, . , , . .t o. i;epearance in fligh t.
5tx 'hexadedmai ch"aiacters exp~;sse~ 1 -~he for m of an alphanumerical c
<;>f P . : :,; ; .. '. Exampl,es: RIF!DTA HEC KL.AX, RIF/ESP G94 CL.A YP PH
t,xamf~: '''FOO(}()]" iJ t&lowest~i:t1addreqmred
vy / CA O. · . . . ".I'
~r th~ appropriate ATS autho~1ye
ress contained the specific hwck adm.in••te d.
in RMKJ Any other plain-language remarks when required by the aprropriate
. , "" re ATS authority or deemed necessary.
. DLE/Enroute delay -o; hoJd' · . . . t, O ITEM 19: SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
where a delay is plann~d to. occ~;~~~nsertdthbe s1gruficant point(s) on the route 1
figure time in hour_s and nu.nutes (h,hmmow)_e y the length of delay using four- t Endurance. After Fl INSERT a 4-figure group giving the fuel endurance in
1
, hour~ and minutes.
Example: DLE/MDGOOJO . .
Persons on board. After P/ INSERT the total number of persons (passe ngers
OPR! . and crew)' on board, when required by the appropriate ATS autho rity. I SERT
TCAO d~signator or name . f h · .
from the aircraft identification in it o7 t e·aircraft operat:mg agency, if different . TBN (to be notified) if the total number of person s is not know n at the time ()f
. ,. , em .
filing.
_O~ GN/Th~ originaior!s B.l~tter-~ FTN ~d
details, m cases where.the.originator of ff th" t
~ess or other appropnate contact
as required. by the appropriate }).TS auth:rili. t p an may.not be readily identified,
.
''
Emergency and survival equipment. R/ (RADIO) CROSS OUT l if UHF on
· frequency 243.0 MHz is not available. CROSS O UT V if VHF on fre<tuency 12 l ..5
In some areas·• flight I • . .

and o rigin a tor's AfTN .dPd ao re~~P~°,n__centres may insert the ORGN/ identifier
If ,. MHz is not available. CROSS OUT E if emergency locator transmitter (ELT) 1s
not available.
a ress a utomatically. •
[' S/(SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT) . CROSS O UT all indicato rs if survival
272
·1i' ' 273
,,
0
PART I • GENERAL NCl.illGATION -,_ ,_. :•<·.; :1±~•,'.:::-::-::::f!F:Ll:G:HT!P:~:;NN;
•. : . •.·~IN=:'~G!j,~A~l]t,,~:D
4 ,~-~~p~~
-~~~;f'l~
.i]o~
->i'PJ~
.~N~ .rG~-~A~=_EPi~~::~::PLA
··:·=
~·:~=
-:~:
-:-=-: =
·;··~; -~-=
·-~--:J~
- -~I
equ,_
•
p meat is not carried. CROSS OUT p if polar survival equipment
.
i/ n.<>1 \·.• j:•) !. ;· i .' ·...,-:
. ~
can,ed • CROSS OUT D if desert survival equipment is not carried. CROSS O U'l'" ;.,,
1
·1,;: .:,-, '
M 'f manume survival equi ?ment is not carried. CROSS O VT J ifjungle survi vaf c.' · ·:
equipment
. 1s
.
not carried. · _,.... .,, ,'
JI (JACKETS) CROSS OUT all indicators if life jackets are not carried'.:
CROSS OUT L if !ife jackets are not e_q uipped with lights. CROSS OUT F iflife .\.
jackm are not equipped with fluorescein: CROSS OUT U or V or both as in R/ ·)\i
above to indicate radio capability ofjackets, if-any. · · · '
DI (DINGHIES) (NUMBER). CROSS OUT indicators D and C i(no dinghies _;.,_ ':~
are carried, or ·., ·.
TNSERT number of dinghies carried ; and
(CAPACITY) INSERT total capacity, in persons, of all dinghies carried;

a nd
(COV2R) C ROSS OUT indicator C if dinghies are not covered; and

(COLOUR) INSERT colour of dinghies if carried.
N (AI RCRAFT COLOUR AND ~fARKINGS)
I NSERT colour of aircraft and significant markings.
NI (REMARKS) CRO.SS OUT indicator N if no remarks, or INDICATE
an y other su r vival eguipnient carried and any other remarks regarding survival
equipment.
Cl (PTLOT) INSERT name of pilot-in-command.
plan. Filed by INSERT the name of the

· unit, agency or person filing the f1ight
Acceptance of the flight plan. Indicate accep~ance of the flight plan in the
manner prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority.
275
274
PAAT I. GENERAL NAVIGATION .
FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITORING -AERO PLANES
SOLUTION TO FLT PLAN
7. ICAO D · ·
es1gnator of flt isACF402 Questions
8. I FR, non schedule ..
9. Airbus 300, heavy.
10. Standard c . ·· · True cour.se (TC) 0170, W/V 340°130kt, True air syeed (TAS) 420kt Find: Wind
I 3. ~sterd:m· off.perbatJng on modes A & C; correction angle (WCA) and ground speed (GS)
, o - lock time 0940 . .
a) WCA +2°, GS 396k~
15. 830 kms /hr, F 290. SID LEK· 2·B
to XMM h - .
W ere there is chang
:
f
. .
to s1g pt LEK I
· ·
.
~ -· .
.
a ong ATS route DA 6
f;
,j
b) WCA-2°, GS 426kt
along UA6to PON (Pont~is~) ~o sbeed toO. 78 niach & F3~0.continu , c) ·WCA-2°, GS ,396kt
VA5 to NTS ~ '· en RION to-CHW(Chartres) and e .Q2. You are flying a constant heading of 252°. Variati >n is 2211E, deviation is 3°W
(Nantes),Direct to 461 IN 004 . . ·. and your INS is showing a drift of 98right. The t r ~e track is?
5 .to ITM <i;:~tim~)\tbence
16. Lisbon totaLEET 2 h "3'0 . .
~ia~i~D;~;::M·to
STG_(~ant!ago) along UA
IA to Li:5bqn
a) 280°
b) 224°
18 . EET FIR b t6a· rs . m1ns LPPR {Porto) is alter nate c) 242°
FBVGA oun ary Lisbon is 0l'hr 58 mins AC . . .
·· .· registrauon 1s
Q3. A twin-jet aero plane carries out the X-Y flight. '\\1hen it reaches point K (3S"N.
SELCA.L code is E JF L. 048°W) a non-mechanical event makes the Captain consider rerouting to one
19. Endurance 3hrs and 4S • p
c~rried is MHF, VHF•an:1t{r. :so~ on boa~d 300. Emergency radio
-1 of the three following fields. The flight conditiom are:
- from K to A (distance 847NM, headwind comp ~inent= 18kt)
board. Lift jacke·ts carrie-d on boar~ntnn~ surv1v~ equipment is on
- from K to B (distanceU12NM,_tailwind component....: 120\c:)
a~e I I covered dinghies are on
b~ar::t~hhted and flu~rescen t. There
- from K to C (distance 883NM,.wind componen.:= 0)
aircraft -is white;,cap•~: . D k
wun 1s - en e. , ic are yellow m colour of
t With an aero plane true airspeed of 460kt, the fi •·· ld selected will be thnt more
rapidly reached:
. . . ....•••
. ••··•·····.. ······ .. ·········•........................... _
................... ........... ................... ...................... .
a) B
b) A
c) Aor C, orB
Q4. On a given path, it is possible to choose between four flight levels (FL), each
associated with a mand,a tocy flight Mach Numbtr (M). The fight conditions,
static air temperature (SAT) and headwind coru·,onent (HWC) are given
below:
FL 370; M= 0.80; Ts= -60°~; HWC= -15kt
FL 330; M= 0.78; Ts= -60°C; HWC= -Skt
FL,190; M= 0.80; Ts= -55°C; HWC= -15kt
FL 270; M= 0.76; Ts= -43°C; HWC= 0kt
The flight level allowing the highest ground speed is:
a) FL 270 b) FL 330 c) FL 290
276 277
! i'ART I • GENERAL NAVIGATION
QS. How many f'ee ( you have to .
FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITORING -AERO PLANES
elevation-= 1SOfl ft QNJi - chrnb to reach FL 75? De ,,
a) 6000 ft -1023 hPa. Temperature= parture aerodrome
Th b) 6600 ft ISA. t hPu == 30 ft. , ~'Qll• Wben ,iln ATS flight plan has been submitted for a controlled flight, the Olgbt
Q6. e measured ,·ourse 0420 T T • c) 6300 ft , plan s~ould be amended or canceled ln the event of the off-block time being
calm. The deviation is 40 • be vanation in the area . o . delayed by l
compass headinu of· W. In order to follow this c ts 6 W and the Wind is , a) 30 minutes or more
a) 0520 ~ • . ourse, the pilot must fly a
b) 60 minutes or more
b) 05go
Q7. You are to determine th . c) 0440 c) 90 minutes or more
following conditions: e maximum fuel load wh'fch can b . . _-Q13, Unless otherwise shown on charts for standard Instrument departure routes
d . e carried m the
- ry operating mass: 2.800kg . the routes-are given with:
-trip fuel: 300kg a) magnetic course
-payload: 400kg ' .-·b) true headings
-maximum take-o!f mass: 42O0k C) magnetic headings
-maximum I d'1 g '
•, ., QI4. :A flight plan ls requited .ta be filed.by:
an ~g mas~: 37OOk
a) 800kg g , : a) Any'flight "Vith in advisory airspace
b) 1000kg ,. , , ' b) Only IFR flights within controlled airspace
c) 1800kg
QB. ':he still air dista,ace in the clim .
\j~:: __ · ·
•• f .. ' . '
c) Any IFR or VFR flight'~ith in controlled airspace
,, ,} -~ QlS,_A flight plan can be sublllltted:
hme JO minutes. '.Vbat ground
aj l93NM
d~:: .
189 N autical Air Miles (NAM) and the
ance would be covered in a 30kt headwind?
·.~ /
·- /
_-
;
1
a) 30 days before·EOBT
b) 24 hrs before ETD
.. . ~·-"''!.. . / .. , ,( -- ..
b) 174NM ,,, • ,; ' c) 120 hrs before EOBT
c) l88NM '
} . , · :·Qt~. Letter Win ITEM 10,of filght plan indicates.
QY. A n airJield elevati-m of 900 ft d . •' ":'. · a) RVSM approved
aerodrome press~ 1·e altitude: an a QNH of 1019 hPa, determine the .
b) Weather Radar,on board
. ~
a) 750 ft
·
Ql0. A t an airfield h
b) ft no c) 780 ft .
c) Route designator in India.
w e,·e the Relative Humidity ls lti h • .Q17. To Indicate to ATC that you ,are evacuating a critically injured on board,
following will be added in b.ox 18 of flight plan form
:) ;here will be no chang~ inperfonnance of the air!ra~
a) STS ; .
) ake-0 ff performance of an aircraft will be e h ed
c) Th limb .. n anc b) PANMED
ec perfor.11ance of an aircraft will be degrad d
c) MEDEVAC
Qll. In order to Take-Off an aircra . . . e ,. , .,
at least 15 Kts. Thc•:naximum ft/eq~1res_. a Ru~way Hea~wind Component of Q18, An aircraft, followtng·._ 11!0 true track;.must ny over a 10600ftobstacle with
The Runway in use is 09 imd tl ~~~e:_cro~s Wind'eomponent (s '30 Kts. a minimu~ obstacle clearance of 1500ft; Knowing the QNH received from an
maxfo1um wind spt eds tbat will ll irection is 1300. The minimum and alrpo_rt close by, whlch.is almost at sea-level, is 1035 and the temperature is
a) 46 and 25 kts a ow take-off are: ISA-15°C, the minimum ftlght level will be: ·
b) 20 and 46 Kts c) 25 and 46 Kts a) 140 b) 130 c) 120
278
179
----· -··-·-
. ' ,. NNING AND MONITORING - ~Ef:O .P\.ANES

PA:RT.1 ·-·GENE~l"NAVIGATION . I FLIGHTP~ -- ·
• , . . , lao·ror a night com:nenclng under IFR but
Q19. ·~eh :~clilafufg the·fueLrequired.to carry out' a gfven·.fllght, one must take . •Q~, -~ ~en eompletlng an ATS ru:h:e~ers·'entered in.Item 8 (FLIGR1' RULES)
·:intiiaccount:· v j ~ , • • • •• , • •
·~> .: ~.
·possi~ly clilinglng,to VFR, t e .
1: the wind -, wc,uld be:
2: foreseeable airborne delays ~) , ¥ ,.. ' ' ' j
3. other ,v~ther forecasts · b) X

4. any foreseeable conditions which may delay Iandirig· -' "/ · ) G " d " th
•. . •.. ,, - c . Ired to Indicate In the box marked spec c
The combination of correct statements ls: • . QZ5 On a flight plan you are requ b . e or for t.1e entire cruise. Thb
a) 1, 2, 3, 4 -:- : ~. . . planned speed for the fint part oft e cru1s
b) l, 2, 3 · speed is:
c) J, 3 a) The indicated airspeed
b) The true airspeed
Q20, The fuel b~rn off is 200kg/h with a relative fuel density of 0.8. If the relative c) The estimated ground speed
density is O. 75, the fuel burn 'will be: ' . . . . , .
;., :· ;, ' 26 The maximum permissible take-off '?ass of an airer aft for the L wake
a) · 200kg
0
b) 26.7kg
:· ,. .? .·
~~ turb~lcnce category on a night plan is:
; a) 7000kg
c) 188kg
b) 5700kg
Q21. In the ATS flight plan item 10 (equipment), the letter to indicate the carriage
c) 10000kg , d
of a serviceable transponder- mode A (4dJgits- 4096 codes) and mode C, is: 1 form corres;,onding to the estimate
h
a) C Ql,7. In the appropriate box of a mg_ !
p an ' hi h the aircraft intends to:
time of departure, the time indicated is that at w \.
b) A
,,, a) start-up
c) p
b) pass the departure beacon
Q22. Jn the.ATS flight plan item 19, emergency and survival equipment carried on c) go off-blocks
the fight should be indicated by: f concerning equipment, the letter
Q28. In the appropriate box of a filg~t plan . onn., d 'th a mode A4096 codes
a) circling the relevant box to be used to indicate that the aircraft is eq~ipp_e Wl
b) crossing out the box relevant to any equipment not carried transponder with altitude reporting capability is:
' 'l ' '
c) listing the items carri~ on Q!,e :•RE~ ARKS 11 line a) A
Q23. Item 9 of the ATS flight plan includes "NUMBER AND TYPE OF b) C
AIRCRAFT". lo this case "NUMBER" means:
a) the JCAO type designatornumber as set in ICAO Doc 8643 c) S dicato1 in the appro-ptiate bo:t of
Q29. If your destination airp~rt has no ICAO ln '
b) the registration number of the aircraft your flight plan, you wnte:
c) the number o/;ircraft fiyini in a
. . .· J •
,
.
gr;up .
.)
a) ZZZZ
/ ' . b) AAAA
c) :XXXX
181
280 ·
P..\RT 1.- GENERAL NAVIGATION
is ~ohave
Q30. You .d a
ru g.,t
i _ plan I FR from Amsterdam to Lond~n.,In. ,th~ ·Oigbt.plan .it
te that you will deviate from .the ~TS route passlng the bound F'IR
·.
Amsterdam/London. . ary
The airway cl~.rance reads: Cleared to London via fUght pla d i-:· '
Which of the following statements Is correct? nne route. ' t_,· _./ .;
,1 -.,.,· .
a) The route according to the flight plan is accepted

b) It is not allo~ed to file such a flight plan
c) The filed deviation is not a~cepted ,
Answers
Q: l 2 3 4 5 (j 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
PART II
A: C a C a C a a b· b C b a a C b a C a a a
Q: 21
A: a
22 23 : 24 . ~5- . 26 -27 28 29 .30
b C a b
,
a C b a a
AIRCRAFT
'INSTRUMENTS
281
Jt Ill It
s
AIR DATA SYSTEMS PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
.,.,
P.A.RT II - AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
1" 1.h i · c I • . ·.· •: ;_ : d • the pilot and co-pilot displays, with compariaon
. ' . . , _e m, _r 1e, impact air pressure (air striking the airplane because of . : , . . , ·) Separate systems to rive .
:. t >. \, .l . •1:1or10n) ~s taken from a pitot tube, which is mounted in locations th~t ·. ,•. ·j ·.. a : "t11onitoring between both systems,
: H <' lL k
l r J ll h the ummum air Thd 1sturba ~ ,. ..· ·.' ,. ·;:_
. nee obr l~rbu Ience c~used by the motion of the airplane . ·, . .) Self-test circuits; and .
· e pi tot tu e 1s a ram air pressure-sensing devi ll ·· · ~;_ r. -b · · · · ·
·'. ,_, ume I near the leadin ed e of the wing and connected h bc\usufahy \.-.' .~-~_'-:_. ,·.,internal failure-monitonng circuits.
d w •( in ica b b to t e ac o t e , . ., c, . .
. .1 . ,, . tor casp Ya tu e. Due .to its location, the pitot tu e is susce tible '.f( tt·· ·
C ) fo 1 e, gn matter su:h as dirt, water and ice, Aircraft used for instrument ~i h :~. ,:': •. · 2, coMPONE~TS . . com onents:
, , , u. , It,\_·e a hea_ted _P• tot tube lo reduce the possibility ofice obstructing the int!k: /. :~ •. ., A basic _a ir data system consists of the followmg p d. b . raft All
. r , l. Because lorergn matter may enter the itot tube ilots h \:~,: .. ·. . . e ambient atmosphere surroun mg t e airc . . '
rn pect the pitot tube and test the heating el p t b £ ' p fli hs ould carefully • ··tr• ; , a)' Se11sors. Senso~s llleasur . .rts and temperature probe. More complex
emen e ore g t. .. ", •, , t ms use a pitot tube, static po ,
Tl · . · ·c t·": • ·. ~ys e f l of attack•sensor;
. . 1e statJ.c pressure port ts _normally found on the side of the fuselage. The f '.'-:, c',. ·.. Systems will also make use o an ang e d
ra'. '
pre ure (pressure of the still air) is usually taken from the static line attached . ;_f.;-' i· ·:··. . d Transducers convert the sense~ pressure, temperature, and
r, ;_i_ <:: r or vents mounted flush with the side of the fusela
.bl . . . ge. rrb 1s
· compensates ,.,<~._:, ::._:·t ,o.) Trans ucers.
1 to voltages sync ro
h out·Puts• or digital pulses.
all ffi The
· accuracy an
f the entire
,ran , poss1 e vanauon m static pressure due to ·erratic changes in airplane -r :,-/': _ang£es. :£ th~ crausducers govern the ·<>ver- e aency o
'trn udc . _R egardless of location, th~ port is always positioned s:, the plane of the ':·t ._;~c: :·. per on_nance o . .: . .
open ing '·. parallel to the relauve air flow. By comparison, the plane of the pitot f' s,·'_' system, d . d to p·erform a multitude of functions~
ur be o pening ,s nearly perpendicular to the relative wind. Computer. A computer can-be es1gne ., .
. O n later model_ aircraft, an alternate static source is provided either inside such as: .· d · ·· essure and corrected
i"' ,rn p n s ..rnsed aircraft_ only) or ou ide the cockpit. The pilot can select the 1. CalculatingTJ\S, mach numberocorrecte stanc_pr ,
e 1 • ·c, cn c · stauc s?urce 1f the main source becomes clogg d with ice etc. In outside air temperature, · .
'. Ir11, l. ' • tlrn .J tat!C port becomes blocked during flight, most aircraft have an 2. Originating correcti?n signals to tr~d11cers, ·
·a t -:r11.1te stauc source" sw!\ch in the cockpit that can be selected by the pilot. 3_ Driving displays,
. \\'J en the pilot selects the alternative source, the instruments relying on the 4. Supplying signals·tp·navigation computers,
"i tc uc pr sure 1:°day operate lightly differently because the cabj_n air pressure is 5. Controlling airdaft pressurii.atlon, and . · . d . f 1
• 1 •~• t ,an outs1 e air p1·essure due tc airflow over the cabin.
! 6 _ Providing i~pulS i:Q ' automatic flight control systems an engine ue
' -he altimeter (ALT) may indicate a higher-than-actual altitude. control units•.
J."' T he vertical speed indicator (VSI) will momentarily indicate a climb, 3. AIR DATA OUTPUTS
A complex air data system can supply a great number of output.;, manr
0f
/ tlt en will settle back the initial indication.

which may be electronic or mechanical variations•on the method of presenung
J T he · ·rspeed Indicator (ASI) will indicate greater-than-normal airspeed. · · ) S of the common outputs
one basic parameter of flight (e.g., staUc pressure ., ome
1
J.. , DATA SYSTEM are: _. . ·
: r , 1r data system utiliz~s the ·pi tot-static system and is found on more a, l'ressure Altitud.i. ·Sensed· static pressure· is corrected to pressure altitutle
..c pl ;_, 1 Led aircraft lt measures processes, and converts ae·; odynarnic and V based on the !CAO Standard Atmosphere;_
1 Jwd yn, mic sensarions into electrical-signals, synchro outputs, or digital codes.
. .. - .· ,_· ., ~ . · verted into the
b) ·Airspeed. May be . presente<:\ as md1cat~~ airspeed or c~n ·a1 vi· cntion
T l1· · '· tem may be used to activate differential r1ressure flight instn1ments . . , . . DR .. . Doppler and mertl na o;
true airspeed for use m , navtgauon or m . .· -
, n ·o pr ·icle information to numerous othe_r aircraft systems. It may incorporate
systems;
· rnr < · 1clL as:
281
186
PART II - AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AIR DATA SYSTEMS (PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS)
c) Air Density. Computed according Lo elementary gas laws and used for en · . ~lored to that particular aircraft type and is not suitable for use m the
controls; gine
tvpes;
~,
and
.
· d ·\
terror scale error is associate wit i
d} Mach-Number. Calculated from pitot and static pressures;
e) Air Temperature. Conected for frictional beating and air compression at th · p: ,
temperature probe; e .
a particular set of ~utude anerot s
aneroids of a parucular CADhC caali:1 de
t p:tp:t
b) Scale Error. Also refe~red to as m~~ru:~nvaries ~ith altitude. The individual
1 tt d for scale error. A conecti, e
signal is installed to minimiz
camshaft designed to correct t e . utu e o
f) AngJe of Atta~k. T~e angle of attack is attained by c~rrecting measured angle errors.
of attack for airspeed; and-
Errors specific to ASI and VSI:
g) Rate of ~ange-of Altitude~~ ~peed. May be calculated in the computer.
a] ASI: Hl -1 LO()) .
. P1TOT
•.P ~ - ~~ Density Error: Aircraft fl!ing from area1 of h\gh density to low den~n
will under- read. (Dynatn1c Pressure = ½p V ).
STATic· •. FU»fT COt,ITROt:
~ ~s For same IAS, TAS will increase, and Vice versa.
RAT£0,Cf-WtGE
·bility Error: Air is brought to rest in Pi tot tube and_is compre ~
OF8TAJrC _
·~
AUTOMATIC
-M.:rmJOE
~ORTINO il
C ompress1 . b
causing increase in total pressure (Pitot pressure) wh~c cause
ASI <: n e r
t. \
:T~A:R.. .. ·o,ws _read.It generally produces indicated airspeed rea~1~gs that are L io- '
~ ~ e-
L~E~r:_:·r~o:r_:i:s_::n:e.'.:gli:·:si_:b~le:_a=:_t:_a_T_AS_o_f_3_0_0_k_rs;...·o_r_h_el_o_w_an_d_is_i_g_n_o_re_d_ _ _ _ _ __
1
. P(MER .
-~ y NJT~
NRCfW'Jl'iPE b] VSI:
~q,,YMO · ~~ -~ER
...nJGkf. CHMH Transonic Jump: NC reaches close to Mach l :s~oc~ ~av~ cause tatic
.~ r m ~~?N. pressure to drop and , VSl shows a jump, (~0s1?ve. md1cat1 n_ h \ ':-\,, T
FOOKTDATA
close to the speed of sound). It is a brief false md1cat10n. occurrtn c
~R~- the time shock wave passes over static source . ·
INHERENT SYSTEM ERRORS: Central air data computers (CADC) are subject
to the foll wing errors common to all instruments:
a) Positio~ Error. This error varies with aircraft type and external configuration.
Flight tests are conducted •to.,.plot this error 'o n an -airspeed, altitude, and
ronfiguration curve. The computer . manufacturer- designs a corrective
mechanism or electrical circuit to ~orr~ct t~ s~?ti~~pressure elec;trical signal
/n
being uppliea to aiJ ' instruments. Th!,~, results 'calibrated airspeed, actual
TAS, calibrated altitude, and true Madi indications on the instruments.
Because of the individual aircraft type position error, the CADC has to be
288 189
Chapter
2
1 u pos e:
A_h h ~cer gives height of ale with respect of set datum. The altimeter is Drawback Of Simple Se'rvice Altimeter: It becom~s insensitive at higher
c ·M~n CJ<dJ Ya ba.r Jffieler. It meas Li res the static pressure and displays this as altitude. altitude due to reduction in rate of fall of pressure. Also sutfers from lag error.
'v l en crui _ing ~t hi?h altit_udes the:1 changes in p ressu re are very small and
tt e, cforc arrphfication 1s re:Jmred . A servo altime ter is used to overcome this SENSITIVE ALTIMETER
pr h:)(J , it use~ an electrical amplifying circuit. - Principle: Same as service altimeJer but s~nsitivity is improved by using m?re
A ·ub ·cal· st:tting is ~ed to co r r ect errors which would occu r due to local
than one capsule in series t.o increase response to pressure change. by employing
;tJ c ~ pr-.- ·sure variations. These can be quite large as an error c•f 30ft is seen for a vibrator or rocking device or knocking mechan'ism.
e ve r y 11 Pa chat the sub scale d iffers fro:n actuai sea level press ure.
<
DRAWBACK OF SIMPLFJ SENSITIVE ALTIMETER:
Inertia o~ caps~e.~y~terisis e1 ror) ·.··
Mecha_pi~al ljn~ge : , .
SERVO AL'"fIMETER . J , _, '
- - Working : Both service and inertia ;~{ c.aps~l~

and sensitive altimeter have
considerable lag error due to mechanical linkages an~ inertia of capsule. Lag
error is virtually eliminated -from s·e rvo ·assisted altimeter by-using induction pick
off or electro mechanical pick off de.vice.
Tolerance of servo ·aJt;rrie.ter af sea level is ± 60' . 1
used t~ ;,ern~.ve lag error'

.,..,1 f ansdccer. in;S~J;'VO 'Y~i:111et~~ 'is_
. ··11,pl I ervice Altimeter. It coruists of an ..aad~ ~ ..; 01flcter enclosed via ·· Pressure experienced -:>ver·hilly ter-..·ain is called hydrostatic pr~.:isure.
- - - - - -- -
290
,. , c.• ' · · --itNtJ<.011'
!,..I
291
1,ARoM € t ER .
.
xe,
' .
➔ eat
PART 11-AIRCRAFT, INSTRUMENTS ALTIMETER . -
1) Bl~kage-Er_r or- Indicates a cons tan~ alt-i tude indimb or descent. It will cause
altn:neter pomter,.~~.freeze.: If the static is blocked at 9 000' and a/c is at 1O 000
Alti.Jneter wilrrea'd'9,000'.. ' ' . Questions
2) La_g·E?'°~:.:.: The "efror is ca~sed-~tie to ~ysterisis and· mechanical friction. Lag
er,,;~r .~s Vlrf_Ual!y re_mo".'ed m servo . altimeter by electro ~echanical pkk off . Ql. A servo altimeter has a quoted accuracy of 1 hPa nt mean sea level. The
d ev1ce. · accuracy in the standard atmosphere is:
3) Instrument Error .- It is inherent or manufacture error of the instrument. a) +- 50 ft at 10 000 ft and +- 100 ft at 40 OCO ft
4) Position~ P9~ition error i~ caused due to interference of dynamic pressure at
b) +- 50 fl al 2() 000 ft and +- 90 ft at the tropopausc
static'sourct This:~rfor is c:aused ·due to "following reasons: c) +- 27 ft at MSL and+- 50 ft at 10 000 ft
(a) lncor;~Ct pri~itioef~g,8f Sta-tic ~o~rce. . Q2. Position error is caused due to
(b) Indµced (Skip/ Skid, Low speed and High or low angle of attack, use of a) Ground effect
standby:·or: aJtefriateJs6w-ce). '; ' b) Configuration of AJC
(c) Ground effect. ~tis the disturbance of the wing tip vortices and the air c) All of the above
flow aroun:d the' 'A/C'which' eventually causes interference.
Q3. Pressure error is maximum at:
Position erl'J)r causes altimeter to always under read. a) High speed and high altitude
5) Pressure Error • Wheri flyirig:from a high pressure area to a low-pressure
0 !:;) Low level and high speed
area, the altimeter wm
read higher. than actual altitude. From low-pressure :::) As in and under ground effect
area to a high-pressure area~the ;altimeter will read lower than actual altitude. A servo altimeter is _ _ _ _ __ th. an a conventional one because
• ', , , ,· '!, ; Q4.
6) Barometric.error: :When th~ sub;~aie.of altimeter differs from actual pressure of_ _ _ _ __
a
preyaili~g at .pqirit the indication will not be correct. The error is called a) More accurate, electrical servos
barometric error; · ..g,,( More acc1:ratc, electrical pick off coils.
7) Temperature Error: When flyingfrom are.a of high temp to l~w temp. Altimeter c) Less accurate . electrical servo~
will over read; H -L -+H. Alti'meter,is calibrated based on ISA temperature
and Pressure lapse· rate·. There is no altimeter settfogs which will
compensate
for temperature ,deviation •from ISA. -An airer.aft flying.at _a c.onstant altitude
293
292
- - C
PART II • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS ALTIMETER
QS. Wha~ will happen If an ale has 2 altimeters, one of which is compensated for 2 Pressure error in an altimeter a•ris~s because:
position error, whilst th other is not:
Ql · a) The true extemal dynamic pressure is not accurately tran_smitted to t~e instrument
a) One will over read at high air speed
/The true external static pressure is not accurately transm1t~d to the 1°:5trument
b) One wiU under read at high air speed
c) The true external kinetic pressure is not accurately transmitted. to the U1.Strument
y One will under read close lo the ground.
Q6. The purpose of stand by static source is: Q13 In a non-press urized aircraft, Jf'one or several static
. pressure ports are
,
· damaged, there is an ultimate emergency m eans fo r restoring a practically
a) To reduce position error
correct static pressure intake:
'QYTo be used in emergenc.y
c) Both a and b
breaking the rate-of-climb indicator glass window - _-0
f '{) Slightly opening a window to restore the ambient pressure in. the cabin
1 sta
Q ·t · f t;~ source of ale is blocked in un pressurized ale the correct action for c) calculating the ambient static pressure, allowing for the altitude and QNH adjusting
pilot w,U be:
the instruments
a) Break glass of altitneter
b) Break glass ofVSI Q14. The pressure altitude is the altitude corresponding:
Use stand by stati~ source. a) in ambiant atmopsphere, to the reference pressure Ps
Note: Theglassofalthuterisnwerbroken the uf:ass 0 rvs1 · 'br, ' 1._ · ,r b) in standard atmosp_here, to the referen~ pr~u.re Ps
b~cause it is /.es 1· ,Ji ta /: ' o O,wm in case o em.ergency
J
'1 tS
· 1
s mror, nt. n cases where static source is available, that' is to be used. . ,,£1 in standard atmosphere, to the pressure Ps prevailing at this point
QB. White zebra crossing on ultimeter appears when: . Q15. The altimeter consists of several aneroid capsules located in a sealed cas!ng.
a) a/c is below MSA (minimum saie altitude) The pressure. in the aneroid capsule (i) and casing (ii) are respectively:
b) ale is above 10 000 ' a) (i) static pressure at time t (ii) static pressure at time t- t
S)/2!cis below' J0,~00 .,, · b) (i) vacuum (or a very low pressure) (ii) static pressure
c) (i) static pressure (ii) total pressure ·
Q9. :i;n flying from a sector of warm air into one of coJder air, the altimeter
Q16. Altimeter gives height of aircraft with Respect To : /
a) JJnder read.
a) M.S.L. b) A.G.L. s,Y Set Datum
~ Over read.
Q17. We are maintaining a constant flight level. That means:
c) Show the actual height above ground.
a) the outside air pressut'e is constant if the temperat1...l1'e remains constant.
QIO. Temp. error in altimeter Is caused due to: q) the outsjpe tiir-pr~ssure is,constant. ,
aJ No·· st.aocbrd MSL temp
c) the altitude is constant when the sea-level-pressure is constant.
b) Non standard temp lapse rate
c) Non standard temp at ale altitude Ql8. The altitude indicated o_n bo~rd.an aircraft flying in an atmosphere where an
atmosphere layers b~low ,the aircraft are warm is: ·
Ql1. Bimetallic strip in altimeter is provided a) the same as the .real altitude
_;i) ?'i.;ompensatc for temp. error · ,~Higher than.the .real altituu~
.j.YTo compensate for thenml expansion of mechanical linkages. c) equal to the standard altitude
c) To compensate fo d'ab · · •
r a I atic nse m temper:iture of temp error.
294
295
ALTIMETER
PART II • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS . ht and level, over a wo.rm air m ass . T h e altimeter
An aircraft is flying s tratg
Ql9. In case of accidental closing of nn atrcrllft's left stotfc pressure· port (rain, 6
I QZ • reading will be:
: i birds), the altimeter: • a) Greater than the real height
I
a Over reacts the nltitude•in case of a sideslip to the left and and displays the correc:t
b Jess than the real height
information during symmetric flight. .
b) keeps on providing reliabl~ readi.ng in all situations - c) correct . . t one of cold er ai r, th e alti metrr ,, ill'.
hen flying from a sector of warm air in o -
c) Under reads the altitude Q.2 7• W
Q20. The aJtimetcr is fed by: ·
a) be just as correct as before
a) clifferential pressure b) U der read
b) dynamic pressure · , .,,,. c Over read
,( . "~Q28, The hysteresis error of an altimeter varies substantially with the:
static pressure
Q21. The advantage of sensitive altimeter over service altimeter Js. a) Aircraft ·altitude
a) Tt does not form 'lag error.' - · ··" · b) time passed at a given al.titude
b) Instrument error is really eliminhte'a'. ' r· c) 'mach number of the aircraft
It can be used up to higlicir ~.ltittide -~Z9. A pilot is given a QNH of l 003 hPa while ~oming in to land. Re for gets to e-
set bis altimeter. The error experienced will be.
Q22. The_error, i.n altim~ter r~adlngs. caused'by the variation of the static pressure
near tbe·· source is k';Jown ·as: - · · · · a) Pil_ot Error
a) position pressure err~r b) Pressure Error
_ b) barometric error c)/ Barometric error
c) hysteresis•etfoct i' '* Q30.""; or an altimeter, pressure fluctuations at the static vent cau se :
Q23. ~f the.static s~urce of an 8;Itimete~ becomes bl~cked during a descent the a) Barometric error
mstrumentwill: . '-·_- , · b) Position error
a) under-read~ '·"-t' 1l '' c) Hysteresis error
b)~d-uallyi_nd_icate:zero• . · ·· ., ~ Q31. An aircraft is passing 6,500 ft in a descent when the static line beco me s
J contmue-to display the reading at which the blockage occurred blocked. The altimeter then reads:
l
Q24, The prima:')'. f~ctor which makes the servo-assisted altimeter more accurate 6,500 ft
a) less than 6,500 ft b) zero
tb.:,.-t~e s1~ple:~ressure"altimet.er'is,the use of:
Q32. The purpose of the vibrating device of an altimeter is to'?
JJ:f_ ran lll,ductton P.lCk; g~._dxxice\ f'' '' ' ; '
a) Allow damping of the measuremen,t in the uniL
b) more effective ternperature~compensating leaf springs
b) ... Re4~~-e the,~y _te.r e_sis ~ffect.
c) combination of counters/pointers
c) - R~dµ~e the ~ffect,of fri~ti~n-in the linkages.
Q25. At sea level, on a typical servo altimeter, the tolerance in feet from' indicated
must not exceed: · , , Q33. Lag error in servo assisted altiml!ter is virtually removed by:
a) +/- 30.ft Jl.)/ Electromechanical pick off device.
b) +/- 75ft b) Rocking mechanism.
,.,c) +/~ 60ft c) Using more than one capsule in series.
296 197
PART II -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
~'-: ;_. ' tatic pressure source on ~b slde·of the
.
• Tbe altlmete'r of an a
ircraft with a s
k d? .
Q34. Transducer in s_ervo assisted altimeter Is used to
1
. Q41, Ill if one becomes bloc e
a) Increase sensitivity of altimeter .• fuselage w ' . . . ,
J)f.,,To remove lag error. a) . Over read ?>Vhen_side s!tpp~ng. · , ds ·the ~\~eked source.
· •d lipping towar · · •
c) All the above ..,_. ·,_._·
. .;:- ; l,-, .
·' ;<ver read wben.si. .e 5 r · - ing' towatds. the C\ear source
(W'V .
.
• • • • • • ; -_1>.; · , · . · Over read when,s1de s !PP , • · • • _0ff?
Q35. In an a1rcraft a static source 1s so placed that it 1s haV1ng subJected to dynamic >;" ~:\, , _:,- -~ c) · . · __ ·t em toys an;eJectncal pick. · ·
1
pressure. ~e error caused of any will be known as: . .: ;·' '"'. \ _:Q.42_; A servo altimeter is ••··· p , . .- ,
a) There will be no error ~t::· ,_ ~ e accurate because.
~ s ition Error f~:\.· b) Les_s .~ curate because..
c) Dynamic Pressure Error · ·"' ~X Less-~eliable t,ecause'. .. if aircraft flying at a fixed
· lti ter reading an ·
--,:· :- . ·Wh atwill happen to 1
t
Q J 6. The principle of operation of a servo-assiste_d pres~ure altimeter 1·s t~at.· Q43, Id bc air mass'?
me .
·' . -beading meets a co er a
a) static pressure is used in the same way as a simple altimeter except that several
';Psules are used .. a) Read less than true altitude.
W:,tatic p1~ssure changt:s are converted via an E- and I-bar transducer into electrical v bj Read more than true altitude.
signal which is used, via a follow-up system, to move a digital counter and pointer
system c) Read
. From zero.does the ADC obtain altitude d ata?. .- ~
whc~ \,~~
~ 1
-
c) static pressure enters an aneroid capsule causing it to expand a) Radio Altimeter.
Q3 7. When flying from low pressure to high pressure, the barometric error of an . , ·b) OAT sources. ·
altimeter will cause thl! instrumeni to: , . · · r~ Barometric altitu4e source. · · -·· · . . ff t
a) i;)rlicate a higher al~tude ~ban.the correct one. , . -~-, ·· , ,:;r1, ·. • , bances at the static sour~e, ~e e ec
JV, ·' Q45, ,u icirig or d~bris·c~us_e pressure distur - - . .
Q)/Under read the truE altitude ofthe'aircraft. > i .·~ · will be?
c) indicate the true altitude. ; ' a) Increased c.ompressibi\ity,error.
Q38. What will happen to the altimeter reading in a right sideslip, if an aircraft has b) Increased instn¥1'ent error.
a static vent at each side of th·e fuselage, but the left one is blocked? ,_ c). Incre~ed posi~iop;_error. ..
a) Ovenead . ., · b) Under-read. c) No change. .. . . I f d:' to the capsule and · .......... ls fed
Q46. In a barometric alt,meter .........;···· s e in : ..
Q39. A barometric altimeter comprises of? into the case? -
-.M/ An <?.'.ler~id cap~ule sensing ~tatic·pressure. dynamic' pre_ssure.
a) Static pressure
b) An aneroid capsule sensing~ itot pressure: ' . b ~ acuum static' pressure.
V ,
c) A differential capsule sensing pitqt and static pressures. c) Dynamic pressure · vacuum.
. . • d · raft became blocked the
!)40. What will happen to the altimeter reading in a right sidcslip, if an aircraft has Q47. If the static pressure source in an un-pressunze am:
a s~c vent at each side of the fuselage, but the right one is blocked? uld .
altimeter wo
·but might be rectified by . .. _.. ...... ?
.... •••••••.. •·· _ .
V, Over read. a) Read-zero break the _altimeter, ·glass.
b) lJ:i.der read. b) Read zero 6pen-~e -w_indows. ·
c) Ne cti:ingt>. c) Freeze break the altimeter g1ass.
199
298
PART II • AIIKAAFT INSTRUMENTS
Q48. I[ thepltot source becomes blocked the barometric.altimeter will?

a) Freeze. b) Read zero. c) ·Be unaffected. . .......
Chapter
Q49. If the static vent becomes partly blocked in'a descent the indications will? . ; : •.,
J ·~:
@Afe too high when descending but 'correct when:at constant altitude . .-f/ - ~ ,--i • ~
b) Be too high when descendlng·but ~o~e'ct when at-constant height.
c) Be too low when)descending but' cor:rect when at constant altitude. ·
Q50. A vibrator ts sometimes fitted in an altimeter to? ·
_,,,.,..,,.. : ;,I~ ·
' . :),~_.-__
: :..',
3
a) vercome gauge parallax error. '. ' .
\!· Reduce instrument errors. ·, J' ·
c) Reduce sensing errors. 1
\;
\ . . p l u s dvna
h' h .s e(1ual to static , mic.. ancl pi pe~
.
Answers
\ I,
The ASI has pitot pressure, w ic l
.
that to ananermdcapsuew ic iss _
d cl b tat1·c pressure. Thi\ re~ 111r~ 1t 1
1 h' h·' . ur roun e vs Tl .
11al,to the dynamic p rcs: 111 1·. ,1,
. d" ted by an amount eq.
Q: l 2 3 '4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
l the capsule being_ istor d tl
distortion is amphfied an :ien P
'
resented to the pi\ol as 1AS.
":~ ,_.• ~• ,•-,,.
__ ,. .
j.f!•_ ~,~,~•• _·• I •., ' - ·-
A: , C · C· C b C b, .,~ ~ C: -b C b b a C b C b b a C ;~~::l!, -·.,·j:/i.}

'-~ ~ceksrn1}l'lg
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 ·•x:~~f\, qi~\ii~\{~~li.~~ri:f.~\il~~.!:~ -~. .,
I
A: C a C' a ·t b C b C b C C a b b b b b a al
. ...-,._,._ ;!;;;....-: ...../.'/_.
.. . _M.ot_nto\nOt_g Sp ti
Q: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A: b a b C C b c' C a b
Purpose: To give Indicated Air Speed . b _.tng c1·1ffrrenct hetwer n

.
PRINCIPLE: .
It grves . spee d ·m d'Ka tion y measm
air
p itot and static pressure.
301
300
PART II • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
An open -enrled t PITOT/STATIC HEADS • <:0
.•' _,.--.~- ·/; ,.-..-..e
- ,·,:_ ·
itot head senses p1tot pressure and th~ •12uc/ventse?ses ""~ preaure-
P!.(ffUf ind1catoT,
dvnarnlc-p~•ure).
. .. -
,en.:,c: the tu caJ ,,,, i II u,ed 'r-_-:"\ '.
ube parallel to the langitudin•I •xi• oftllCI au·c1•an
. ,. ·,:. ' 1-11 .!'o
I>,"., th fed
·1 treSBures ar~ to the airspeed
ir·d•a,ar'~4-ce a d1~erential
~c,w pres~re
dyl\att1I•
.;- ·. J • 'une .wh c measures e ¥'"' en, •. _ . ·.., , .
bead · m sure (static pus

P
l d ynamic). This device i · a , 't
:;
b • ·.:·
p1 ot tu e mounted in 'pi't0 t ·-'
.,· ~
,·, •·t,Sure
.!i-\.t.:f"Rr
0
• ' is -a measure of airspee

. "1'' , "•:.". ·.
• d • b ecaus~,,
'· · ,· ,. ·
· -
· '
.·- 1!A ~
·
-
The open end of th b ..·. Y:•t°:'f · · »y;,.,n1c,l'ress.....,·"' !1', · ·
ead in g to the airspeed ca;:::1~ !c:'~eil';i the moving airstream. the other en~ ••~l
T and Machmeter - , -·- ·· •
,.#,{)t.
~hefe V is trUe a\rspe«fand p';,-~~li!frJ,,ofti>~ :;urrounding air.
· · - ,, ·· ·· · d" J ·
. h_e notes on pressure heads e I . h . . . >,
. • 'fy,.:· ·. Thus the AS! measures air,speed:bj1i_iµsl)ririg dynamic pressure, tsp aymg
In ~ull • .,_ ''. subject only to atmosP h:~ rur.'
a\ lo(her,eas '\"•aitacr~f< on the ground ;: _v,; h . result (usually in knots) on a ·suitably :calibrated·:scale,
, n .imafi m forward flight are subject\: allc p;essure (S), the leading' edges of<; " . t e . ,; . .
result, •~ a totai (pitot) pressure (P) ~n ~dd\llonai (dynamic) pressure. This . . . . Thefe are three prima,Y types of airspei:d: . .
pl us statJC pressure. on t e eadmg edges of dynamic pressu~~ . -· •\,
· . Ill J,idicated
indicator, airspi?ed (IAS}•
As altitude uncorrected
-is increased, the·s~eed is r~d.
airspeed from th<;
wd1cator airspee~
under-reads
a:pproximlilel 2%" er •I 000" •. - , - · · ·
Ca\itira,.dali-sp~(~)• ·J l\StotrCct¢1 for in_struroentanU i~Uat\oF
e,ror; such errors are especially proaunent m flights mvolvmg ~gb
angles of attack. ,_Corr<;j'\i9n charts .are usually found m the Ptlot
OperatingH~db~k. , : . : :. .
· • T,-ue Airspeea1ifAS)<CA&(usuially Li\1S) corr~d for air densilJ!l;lltitud•
r;--:-__ .,..,-..,.......- --,--- _- and _tern -~ Ulre); u.sf d,,.Jliiw.;µ:i!Y,J Qr__ fligh,t p)'!!'ning. groundsp~--
:,:zP. Pressure alt\t}lde t~:~np~ratl,!f,~, ~c\ ~ .are entered C?n the appropriate
. flight calcli\a\Or Sf•lei - (J-!ptC:, we
sl:~•s,'>!1 E§B' COfl\jiuter indicate CAS.
J _
\
~~~;:s~ I~S, b~t sh~ul~ be •ntefpre'."d as ·IAS for moot_pracucal
{,i, '• ._' "{ •• Ground Speed: Applying b~ac:1/tail~i,:itj;~i)\p,<itjent to "(AS gives ground speed.-
'\. _..;. , '' . :___...J
· ASIR + Instrument error
- lAS
IAS+ correction for p~sition/pr~ssure error - RAS (Rectified Air Speed)/
' '
CAS (Calibriited Air S-peed) .
GAS/RAS _+ Correction,J or compr,essi)>ility er.ror - EAS (Equivalent air speed)
EAS + Correction ~or_density : ~ ·T ~ (lhle airspeed)

Pitot = Dynamic + Static TAS :t winds - G/S (ground speed)
Or P = D + S ' -! 1·.
The dyn amic pressure is oft en ca 11 e d ' p1tot

. eXGess'. pre,s sure (PE) so we have:-
P =PE+ S
303
302
PART_II • Al~CRAFT INSTRUMENTS
( '1ND~GATO~···:·.-'
.._ • , ~• I
--- ASI -AIR SPEED INDICATOR.
Comtant Zero Froien

Static Pon
lndlcallon on VSI Altimeter
I
r
f
~
1·
I Ornin Hole
i
• Reci line_: ~ever,-exceed

.• , ,speed,(
.. ' v ne.
') ' .':,· '·,, ,, · J1
~ Blocked staUc system
.
• Y~llow arc: caution speed· ran e n . . .". . . . . .
lower liniirbeing:the maxim.ul ~ ever~o h~ ~ntenuonally entered, with the· I
·,. Pitot Blocked, but clear Drain hole: Air speed gradually drops to zuo.
limit ~ing Vn~. . , s ructur. _ cr~ smg speed (Vno) and the upper ..
I
-Pitot Blocked,drain hole blocked, static free! at the altitude at which itot gets
• Greeii arc: normal i opera tin• s eed 'r .. ' '
power-off stall speed indudi! t·
a~ge, with the lower limit being the
· being Vno. , . . . ' . ~--· · ~ - ~ps_an~ g~ _r ~P. ~Vs!); and the upper limit
·blocked,
During level = FREEZE
• ..Whit~ tr;~: flap~ ~3x~ensi6n: ' sP.:'e , d .. · · h .. . . , ,. ~ ...... - During climb = OVER READ
_ ep ·1llll
low · ,;1 . ·.. r - n. · • 1 · range-:~ ere flaps can be used with the
' t bei·n th During descend= UNDER READ
· g e ppwer-off stalls d ' · I fl , , !
·the lipp.er liciit bdirig th~ 1"ffiaxiifi: h ph,e ~it 1 · aps ~cl. g~ar do~n (Vso), and
. .. ; .• :•·>-: , ,,. • _.um
aps extension speed" ,(Vfe). Pitot Blocked, drain hole blocked, static blocked: AS I freeze s.
• Note that maneuvering speed (Va) i~.n~t indi~ted on the instrument. 2. LAG ERROR
ERR0RS.(BliJ.P' ·De) · 3. INSTRUMENT ERROR

B = Blockage
L = Lag
I = Insturment
4. POSITION ERROR/ PRESSURE ERROR: I t is caused due to i
of dx_~amic pressure at static source.I t causes AS I to under read . ------
5. DENSITY ERROR: Aircraft flying from area of high density o low den i \ .
P = Position/ Pressure ASI will under- react (Dyn·amic Pressure = 1hpV 2) .
D= Density
' G==,Gompressibility·· For same IAS, TAS will increase, and Vice versa
6. COMPRESSIBILITY ERROR: At TAS of 300 kts and above air i,• b ·ou , b
to rest in Pitot tube and is com ress~ c_a~1si~~g i!}crease ~ _total P_: UTe (?, r
BLOCKAGE ERROR pressure) which causes ASI to over - read. - -
During climb - Static blocked - unde; r~ad
Du~ing descend - St tic blocked - Over read
Levee Ll~'(t f~ -~ ~ ·,.,A:£ lll~~ J ............................................................................................ . ................................................. ....._.. .. .. .. ... ···-•·
304
. ,,,., ..
ASI-All\:SPEEO INDICATOR
Questions --- .Q8,. Whicll

.
of the following is most d,angerou1?
a) Pitot blocked during climb. •
Q 1· Dyn-amic pressure Js: b) . S~tic blocked during descend (over- read)
a) 9ensity and static pressure ~). Pitot blocked during descend .
~ Pitot pressure minus static pressure Mo~e prone to stalling because of low power setting and low speed.
c) Pitot pressure plus static pressure Q : Us~tic ·source of an ale is blocked during.climb. Altimeter _ _ _ and ASI
9
Q2. T he re-ason for having 8 square-Jaw -wm ___
mechanism b: compensatJon in the airspeed-Indicator
·a/ ' 0_nder· read, under- read
a)
The differential pressure decreases with th . b) Under - read, over - read
.
b) The ram atr e square of the airspeed
pressure decreases with the c) Over - read, under- read .
e
. . square-root of the airspeed
c) The differenttal pressure increases with th . ltill,leter.will freeze andASI will Under - read
QJ.
· e square of the arrspeed
A pltot tube covered by ice which blocks the r . -_ ompressibillty Error ~equires a.-, (i) correction because it is,_, (li) of .... (iii)
foUowiog Instrument (s): am au inlet will affect the ·- ressure. It gives.... (iv).
a) altimeter only. a) (i) negative (ii) an increase (iii) dynamic (iv)·EAS
b) / ertical speed indicator only. b) (i) positive (ii) an increase (ili) dynamic (iv) TAS
..l¥'f airspeed indicator only. c) (i) negative (ii) a deer~ (iii) stati~ (MEAS
Q4. The Airspeed Indicator measures: Correction for compressibility error is always negative. (subtracted)
a) Static pressure ,, Qll. The airspeed lndicatorJsjcaUl>n.ted.J o:
bJ Differential pressure a) ISA at the height the aircraft is flying : ,
c) Static pressure changes b) thdull ISA
Q5 . c) ISA at mean sea level .,,,,..-
lf static source of ASI Js blocked during level flight, ASI will
a) Uder- read b) Over- read J/' w·11 ad Q12. In a standard atmosphere and at the sea level, the. calibrated ainpced (CAS)
. -~J I re correct
I is:
l will be correct even if you accelerate or decelerate but not if you climb / descend.
Q6. a}' higher than the true airspeed (TAS)
Jf the static tube is clogged, wbJch Jnstrument(s) is/are affected?
b) independent of the tru5a ~,(1:~) , ,
a) Vertical speed indicator & ASI only.
c) ~ual to the true airspeed (TAS)
b) I :meter~ VSI only.
Airspeed indicator, VSI and altimeter. Ql3. A pltot tube covered by lee which blocks the ram alrinlet will affect the
following Instrument (s):
Q7. lnd 'cated air11peed corrected for position error Js: I '
a) airspeed indicator1onl.y
' I j
Cali brated airspeed.
b) airspeed ind\cator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator
b Ground speed.
c) vertical speed indicator only
l-,11•ll v1tl•111, al •poed,
306
307
ASI AIR SPEED l~DlCATOR
~
Q14. A pitot blockage of both the ranu,tr input an"d the drain hole with the static
port ·open cau.s~ the ·alrspeed indicator to:
--- MACHMETER
ADJUST~ Cflil\CAL
MACH NUMBER INDEX
~.., a) freeze at z.eru ,, .
a
b) read little low
c) React like an·altimeter
QlS. Uthe static line to .the:ASI beeomes blocke~dur.lng:a!cllmb,,the ASl reading
will:
a) remain fixed.
b) progressively over read.
.,PtTOT
PRESSURE HAIR
c) prc~ressively undenead.
,, '
L--~"1CAP~R:S~~u~J:,_
: _ _:s!!:PR~INO:!..-=--====
ed ,f ound to the TAS the alreraft i.l' flyi11g.
A Macltmerer show11 the ratw of the spe
o s • r atio of dynamic to
Q16. The pressure measured at tbe·forward facing orifice of a' pitot tube is·the: < . h · d' cations b y measuring . S
a) ·dynamic pressure, .1 ., • .·:
\. Principle: It gives ~ac no . m \ l suring d '-'nami.c(P) and sta ic( )
.- . . . £ t o capsu es mea ' . d h
b) total pressure . ,, static .pressure. 1~ c?ns1s.~ 'od ~d d aroic pressure by stauc pressure an t e
. '. 'ressures r esp~tu~ely ia,o , e~l es yn
c) static pressure · ~· • lr ·· _: ., ~esult is displayed m the cockpit.
,,
Q17. VNO is the maximum speed: ' ,l , '.J
_.; Dynamic = p -S S = TLfs
~ a) witb flaps~xtended in landiri:g po~i.tron. Mach no. = Stauc
(# ,- ,• ,_., ' w, ... • .. • 'K - · • '
b) At which thdligbt coiitiols'can oe'fully deflected. •' . .. d ' t ~bile traveling at .speed of sound . 1f vou
. An a/c disturbs the a1rflow a-roun l / h ,. av e Wings reach mach no.
c) not to be exceeded except in still aii'·and with caution:' · ause a blockage s oc" w · l
·reach speed of sound it may .c . r o aching the sp eed of 50 11m .
Q18. The .limits of the whitlscale of an airspeed•indlcator are: early. Mach Me ter gives a warning as you are app
a) VSI for the lower limit and VFE for the upper limit ERRORS OF MACH METER
b) VSO for the lower limit and VFE for the upper limit'
(i) Blockage error: .
c) VSO for-the·tower limit and VBE;forthe upper limir·
(ii) Instrument er:ror
Q19. If the static source to an airspeed indicator (ASI) becomes blocked during a (iii) Position error
descent the Instrument will:' , I ' r:> • '
, ' , • " 4'. ~f . " . . .
a) continue,to'indicate the,speed applicable't'o~tna:t at the time of the blockage (i) STATIC BLOCKED:
b) readzero
During di~b :¢-U nder read
c)-*'over-:iead ~ ,, <' , ·, , , ·. :. ; • ,.:, .. -,,,.·,1 -· , .
During D esce nt ~ Over- read
Pi.tot B\ocked:
~ynamic pressure sensed by or pitot tube :Today's 'airspeed i~dicators
Climb ~ Over yead
~allbrate._ to .the S_~ i?t~~~?ant-f~rmula), .ln.~ ~a-t~~tn·the absence of static (and
instrumental) error:,,,· ,J ., ',. / • ' ,., . ►-, ., ''·· ·, .-. ,,. ,\ Descent~ Under read
a) Is not .affected by the :density of surround up .air: ; ~i) .INSTR~MENT/ pos1r10N' Causes under r eading
b) ~creas~ if air 4.;nsity increases ··
TAS ·
c) Increases if air density decreases M .No . = LSS
309
308
ASI -Al~ SPEED INDICAIUK
PART 11 -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Flight can be roughly classified in six categories:
Regime Subsonic · Transonic Sonic Supersonlc Hype~sonic High•bypersoni
Mach <0.75 0.75-1.2 I.0 L2-5.0 5.0. 10.0 >10.0
Maximum Operating Mach No. (MMo): Most high-speed aircraft are li1;Dited ·,.
to a maximum Mach number at which ·they can fly. This is shown on a Machmeter :,; ,- ,:,
as a decimal fraction. For example, under standard conditions, TAS of 562 kts == ·.tl \ ·
0 .85 mach at see level and 1.0 rnach at40,000 ft.MMOin this case is to be restricted '/:·¥,' .
to a figure ofless than 1 mach. '"'"
High speed airplanes designed for subsonic flight are limited to sonfe Mach ·
n umber below the speed of sound to avoid the formation of shock waves that begin
tu develop as the airplane .1ears Mach 1.0. These shock wave:; (and the adverse Description
· effects associated with them) can occur when the airplane speed is substantially ,, V-speed designator
beluw Mach 1.0. The Mach speed at which some portion of the airflow over the
.. l . ~ "allure recognition speed. .
wing first ~quals Mach 1.0 is termed the critical Mach number (MACHCRIT). Cnuca engm l , • - d. h' h the aircraft may safely become
Takeoff safety i;p~ed. The spee at _w tc
This is also the speed at which a shock wave first appears on the airplane. airborne with .one engirie inoperauve.
Minimum takeoff safety speed.
v2min
40,000' Vs Flap retraction.speed. . . • , b d
M • • •• b s eed. The all.engines operaung take-off ~1.m_ . spee
•
;:,teady initial <:~m, hp ·1 tion to flap retraction speed ts m1uated.

used to the pomt.w ere acce era .
Should be attained by a gross-height of 400 feet. .
Design maneuverrng . speed , a·1so known ,as the ,"Speed
. . . .for maximum
. k full
. r..-- . .4 ,:i v; . . . . control deflection.'' This is the speed above which it lS unwi~e to _ma e
Mach no. = r ~..;, · _ Jg, 110 ·· ~ Mach no. 0 85
TAS =661 kts G-~ - -- ~ sealevel .. ...J m"A.$= 562kts application of any single flight control (or :•pull to the ~to_ps J as it~ay
. Note ;·At higher ievei tjie limiti~g factor is M.110 or m~_b no. and at fow generate a force gr~ater t~ap ~e air~f~'s structural lurutations. e
. . . level V~~ of the .maxs_peed is the limiting fac~ r.. . . .. heavier an aircraft 1s loaded the faster this speed .
Indicated airspeed at threshold, which is e~u:" to the s~l s:ef
multiplied by 1.3 or stall'~peedVSl_g mulupbe!~y ~~s1~fb~~ VSO ~nd
~:i:
To observe both limits VMO and MMO, the pilot of a jet airplane needs both configur.nion at the max1mum cert1~cated lan g ·.
an airsp eed indicator and a Mach meter, each with appropriate red lines. In some VS lg are available, ·the'higher resulung Vat shall be applied.
general aviation jet airplanes, these are combined into a single instrument that besign speed for maximum:gust intensity. . .
co11tains a pair of concentric ind_icators, one for the indicated airspeed and the . . .se speed lS the most
Design ci-,uislri!!t speed, also -~nown as the opumum cnll ,
oth er for indicat~d Mach number. Each is provided with an appropriate red line. efficient speed
in terms of distance, speed and fuel usage. .
A rnor ~ sophisticated indicator is used on most jetliners. It looks much like a - f 'litary aircraft performance.
See Vl; generally used in do~umentation o mi .
conventional airspeed indicator but has a "barber pole" that automatically moves Design diving speed.
so as to display the applicable speed limit at all times. As you go high barber pole
vm. Demonstrated flight diving speed.
wmcs d own and as you descend barber pole goes up.
310 311
ASI -AIR SPEED INDICA10R
PART rt -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
ln discussion9 of the takeoff performance of military aircraft. the term Vref
The ~eed at whrch the.:Cti~~ngirte is assufued io fail during takeoff. stands for refusal ,peed. Refusal speed is the maximum speed during takeol
from which the air vehicle can stop within the available remaining runway
length for a specified altitude, weight, and configuration. Incorrectly, or as
v~ Designed fiap speecl'. , an abbreviation, some documentation refers to Vref and/or Vrot spee<ls as
V"'- Max~mum spe~d for ~tability characteristics.
"Vr. 11 \
Vn. Max.imam flap extended speed. , Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircrafi is :r-til\ I
vno Final t.ak.coff speed!
controllable. \
v" Maximum
. speed in levei'flig· ht at maXJmum
. . .
contmuous power Stall speed or tninhnum flight speed in landing configuration . I
Vll MaXJmum landing gear extended s d Th" . . . Stall speed or minimum 9teady flight speed for which the aircraft is ~till
at which it is safe to fly a retractabl;ee . . ts is_th~ maximum speed
extended . . gear aircraft-with the landing gear controllable in a spedfic configuration.
\
M . . . ' llefetente 1Jtill speed.
Vw a:c1~u~ landing gear operating s e d Th ' . .
~h1ch it is safe to extend or retract~ el . di ts is the maximum speed at
V SR
Reference stall speed in landing configuration.
\
aircraft. e an ng gear on a retractable gear V SRO
Reference stall speed in a specific configuration . \
I
V SRI
Lift-off:speed. Speed at whkh the stall warning will occur.
Vsw
Category A rototcraft takeoff safety- speed. -
Minimum
· . with Critical en~ne
control .speed . moperauve.
. _.
VTOSS
Speed that will allow for best angle of climb. I
__,. vx Speed that will allc,w for the best r;;te of climb.
V Minifnum control speed i.n the tak ff . Yv
calibrated airspeed at which the _e-o c~n~gu~uon - the minimum
with a sudden Critical engine failair°,"aft~s ?1recttonally controllable in flight
engine(s). ure an takeoff power on the operative Other V-speeds: Some of Vcspeeds are specific to particular types of aircrafl
Vn,cg Minimum conirol speed on the groun.d the . . . and are not defined by regulations.
the aircraft is ..directionally controllabl d.
nurumum :3-mpeed at which Mach numbers. Whenever a limiting speed is expressed in cerm of M al.Ii
_____________
ru nway with one en ine ino . . e unng accelerat1on along the
number, it is expressed as an "M speed", e.g. V~ o: _Maximum o crating limit
engine(s), and with !ose wh!:i~t:~ntakg~mpeodw~r on th~ operative
M" moperatrve. ·-· MMO: Maximum operating Hmit Mach.
speed (in-knots), ,__ ..
in:~:~:;_ontrol speed in the landing configuratio n with on e engine
Q21. The errors to which the mach meter is subject are:
M~xioium operating limit speed. n) instrument error, position error, compressibility error and manoeuvre induced error.
Minimum un stick speed. b) instrument error, position error, density error and manoeuvre induced error.
Never exceed speed.
c) instrument error, position error.
Maximuin
. . s~c t ura I cruising
· · speed or maximum speed for norma l
. 0 pera tions.
Qll, The combined Mach meter/ ASI is subject to the following errorst
Rotation AJ
uround . speed at whi ch t he ·aircra
speed.. The . ft's nose wheel leaves lhe a) instrument and compressibility on\y
a· • so isee note on Vref below. . b) instrument, pressure and temperature only
aircraft:) . . ,of t h ~ ta keo II, performance of military
to d of VR (in discussions
Used instead c) position, c\ensity 1 instrument, compressibility, manoeuvre induced
, speed . enote rotation speed m conJunction with the term Vref (refusal
Ql3. How many diaphragms are present in a basic Mach meter'?
Landing refer~nce speed or threshold cr~ssing speed, a) Four. b) Two . c) Three.
313
312
·ASI ..,.AIR SPEED-INDICATOR
Q24 . Indication 0 f M h
. ac number is obtained from: ,. Ji, . ' • .
1
'· l tnd1cated speed and lt'tI d • . . '1 •, ·... · · h r the ~ollowina tnstrum~nts require pitot and •tatic pressure inputs?•
aneroid a u e usmg a speed indicator equipped with an altimeter typei, · , , 0,2. Wblc :O •' e . .
. . . . a) . Airspeed indicator, vertical speed mdica~or, a\t!roet~r. .
b) an ordinary airsp
d · d' b} Airspeed indicator, mach meter and vertical speed mdtcator..
. ee m ,cator scaled for Mach number instead of knots
.c:
a kind of echo sow1d comparing velocity of sotmd with indicated speed ,;;; _-::... , c) Airspeed indicator and mach meter.
QlS. J he Mach number is the: "'·,- ,,.. \ ·· ,· d limb the pitot bead becomes to.tally:.blocked,by ice.As the .
, ;.~ 'Q33, During a stea y,c . - Ii t •n·
a) true airspeed (TAS) divided by the local speed of sound ''':•:,::: .. ,,climb continues th,e ,indications of-the mac me er wa .
b) ~quivalent ~rspeed (EAS) divided by the local speed of sound ... · a} '' progr~sively,und,er-indicate th~ M~h n~mber
c) indicated airspeed (I ..\S) divided by the local speed of sound · b) stidn1t the 'Mach nurilbed1t ilie tiine_of blockage
Q26. The principle of the ~Iach indicator is based on the comput.ttion of the ratio· J c) increase no.matter what the actual Mach number
a) (Pt+Ps) to Ps b) Pt to Ps
c
) (P
t-Ps) to Ps
• ' ,34, ·The Ma~~ nu.~nber is a fun~~on of the:
Q27. The Mach number is: a) Isobaric gradient of the fluid.
n) a direct function of temperatur . ·t • • . b) Humidity of the air. .
e, l vanes in proportion to the square root of the
absoIute tempe.ratme · · c) Absolute temp~ratur~ of-the air.
b) The ratio of th , aircraft tru · d ·$, A mach meter comprises of?
. c . . e airspee to the sonic velocity at U1e altitude considered
c) the r~tl.O of the aircraft conventional airspeed to the sonic velocity at the altitude a) A combination of A:SI and altimeter.
considered
b) A combination of VSI anQ alµmeter. ,
Q28 . Sound propagates through the air at a speed which only depends oit: c) An ASI with its scal~•~arked'in ~~h numbers.
,
a) temperature
, 36. Mach ,meter indications? .}
b) temperature and the -pressure a) Vary with airspeed and temperature.
\.') pressure
b) Vary only with airspeed.
Q 2<J. 1iVJac,I mete:r rc\ldings are subject to: c) Vary only with temperature.
·f·
~ ·
,1) sec ting error

7. How will mach meter ·indicatjon_re~p~nd if an aircraft passes through a col~
b) density error front when flying at constant C~S. and altitude?
~) pos1t1on pressure e1rnr a) Increase. b) De~;ease. ·_ . . . . c) Remain constant.
QJO. The reading of a Mach indicator is independent of: .. Q38. A mach'a~eterindicate~ ~ach ;~~ber·base4_on
l~ 1 \ , '1. ~ • i> I
the ratio of?
- •
aJ The outside:temperatuze a) Static pressure,to pitot,pressure. · - · -
b) The static pressure b) Pi tot pressure to ::tatic pressure.
0 Thero~preume - c) Dynamic pressureto static pr~ssure·. · ..
G ~~t"
3
I. airplane climbs h ·gher, the true airspee1 for a given indicated airspee~
. -~ <..(' ·•. ~1 t .. .· . 4 -
Q39. The airspee~. indicator of an air~r;ut ~ ~ro~.i~ed with a movini red and white
L a) Decrease b) Increase c) Remain the same J batched pointer,This-pointer·'indicates the:. .

a) .speed indicated on the auto throttle controrbox, versus temperature
b) . speed indicated on the auto throttle control box versus altitude
c) maximum speed in VMO operation versus altitude .
314
,3l5
_ _ _..;..__ _ _ _ _ _ _·..:.p,~~:,.:;RT:..,:l::.,;J•:.::Al:::.!R:!::C::!.RA~
. ~FT!.'!!:IN:!::S\T::!..
' ~RU~M::!.!E:!:NTSU2,_ __ _ _ _ _ _,,,t°. , ,., ._..·i ~ ::... . - -- ----~AS~l.=-!.A1!1R.~S ~P~E~ED~
IN~O~l~C~A"'~fO~R
~ - - -- - - --
,.. . .., , . .~-- : ft take-off from a contaminated ru nway, If t he total
QU. De'vdodty mmmuin operating (Y.M.O.) Is!' speed eipre,sed'ln,: ; >· ' .Q47, During 8 cllmbb \te; airspeed indicator ls blocked, t he pilot fi nds that
a) calibrated airspeed (C~S); , .· . ·-. J;:
_1 • • pressure pro e o
. ,. Indicated airspeed? e ·
Q4 '
b) oquivalont
c) •fr•p<ed
true·airspeed (T!-S):(EAS).
'.. ;; '· · < t
a) DecrnasesabruptlY towards zero.
b) Increases steadily.
~~ -
::•:Tu~-
t. Conslderfnk_!li~·maxlinum:opuatfonal Mach number. (MJ\{0) and the
/ /l:
opera~~~•l'speed _(YMO),,the ca~tahi ,of a pre11urlzed,alrcraft
dhesd~nt ,_,c>m" high flfgbt:level.J.n o,rder-to meet his scheduled time
. ·•· . ·~,;l,,,
,,~ -~ :\ .
c) Increases abruptly towards VNE.
,•
..- -: Q48,JWith a p1tot pr~ ,e oc
. . . .. /
b bl ked due to ice build up the aircraft airs peed ,nd1c ato1J
'
oescent.
arr va., e ecldes to
He will be limited:us~ th~ ' maximum " ground speed
' · · at any time of the · · ,i.,
·' ·' ' - .- :' , will lndlcate ln descent?
. speed. b) Fluetuatiog speed. c) Decreasmg . speed.
a) Increasmg
d 49 After an aircraft has passed through a volcanic cloud which h as_block e t_n_-:
-a) by the MMO 1.. !.,.: • .. ' ' " ' d '
b) ;rutially by the MMO, lhen by the VMO below • ceitain flight level . Q . total pressure probe Inlet of the ,;r,peed Ind;cator, th• pilot bei,m , , s to b ,lmO
c) by the VMQ in.still air · descent and finds that the indicated airspeed ?
a) Increases steadily.
Q42. Compressib~ty error In the ASI fs normally corrected by: b) Decreases abruptly towards zero.
a) Use of a calibration card placed nex.t to the ·instrument .. c) Decreases steadily.
b) ·Accurate calibration,of the instrument .
'- QSO. What speed ls VNO?
c) Use of the navigation computer :,, · a) That which may only be exceeded with caution and in still air.
Q43. Turbu~enfflow aro~nd a ·pressure b~d will cause: b) That wh;ch may never be exceeded.
· a) an:inctease in:the.dynamfo:pres'sure; c) That which may be exceeded only in emergencies.
b) approximately 9-io/o ofthe position error. Q51. What will be the effect if the drain hole and pltot tapping in a pH t p ·o\, r are
c) density-error. blocked, whilst the static ·source remains open?
Q44. Dynamic pressure is.given by: a) The ASI will respond to changes in pressure altitude only.
· a) The static energy fotnfuJa .PJVl =·P2v2 b) TheASl will not respond.
·. b) :-niekmetic ~nerd i6nft,i11~/ il~'d~iisity/,xvz c) The ASI will under read al all speeds.
c) The kin~tic e~ergy·formuJ~'p I y =fiV2 i Q52. What do the upper and lower limits of the yellow arc on nn ASI represent '!
1
Q45. The adv~t~g;~ ~fan ADC . · .t ... ·d·i" • . ·
· · ,• 1,:-~•. ~i1.sl p , ~~;~ r ~ /~ , tional ~itot - static system are: a) VNE and VNo. b) VNo and VNE. c) V Mo and ~E-
1• positfon and,compresslbllity correctlon. Q53. If the pitot sourc~ and drain become blocked by ice when in cruise Uight ho
2. reduced l~g , will the ASI respond when descending?
3• abillty·to supply many instruments · a) It will under read.
4~ .•~ill~ ~o ac~;H ~n
~Jtlm~ter follo~ng fallure. b) It will over read.
· -~) I, 3 & ·4 · ··i,y · f i &'3 'J, 2&4 er c) It will read zero in all conditions.
. Q46. When de,cendlilg ~( .constant d~s·.;. , ,. Q54. At msl in the ISA?
~- a)' Dynamic Pf~~µre in'cr,e~~s ..' ; '· • b) 1AS == TAS.
b . . .,..., , , . . , ,. a) CAS = TAS.
~ Dynamic-pressure decreases
c) . Dynamic pressure rem.abls c~~tant.
317
316
ASI-AIR SPEED INUIW'\''·"'
PART 11 -AIR.CR.AFT INSTRUMENTS
- - lf the pltut plpe becomes partly blocke~? -ft•- wh~n climbing at constant CAS
Q55. In an ASI system, what does the pitot probe measure? Q63, . ---''and the error wd\ be gr~•
a) The ASI w11\ over r=
a) Total pressure. b) Dynamic pressure. c) Static pressure. . than when climbing at constant 'fAS. . . tcr when climbing at constant TAS
QS6. How is the Critical engine failure recognition speed designated? b) The ASl will over read and 0\e enor w1\1 be grea
a) V.i b) V2. c) V1 than when climbing at constant CAS. ter when climbing at constant
d th rror will be grea
Q57. VFEis the? c) The ASI will underread an e e TAS
CAS than when climbing at constant .
a) Maximum speed at which the aircraft is permitted lo fly with its flaps ex.tended.
b) Maximum speed al which the flaps can be extended or retracted. Q64. What does the whlte arc on an ASI tndicate?d
c) The minimum speed for .flaps up flight. - a) Vso at the lower end and VPB at the upper en .
, b) Vso at the lower end and VPO at the upper end.
Q58. What will be the effect on the ASI if the pitot tube of an unpressurised aircraft
:s fractured and the pitot drain is blocked? · . -o:·-;· ·, c) Vs1 at the lower end and VFE at the upper end. ,_., onen an
.· ..: :.':'. '., ~ bile the static source rema....- r ·~
a) It will over read. ·,~ '"t:· :f Q6S. If the pltot source b~omes blocked _w ,
o) It will under read. ' ASI wm?
c) It will give a constao.t reading. a) Und~..: read at all speeds-
Q59. lftbe pitot pipe becomes partly blocked? b) Over read at all speeds. .
c) Give an indication proportional to altitude.
a) The IAS reading will be too low when climbing.
b) The IAS reading will be too low when descending. •Q66. VNE ls? ·
c) The IAS reading will be too low when descending and too high when climbing. j: . a) The speed that must never be exceeded._
.. b) The maximum speed for nonnal operations.
Q60. If the pf tot pipe becomes partly blocked?
a) The IAS will be tc,t; high when descending. c) The best climb speed.
b) The IAS will be too low when accelerating. · . , Q67. What is VLO? , .
c) The IAS will be too low at all times. , a) The maximum speedwith landing gear out. .
.b) The maximum speed for retracting or extending·the landing gear.
Q61. If the static pipe becom,~s partly blocked?
c) Toe minimum speed for fliglit with \anding gear out.
a) TI1e IAS and ROC will be too low when climbing.
b) The IAS and ROC will be too low. when descending. Q68. What does the green arc on ·anASI indicate?
c) Th IAS ?nd ROC will be too low at all times. a) VLB at the lower end and VLb·at the upper end.
Q62. If the static pipe becomes partly blocked? b) Vs1 at the lower e!l1 and VNo at ~e upper end.
a) The !AS will be too high when descending at constant lAS. c) Vst ~t th~ lower ~nd ~il:~ ~o.at the upper end.
b) The IAS will be too high when accelerating at constant altitude. :n.an ASUi(VFE b,1dicated'?
Q69. Where o_
c) The IAS will be too low at all times. a) Th~ upp~r,el)d·of fu,.e w}.lite.arc;, · '
b) 'fl\e lower-end,oftlfe'yellow 1arc. - ·
c) The blue radiaHfue:1·-·' t ;)t'.'
318 319
ASI -AIR SPEED INDICATOR
PART II - AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
- nd Is indicated by tbo . ......... On an AS17
Q70. Where on an ASI is VPO jndlcated? Q78, VNOis .. ... •.. •" ... a
a) Min speed for normal operations Lower cmd of green arc .
a) It is .not specifically marked but will be less,tlian.YFE
b) Max speed for normal operations upper end of gre~n arc.
b) The lower end of the white arc.
c) Min speed for night operations lower end of white arc.
c)' ft is·not'speoifically" marke<f,but will be more than VPE
And Is indicated by the .. ... ..... On an ASI'?
Q71. Where on anASI ls VMo indicated? Q79, VNEis . . .. . . . .... l d upper end of white arc.
a) · Uppef end of green mark and lower end ofyetlow arc. a) Minimum mghl eove ope spee
b) Maximum night envelope speed lower end of green arc.
b) Lower end of green arc and upper end of white arc.
c) Never exceed speed red radial line at the upper end of the ye\low arc .
c) Upper end of white arc an4 lower end of gree~ arc. db plying to the indicated
' . '
Q72. Whe·r e on an ASI Is VNo Indicated? QS0. The calibrated airspeed (CAS) is ob ta lne y a-p
a) Upper end of green•mark ~d_!o.wer end of yellow arc. airspeed (IAS)?
a) A compressibility and density correction. .
b) Lower end of green arc, and upp~r ~nd of ~hite ~re.
b) An instrument and position/pressure error correctton.
c) Upper endof.whit~-arc· and i~w~r-end ~f green arc.
c) An antenna and compressibility correction.
Q73. Where on an twin pl'op aircraft ASI ls VYSE indicated? d. ?
Q81. The velocity maximum operating (VMO) is a speed expresse in •
a) The upper end of the \vhite arc
b) The lower' en'd of theyellow arc. , a) True airspeed (TAS).
c) The blue radial line. b) Computed airspeed (COAS).
c) Calibrated airspeed (CAS).
_ Q74. Where on an A.SI ls-VNE indkatecl? ·
a) The red ra<iial line at the upper. en~ of the white arc. Q82. VLE is the maximum'?
b) The·red radial line"~t the lower end of the green arc. a) Speed authorized in flight.
. · c) · The red radial line at 'the upper end ,of the yellow arc. b) Fli'ght speed-with ianding gear down.
c) Speed at which the landing gear can be operated with full safety.
Q7,. Where on an ASI l~ VLo lndica(~d~ . ,
Q83. The airspeed indicator of a twin-engined aircraft comprises different sector
a) The ·upper.~n<J,of!}ie whit~.arc ~L ., , .·
and color marks. The blue line corresponds to the'?
b) The lower end of the•w.hite arc. .. .. .. ·
l a) Maximum speed in operations, or VMO .
c) It is not specifically marked but,wjJJ be less than V LE- lf b) Optimum climbing speed with one engine inoperative, or Vy. /
Q76, Where on an ASI·Js Vs with'. ~a~s up Jnd!~~~ed? t
c) Speed not to be exceeded, or VNE. /
a) Lower end
of white arc
J, -.-,.-: Q84. An airplane is in steady descent.The auto-throttle ONintain ,; a constant b e
b) Upper end ofyetlow-arc ,;.,. number. Uthe total temperature remains constant~the calibrated a'npeed?
of
c) Lower end green arc. · . . . fj
by·t;~:.~:.....,
' i;>
§ .' a) Remains constant.
Q77. VFE is .. , ............. An~ 1s ·indicilted on a!l ~ SI? b) Decreases if the static temperature is lower than the standard temperature, increase
~
!' -
4
,.
a) Max speed for flap retraction upper eDd of.green ~c. · · rt'! if above.
b) M~ speed for flap down -flight upper end of white;arc. _ ~
r . c) Increases/
\\
c) Max speed for flaps up flight lower end of white arc. ,~,
\
(
.
1r"
·320 321
t·::
,,_
. , '.·/ ; ! . . ," '.~
. ._ __:,__ _ _ _ _ JAS~I-:;_·A~l~f(~S~PE~E~D!Jl~N!!;D~IC9>-.~:f~O~R~---------
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.:,_PA~::,R.-!...1.::._11..:.;-A:::::,1:!:R:.::C~RA~FT!....!!.IN!::S:.!T~RU~M:.:,:::EN~T.:...:S::,__ _ _ _ _ _ _~_·, .;;. ·~ •. "'""
Q86. Ao aeroplane .i5 in steady descent below the tropopause Jn the ISA. The auto-,.
·· ·,~ .. ·, • Q
· · · · EAS.
93 , \lMO is calculated based on?b)
c) C.AS.
. ·- • · an aircraft
., t erupera t ur"
t b rottIe maintains a constant calibrated airspeed. If the tot.u a) TAS.
,>
k d the . b -eter
mac 11 •
will ......... as
1
remains constant, the Mach number? Q94~ Uthe static,source become• b oc e ·
a) ~c~eases if the static temperature is lower than the standard temperature, decreases · · '·
t ..... .· c limbs?
· . . b) Under indicate. c) Not indicate.
1f higher. ) • .. · · a) Over mdicate. t CAS at FL 200, the mach
f .. . . , h n Rying at constan .. ? .
b) Decreases. ~<;• · ,Q. If temperature decreases w e . ma.ch number will ...... •
. .:.· 95 • ill and the true
c) Increases. ~·.. . . . meter indication w ... ·· ... ~
Q86. An aeroplane is in a steady climb. The auto-throttle maintains a constant

a) Increase increase.
Mach number. J.f the total temperature remains constant, the calibrated ' : . b) Decrease decrease.
airspeed? _. . c) · Not change increase.
a) Decreases if the static. temperature is lower than the standard temperature, increases Mach.meter indications? .96,
irhigher
· ·a) Are temperature related.
b) Decreases.
b) Increase with temperature.
Q
Increases. c) Are independent of temperature.
ow will the mach meter respond in a constant CAS climb if the static source b a macb meter?
Q97. What.is actually measured
. y ..
becomes blocked?
e
a) Increase. b) Decrease. c) Remain constant. a)· Pit_ot pressure. • . . . . ~ to .static pressure.
•. b) · The ratio o~ (pitot pressure - static p~~surf sure.
How will the mach meter respond in a constant TAS climb it the static source .'' . c) The ratio of.static pressure to dynanuc pres . b
becomes blocked? . .. . rees C during a constant mach num er
.Q98. If temperature increases by 5 deg
a) Increase. ,,, b) Decrease. c) Remain constant.
. . . descent, what .w ilthappe~· to CAS?
~ ow will the mach meter respond in a constant mach number climb if the
a) . Increase by .5Kts.
l _ ?;tatic source becomes blocked?
b) Increase by 1O_Kts: .
a) Increase. · b) Decrease. c) Remain constant.
" c) Remain constant.
Q90. What happens to macb meter ind(cation in a constant TAS climb?
a) Increases. b) Decreases. c) Increases thenremains
it ' Q
99 What does roach number represent?
· f • ft·"'" a fraction of the local speed of sound.
constant. ; a) The CAS o .an aucra = . ft.
•t, .\ <' b) The local speed of sound as a fraction _of the CAS of an aircra
Q91. What would happen if the static pipe became detached from the back of a
roach meter in a pressurised aircraft at high altitude?
a) Under read. . b) Over read. . c) No effect l'
~· C:-' .
\
c) The IAS of an aircraft as a fraction of the local speed of sound.
Ql00. The maximum speed at ~b\ch it is safe to fty a retractable geBr aircraft WI
the landing gear extended. c) VMAXLE
. 'th
Q92. A mach meter is made up of?

a) AJ1 altimeter with a density capsule.
t, a) VrvtLI:. b) VLE.
'~ :
b) An .·,sr wit:1 an altitude capsule. f; .
cJ A VSI with a modified s,;ale.
n
i•
't
322 t:r
i~l
VEKf"~CAL SPEED INDICATOR ('/SI)
PART II • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS ·-·• - · --

· --- · climb OT
. ge 1n
. .d 1ca
- tes zero in
Uuring climb = capsule contracts
'
. ··. · ·-' 1
·
~ . .~oJtS: BLl
BLOCKAGE
p T
rnvOR: Static source b 1oc a
J:.oD.A'
k
• th. in,strUtnent
,, . f VSl smce is
Du ring descend = capsule expands descent. dd mane error O b k
Principle: It gives rate of climb/ descend by measuring differential static G £RR.OR: It is a pref 1 mg lt is the biggest draw ac . t
!"' • /
2. LA · · le o a · · nsuu111en1
p re ~-ur e, inside and outside capsule. _'-~i--:·\.·._-- works on the pnnctp Brief-in error in the t • urce
RMENT ER}lOR. . . g on static so
{nside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like the one in an ASL :,; '.;: :
Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented ' , ·.
3. r~ INSTU D namic pressure acttn k wave causes
4. PO&ITION ERR~~- ~C reaches dose t<:> Mach(;:~e-indication
to the static system, but the case is vented through a calibrated leak / metered ·-- a
orifice/ choke/ that causes the pressure inside the case to
change more slowly t 5. - TRANSONIC JU dr~~ and , VSl shows a ~um~rief false rodication,
static pressure to h speed of sound). lt l.S a er static source.
than the pressure inside the aneroid. As the afrcraft ascends, the static pressure
becomes lower. The pressure inside the case compresses ~he aneroid, moving the
f
f -
., that a/c is close to t e .
occurring dunng
. the tunes
hock wave passes ov
pointer upward , showing a climb and indicating the rate of ascent in number , , r-
' -f f, ~~
of fee t per minute (fpm). When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer
changes. The pressure inside the case becomes equal to that inside the aneroid,
'.. _._:_/·.- -iNSTANiT
· _. _
.~ANE::O:U=S~V~S-l---------:::::::;::;;j
a, d the pointer returns to ir.s horizontal, or zero, position. When the aircraft
descend s, the static pressure increases. The aneroid expands, movi n g the pointer - :.
\ eed lndlca\or
d own ward , indicating a descent. Thus, if the aircraft climbs (or descends), the An instantaneous vertlca ap
rat.ea accelerom&I.Bl"I lo help the
p ress ure within the capsule will decrease (increase) while that within th e case will •· ,: \ncorp<> • ,
instNmont Immediately d
decrea st~ (increase) at a lowe r rate due to the presenc~ of th e noa le. Movemen t l: Indicate changes In vertlcal epee .
uf th e c:1p sule is translated into movement of a n eedle by a tn'echan ical system. ,•
r
. . . lli.'Ii dash Pot accelerometer, w
.
bich
Working! Lag error is removed by ms~p· t gn_ 'responds immediately on the
• sule pressure. 1s o
causes instant change m cap . . -
pitch movement. . hich sense the vertical
1vs1, ·1 that the .dashpots~ w . .
The disadvantage of, an · ~ · aff t d by the accelerauon m a tum.
R,,uo/OJ.J,.,.Da-,rb,71,o~o/futP,r,',lb,1111. acceleration of the aircraft, are ~so . . ~~~y sh.own as a rate of climb (ROC1
Therefore , the lVSl has an en:or . at.1s \JU 40 de rees of bank. However,
During p re-flight the nec:dle should be horizonta l pointing to zero and when applying large angles of ban~i l .\.ive:o zero
the turn is maintained, the IVSl w1 sta l ze
then indicates a rate o tut
serviceable if the indication is +/· 200 fpm between -2O°C and +5O°C.
descent (ROD) as the aircraft rolls out of the turn.
Dur ing flight the pilot can time it took to climb fro m a certain altitude to a
higher altit ude and divide the difference, the VSI should have shown about th e
$:! me n::sult wi thin its limits mentioned above.
...........................................................................................................................~··-··-········· ...
L., .
'317
326
PART . AIRO-.AFr
Questions Eo-tufng ground t1Ittt II likdy t.?
Q1* IVSl &: more llff(uJ ::,t J>..aeau !;afj prt:fflUC 'Maea&e ~ pr ~-
. . . ovtt nonnal VSI • • l t1 fndkatf o) DecrtiM pt preMUre but increase static preMUre.
a More reliable during fteady:eJimb/ A~ - .OJU •re
b , .,.__ ,..i;_.,_ ~~ c) Increaee J>OSfUOl'l en: •
,. J "'~ e ,~•~le ten ale initiate! climb / deuena , After some time pteJ, e will equaJize · ~:.e ~ ca '....g,.t ·
•J Rdiab~ -at an times-. , zero in leve-l.clirnb and descend.
During tum the pis.ton is pulled out because of cctrtrifu l, Q10. 1f m,eteTed orifitt in SI bewmu pat1fy blodre.f:4VSI i.Dd:iatfon ,., be-:
Qi. AIC fltted. witb JV I wmhave . ga force and.the capsule contra~ .
a) Too high when climbing b Too low wt:en ~.ding
aJ Cf:imhiog ~cation~ during ~ c) Too high when climbing / descending
J Descen.d tnar.catioru daring ~
Qll. lf the camg of VSI ln a pressurized ale develo~ a le2:1c, S1 die2t· - v.1
C Will mow correct during turns.
Drawbacb:.
(i) ft shows cH~duringturn_
~
1 ,
.
a) Too low when climbing or descending
b Too high when climbing or descemling
c) Too high when climbing and too low when descending_ --,
(ii) During turbulenre it:shows oscillation. ·, , [ In Pressurized ale, there is exlra pres.sure coming mthe s.12 ·c ~ ' ,. · ""
Q3. Comp a red to th VSI b · '• capsule will contract and it will show rate of climb very high. is e:ura ;:?":!SEtUe
·e w :at errors ar e eliminated by the IVSJ?
a:J · Jag
, 'J , temperature
o'c) turning
will also effect rate of descen~which wi~l be sh~ too low bec2nse of er. a
pr~sure.lt will show rate of climb even m level flight.
Q4. ) e resp~~s~ time °: ~ vert(~a_l ~.V ied detector may be increased by adding a:
Th ~. Q12. If casing of VSI in an unpresru:rized ale develop, a le2lc.
a secortcf calibrated pqpt .,
a) It will over read b) It willlmder read c) It wiTI recd zero,
b) correction·based 1on an acceJomdec;. sensor If there is a leak, pressure will quickly equalize wi1h atmospheric-pressure he
c fametallrc strip· capsule, so, difference is rero. '
QS. T he verti~af:sp~ in!)~~a~~r.,;of.'an_aircraft flying at a true.airspeed of 100kt, In Q13. The vertical speed indicator lndic.ations may be in error for some second~ a-rte·
a descent wfth a slop~ !'l .3 degrees, indj~teg: starting or finishing a climb or descent. The error i5 a result of:
a) -300-ft/m1n b) -250ftlro'in a) a combination of time lag and instrument error.
c) -500ft/min
Q6. What does a vertJ~aJ spet4'indfcat~r;;1ctui:llly,rireasure? b) a combination of time lag and manoeuvre induced errors.
a) The rate of temperature·change: c) a combination of position error and manoeuvre induced errors_
b) The rate of temperature'and
• '1 a,r,Z'. ·~
... ,. ,.• , , f
~Jtitude
,. ,
change: Q14. If the pitot pipe becomes partly blocked?
c) The.rate -~f Prif:8~re.'c ~ge.' . . ./ I•. • /, a) The VSI indication will be too low when climbing.
Q7. Th_e ~ertical sp,eed lh.dfcatoriy SI. is;fe~iby.: b) The VS1 will be too low when descending.
a) differential pressure. '- b· static pressure. c) The VSI will not be affected.
c) dynamic pressure.
QB. 1f ttiestatic vent becomes blocked during climb: Q15. If the static pipe becomes partly blocked?
a) The VSI indication will be too high when descending.
a) the VSI w:ill indicate an increasing rate of climb.•
b) The VSI indication wi\\ be too bigh when accelerating. .
b) tl1e VSI will indicate adecreasinl ra.te '$f cHmb.
c) The VSI indication will be too low when climbing or descending.
cJ the VSI will return to zero.,
· 328 329
Q l 6. Du.ring ta .
,) C -
~
:nng, VSI shows - 100'. Pilot h Id
- s OU
onunue Wllh fl ight if engineer is on board
b) Tax1 back and VSI hou ld b .
-
~ e repa ired
·.
1
.... _
ith f11gh1 \\'i tb new refere nce .
o nrtn ue \
Chapter
. Error n e corrected with an adj u., tio s
) 17. ' -'Si I . g crew on the fro nt of the instrument
' · .ag ts reduced by'.'
:i I l wo dashpo ts responding to acceleration.
bl T vo re turn spri ngs .
c) Bi-meta!lic strips.
·
. .
5 ;
Q I8. The correct action to he tak

ai rcraft is to? en when the static vent blocks on an unpressurised --~ :
•r~
GYROSCOPE
:
.·
a; Break the VS! glas .
b) Use the standby ta ti c source.
c) Calculate ROC us ing mathematica lly. Gyro instruments include a gyroscope (or gyro) t~t is a s~all wheel ~ith
Q19. VS I? its weight concentrated around its pedphery. When this wheel is spun at high
speed, it beco~es rigid and resists tilting or turning: in any direction ot_hc'. than
aJ Produces an output prop ortional tu amb. t , . around its' spin: axis. Attitude and heading instruments operate on the pnncc ple of
bj Meas . • ieo press ure.
' ' ures the diflerence be tween total pressure and static re rigidity. For these instruments, the gyro remains rigid in its case and the _aircraft
CJ Meas ures the difference b pre., ..ure. , rotates about it. Rate indicators, such as turn indicators ·and turn coor<lmators,
Q 20 AV l . d' . , c tween the pressure inside and outside a capsule op~rate on the principle of preces'sion. In this case, the gyro precesses (or rolls
· m 1cates mcr!fasing ROD by? ·
over) proportionate to the rate the a~rcraft rotates about one or more of i~ a.xis.
:i I VS l needle mo ving downwards.
b ) VSI needle mo vi11g uµ wards.
c, \!SJ needle stati onary. r Gyroscopic Principles
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties; howe ver, a whed designed
I
and mounted to utilize these properties is called a ·gyroscope . Two important
design characteristics of an in_strument gyro are great weight or high den iry for
Au s wers size and rotation at high speeds with low friction bearings. The mount ing of the
. gyro wheels are called "gimbals" which may be circular rings, rectangular fra me.s,
or a part of the .instrument case itself.
(t I 2 3 4
f There are two general types of mountings; the type used depend upon
l
5 6 7 8 9 10 1 J 12 J3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 which property of the gyro is utilized. A freely or universally mounted gyrnscope
I • Ii a a h C (; b C C C is free to rotate in any direction about its center of gravity. Such a wheel is said to
C C b C C C a b C a have three planes of freedom .
Tfie wheel o; rotor is free to rotate in any plane in relation to the base and is
so balanced that with the gyro wheel at rest, it will remain in the position in which
it is placed.
Restricted or se:rni r\gidly" mounted gyroscopes are those mounted so that
one of the planes of freedom is held fixe_d in _relation to the base. .· .
330
331
wmzr~·1 ..... 1TZ- PTCY::cn- ·
GYROSCOPE
. . (a)Direction of the force .

(b) Direction of rotation
s = Rot?T speed . _j_

Precess10n a SI
I = Moment of'iriertia- ;r mv2
- · '""'1' · .• · -· · ·· · · 1 ro ortional to external force . .
. . (~ = m;tss, v = an0 ~ ar .veI~ty., •{'\qgular ·v~locity' can be increased by ~! ,. _ Direct YP P _ recession _ is thf' re.· ul an t :1<11 0n n:
mcrea.~mg speed ofrotation or diameter of the gyro.) . · •·_;_ ._Yil <
_. ' The second property of a gyroscop \ Pti c force is appL ed to its rim_. W\1e n
f = external force :q_;JtX .
;: 1, •· ,, . . . . . f, ..
c \a
\ ieflection of _a spinning wheel when _a ef ec
lied ·o the nm o a ro
1
ting wheel th e res ult.a nt force i,
. . <l f
Property in whit.h gyro·a-,q_~ rilairitain:s its position is'rigidity. :. (!;·:;; - -t 9eflectiv~ orce ~~ api' 0:-,. rotation and in the direction of th e apphe om~--
.'";;,;.,
R'15 ,·,m
·_ 5,;,,.,,. ·;t; '.' "l 900
_e ,c.an ra'be~t_.·,uL~~,._ ex·_p··1a·1·_·n ed-:by .. ·apply1;ng ·Ne' wt.011·~~ F1'rst Law· of ;q()· ahead m the tree ,on . ~ . . . , . nversely proportional lo he .peed ul
.... -., 'I'...., The rate at which the wheel precesses ,_s I r- The force wi•h whir·h tJ1e ,he1 ·\
. r.::ch ,,. b
M otJ.on w1Li ,states, .a ody at: rest, will remain at rest;•or if.in motion in a straight
·'.- , d
·:. the rotor an propor 10
t·. nal to th<= rli>{lect1ve
· ~ - . r-
iorce .
red
- . I
tn t 1c
, ill · · · .,_' · · · · /. ·.. · · · •· •. · '- ~ ;, . h s the deflective 1orce app 1 (minus the friction
. . . .
1
) 1~?e, ,it w· contin~e .i,n ~ str,aig~t line unle~;~ acte~. upon by an outside force ." : ·, £ precesses 1s t e same a . £ . red for the amount of ng,dnv in lw
Ah examp,le oLthis l~w IS . t~~, rqt~r. ,of a :i.uuve,rs<!~Y,, rno~nted gyro. When the _; ·)p earings). If too great a deflec~ve or~: ~:f 1
;~~ the same tim e. ·
I wheel js spinning, it exhibits the apility to re~ain in its original plane of rotation .
r~gardless :of hdw 'tbe ·ba~e is m·oyed. However, ,since it js impossible to design
bearings without ~onie fridion present, there will be some deflective force upon
· ,\vheel, the wheel prece~ses.an topp
l- ·
____________
7
the wheel. The flight instruments using the gyroscopic. property of rigidity for ·.
their op,eration are the attitude ind_icator and the heading indicator; therefore, l
their rotors must bt; freeiy or un~versally mounted.
. ~ , ' . ~
PPLIED DEFLECTIVE FORC

PRECESSION OF A GYROSCOPE RESULTING FROM AN A
TYPES OF GYROSCOPE · ovement ·m a \l t h!:ee p\·ant.~

·' '·\
· S G ro· It has free dom of m • ·
(i) Free/ pace Y. · . . . 't' n with respect to a hxe c\ pomt 1·
.._ _____ ...........__-'
...;;__,;;;;;,.,.,...;._ gyro axis is mamtame<l m its post io .
space.
Regardless of th~ position .of,its' b~~, ~ gY,l ~ t~nd_s to r~inain) igid in space,
v1 its axis of rotation pomte~ in aconstant direction: . .
333
332
PART 11 -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
lr is used in INS/ IRS (inertial navigation system inertial reference system.)

lii J Tied Gyro: It has freedom of movement in all three planes and gyro
axis is maintained or controlled by an external force. It is used in DGI;
external force is alignment.
(i ii) Earth Gyro: It has freedom of movement in all three planes and gyro ~
..,
\Nill.Ina
axis is controlled by force of gravity.
lt i,s used in artificial horizon/ attitude indicator. . VaealUfflNIFVlef
Rate Gyro: It has freedom of movement in two planes and gives

(iv)
indication in third plane.
ft is used in TSI / turn coordinator.
Sources o; Power for Gyroscopic Operation

rn some airplanes, all the gyros are vacuum, pressure, or electrically operated;
in others, vacuum, or pressure systems provir~e the power for the heading and
attitude indicators, while th-:: electrical syste··n provides the p0wer for the turn Output_~ -
cc,ord inator. ·
Vacuum or Pressure System

The vacuum or pressure system spins the gyro by drawing a stream of air
aga inst the rotor vanes to spin the rotor at high speeds essentially the same as a
Input axis
water wi1eel or turbine ope,races. The amount of vacuum or pressure required for
ins1rumcnt opaation var(es with manufacture and is usually between 4.5 to 5.5
in. H g.
Engine-Driven Vacuw•: P':lmp

AH ⇒ Pitch 1
Vertical axis
011e source of vacuum for the gyros installed in light aircraft is the vane- Roll J
cype engine-driven pump which is mounted on the accessory case of the engine. DGI ⇒ Yaw (vertical) = Horizontal axis
Pump capacity varies in different aircraft, depending on the number of gyros to TSI/ turn coordinator ~ Yaw (verti~al) ~ Horizontal axis
be operated.
A typical vacuum system consists ofan engine-driven vac:..mm pump, regulator, Ring Laser Gyro (RLG).
.air filter, gauge, tubing, and manifolds necessary to complete the connections.
The !fduge is mounted in the uirplane instrument panel and indicates the amol!nt
of pressure in the system.
The air filter prevents foreign matter from entering the vacuum or pressure
system. AiriJJw is r...:duced as the master filter becomes dirty; this results in a lower
readirig on the vacuum or pressure gauge .
335
334
GYROSCOPE
An RLG has (almost~ no moving parts. RLG has inhereritlfan extremely g~d :' r ~ · .
Questions
seal: factor accuracy, typ1cally about 5p.p.m. and furthermore dissipates the sam . · . ··
(qm te low) P?wer, no matter what the_ rot3:ti~n rate. is. T~e RLG body is a 0
: •1/ ~ : soli1:·
glass ?lock, wtth three ruu:row tubes drilled m it. A mirror ts placed at each corner " : .: . The basis properties of~ gyroscope are:
for m.mg_ a tnangular opucal resonator path. The tube!i are filled with a heliu •-~· _{ . -',r \ . The gyro's weight
neon nuxture at low pressure·. A high voltage (around lkV) is .app. lied between m · · .. . ' ,, . The riaidity in space ~
t h e cath o d e ~n d t h e two ~o d es, causing a discharge .(simply an expensive neon : :,; , 2 to·
~ mp). The d_1sch~rge prov1de.s enough energy to cause regen~rative lasing action '"'._ . 3. The inertia '
m the gas, with light beams circulating around the t-i:iangular r'esonator path. In 4. The high RPM
fact, there are two lasers within.the same cavity - one with a cl~kwise (CW) beam ;· 5• The pre.:ess\on ~
the other counter clockwise (CCW). :W.heri the gyro is at rest, the.two beams hav~ · sta ts\
the same frequency (typically with a wavelength of 633 nanometers). ; :: The combination of correct temen s: c) 2, 3, 5
. , S b) 3, 4 th
2
Now consider the'pjockr~tating ~~CW dir~Gtion. Aph9ton in' ~he~~W beam,_: . ·,: a) ' th best efficiency is obtained rough
starting at the bottom left-hand mi~or .findsf ~er one tr.averse of the cavity, that · ·, Q2, ln the building priDclple of a gyroscope, ' e
the mirror has moved lightly further aWf'I-Y· Thus it sees a slightly increased path ~
th
the concentration of e mass: .
length . Similarly, a photon . i~ the 'CCW beam finds a shorter path length. The · a) close to the axis and with a low rotation speed
difference in path lengths causes -~ small.difference in frequency. 'By making one b) on the periphery and with a low rotatl~n speed
of the mirrors partially_ transmitting, samples of both beams can.be extracted and c) . on the periphery and with a high rotation speed
th e freque ncy difference measured . This is precisely proportional to the applied
rotation r ate. A complication arises ·at \'.erv
• ' low rotation rates . th in fa gyroscope
Q3. Rigidity is: . \ ·n force to I.he spinning
90a in the direction of rotation when app 'fl g
The mirrors a re no~ perfect and produce minuscule,., amoun!S of backscatter, a) e reac ,on
which couples energy betwe.e n the two beams. -This coupling of energy between whee\. th stability of the inner and outer gimba\ rings .
two very high Q oscillato~s can cause the frequ~ncies to loc~ together. To over~ome b) a way to express e • d ·st attempts to alter its
this, th e dither motor applies a ,very small oscillatory rotation (about 1 arc mmute c) the tendency it has to remain in its plane of rotatlon an resl
peak, at about 400 Hz) to the entire block. _ position. . .
Gr
Sources of power for Gyroscopic op~t\o~n an aircraft are ·,
.. di ~
a) Vaccum, gravity and ng1 ty. ~ - -
_. .,
.. - •-·············......... -•,·-·· ................................:... ·..... .......; ... .............................,........ ,........,. ,............ ,..........................--,.
b) Vaccum, pressure and e\ectrica\. ~
L,, c) Rigidity, rotor speed and movement of inertia ..
he number of degrees of freedom of a gyro is .
• ?
QS. T
a) One more tban lhe number of gimbals.
b) The same as lhe number of gimbals.
c) One less than the number of gimbals.
Q6. A direction~ gyro requires7 d h . nta\ spin axis

a) One gimba\, one degree of freedom an a onzo . ..
. b ls two degrees of freedom and a hor\7.onta\ spm ax 1s,
b) Two gun a , , ·
c) Three gimbals, three degrees of ftcedom and a latera\ spm a11.1s.
337
336
PART II -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS . GYROSCOPE
What type of , ~
a) Rate. g}To . gyro bas a horizo~tal spin a.tis and one degree of freedom?~ ',
Q8 b) Dtsplacement gyro c) Rz . ·
. . The properties of a gyro are? . ~re Integrating gyro.
I. J\f ass 2 n, .
· · n1g.1dJty in space.
J . Jnertia. 4. Precession.
5. RJgjdjty with refer-ence to the earth
a) l.2.J ,4. b) 134 •
Q9 ' ' ,5. c) I, 2,3, 5.
. Gyro cigldlty improv~s with? .
) Increasing RPM .
, mass and radial displ
t, J Increasing RPM and b. acement of mass.
mass ut decreasing radial d . I
CJ Decreasing RPM but inc . isp acement of mass.
reasmg mass and di l d .
Q 10. The dither motor in ·l J ra a isplacemeot of mass.
a .. a J ng aser gyroscope?
) Swb1!1zes the frequency or th l • FREEDOM IN MOVEME_NT
b) Prevt:nrs laser lock. e aser source.
Old: Pitch =:> ±55° Roll =:> ±90°
c ) Prevents or minimizes tra
nsport wander. Modem: Pitch =:>,±85° (;:oµiplete fi:ee~o~ in roll(± 180°).
Caging Knob: It provides a mechanical lock to prevent damage to gyro
frames. It can also be used for' quick alignment o£NH . It is·used in olcler versions
GYRO INSTRUMENTS
only, due to restricted pitch/roll movements. Gyro was cag_e d during h arsh
ARTIFICIAL HORIZON movements to avoid toppling.
(ATTITUDE INDICATOR)
P~NCIPLE: It uses princi le of . .. Errors: Vaccum driver, Attitude indicators are fre e from most errors, but
1
p r ·c <·s~;on fn r gyro control. p gyro ngid1ty to gi ve indicatio n an d depe ndin g upon the speed with which the erec_tion system functions, there may
be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and a nose-down
. TY PE OF GYRO: Vertical axis . .
air d rr n. ear th gyro. It LS enher electrica lly d nvcn
· or
indication during a rapid deceleration. Ther;e is also a possibility of a small bank
angle and pitch error after a 180° turn. These iriherent errors are small and
RPM ~ lectrical = 22,000 - 22,500. co rrect themselves within a niinute or so after retu.rning to sttaignt-and-level
RP?Yf Al R = 15, 000 RPM flig ht.
(i) ~cceleration/Deceleratj.ons: Error is ca-µsec;l . ~ue . to left and righ t
pendulous vanes. During acceleration NH shows climb and bank to the
( I)
INNER GIMBAL : F·r ee d om in la tera l - c · . right. Du-ring deceleration, it shows descend and bank to t~1.e left. (Left
(ii) UT ER GiMBAL · ,... . ontrollmg hori zo n and right penddous vanes) ·
(,ii ) KY . . • reedom m longi tudi nal - Ba nk
: . PLATE i , co11nccted to OUTER GIMBAL (ii) Turning Error: During turn to right A/H shows climb and bank u nder
(1v } read s. The error increases as turn progresses and is maximum at 180°
M I IATURE AIRC ·
(vi . · RAFT 15 conn ected to th I , f . of th e turn and there after it reduces, after 360° of turn error is zero (on
rt1caJ axjs gr•1v1'ty c t 11 d e g ass o the instr um ent
• on ro e ROTOR · both sides). (Due to fore and aft pendulous vanes.)
338
339
PART II -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS GYROSCOPE
. d bank. the Artificial
Qll. AIH iriilladi~ns are reliable in - 1800 tabill.zed turn with a constant attitude an .
t1 Fo\loWlng s
a) ~85° pitch, ±900 roll Q • horizonJndlcntes: . .
b) ±55° pitch, ±85° roll a) . too high pitch up and too high banking
c) ±85° pitch, .± 180° roll b) attitude and banking correct .
Q12. Duri~g take off roll an ale fitted with vacuum .driven Aid will show:
a) Climb ·and bank to right
b) Only clim~ and no bank as ale is ~n ~ound.
c) Will read co~tas ale on grmmd.
c) too ht P c -u
·QtS. When an abirc~~

the pilot o se
~=
'gh 1·t h p and too low ban.l<1ng
tu
.
d 360 degrees with a cons n
ta t attitude and bank,
ro~:~ng on a classic artificial horizon:
a) too much r.ose-up and bank correct

·
b) attitude and bank correct .

(Irrespective of ale position, indication's will be the same)
:·.·, ~.. . ) too much nose-cp and bank too high AOB?
Ql3. An ~c roUs·out after·180° steep ~r~ to the rigbt ~ith reference to natural ;'.l~
r !:
.: ~
C • ugh. 1800 at constant
.Classic artificial horizon Indications turning tbro .
·
horizon. A/H wflls bow ·· ·· - · ·
a) Climb and slight·bank to the right t-Il ,. L~
~•f .· .
a) NC>se up and AOB too low.
b) N6se up a.'ld AOB too high.
b) Level and batik to the·l~ff ·
c) Climb and sligh~ bifuk to the left · . c) Nose up and correct AOB. · tti.ng p..1nclple of th
,. ttitude, the rese i •
, '" . urln nn acceleration phase at constant a . . .
Q14. An ale rolls ·out;i fter f80° 'steep:nirri tci'the left 'With·reference to natural . Q2O. 1
D ? .-
artificial horizon resu
\ts in the horizon bar mdicating a.
>
borlzon~,A/H will
~"' .,..
sliow.
, •
- · , '
. _ • •·•
a) nose-down followed by a nose-up attitude

a) Climb a:ndstight:tum to the right- ,
b) Uveland'banlc'to'the left : , b) constant attitude
c) Cliinb'-and slight baµk to tlie left . · c) nose-up ai.t itude t nt ttttitucie and bank
~ . ed 270 degrees with a cons a
Q15. Among tbe 'fligh_t c~ntr~l_ins,r11ments, ~be artificial horizon plays an essential Qll. When an aircraft bas tum tiflcial horizon:
: '. the pilot observes the following on a classlc ar
part. It us~•irgyroscoife:_w,i'th: '(N.ote: bi this question, 'the degrees of freedom
~fa r _ro· aff .defer~!~eir~y th~··n?mber of'gimbal rings 'it compris~) a) attitude and bank correct
b) too much nose-up and bank correct
.1),. c;me ~egr~?flie;~ q~,fwhos~.verti~ iuis:oriented in the direction of the real
vertical to the l~t~o~} s I)lajnt.ained in.this direction by an ~utomatic erecting . . c) too much. nose-.up and bank too low u.i . d
. axis of an am tu . e
system . 'Q22. How many de~ees of freedom and what ls the spin
b) two_degrees offteciJom, whose hoiizont.al axis corresponding to a reference indicator? · f ft d m
dit.ecifon' i§ maiiltaiii~'mab6rizoritai plane'bf an autorilatic;, erecting system a) Local earth vertical
two degrees () ee O •
:;,,.~..,, ~ · ,,.t· ~- :··'(;':.- ~-: l .. ;,· ··· .
c) tw9 dt~ee~-~f~~~W• wh<>~ ax:fs is orien!ed an~ continuously maintained to two degrees of freedom.
b) Aircr_aftlate~ axis
1~1 vertical by an.automatjc erectirig·systerp . . • . one degree of {Jeedom.
c) Aircraft•h()r~zoilta\_axis . . \ ht turn?
Q16. ,.W,he'1 ,an1ai~a:~J:t;hasttul,'.q~;~!)i~1gr~es,~ltJ11a,constant-attitude,an<l bank, the . . . ttltude indicator tn a r g
· Ql 3. What would-be-the•ind1cation on an a
pilot,obs~~e$jbf'foJl~jvi~g1o~.,a ~Jjl~~fc.a~Qci!!l horizon:
a) Climb due to pendulous vanes.
a) too mubh.:n~se~uptanct'-~iiJ tcx/high, . .,· .
b) too .much ~~~e.;uf~d tsanl(tob lo~.', . b) . No climb.
c) Descent due to pendulous vanes.
c) too much no~e-up and bank co~t
·3-41
PART II • AIRCRA
Q24. What W'lJ Fr INSTRUMENTS -'
at J a classic artlfi . ,
constant attitud iciaJ horizon indicate wl . ' GYROSCOPE
a) Correct bank e and bank angle? ieo turnfng through 9 . : -
b) t angle and attitude.
oo much bank d
an too much
0 d~ "
.,,_. ' ~ . ~I does not have its own north seeking element and needs to be aligned
)
c Too little bank d nose up attitude.
2 an too much . . (Ii t . al
Q 5. ff ow Will a b . nose up attitude. tt'~[lij~~~':_,': _ after start and at frequent mterv s.
as1c Al respond 'f
c)onstant bank angJe and RO~?an aircraft performs a 270 d
. •ii).
G)\ro is normally air driven.
{ '· ..,,, re expensive heading indicators are 'slaved' to a sensor (called a
a Nose up and bank . egree turn 0
b) N . nt
'·ry,,," 111,,').''
'-' .,.
' fhe •
flux gate conunuously senses th e eart h' s magnetic
. fi eld , an d a
ose down and b nk i1,. ~mtt7ch'Ulism
•.• ,0, constantly corrects the heading indicator. These
. 'slaved gyros'
c) Nose level and b.1~ .. ., ?: ~ ·· 2, ·" pilot workload by eliminating the need for manual realignment every ten
~ \}((
._,r :-.~- .io fiflec: n ininu1es.
DIRECTION GYR • ,,J,t;~-~J;fiors: The ~~th con_stantly rotates at 15° per hour while th~ gyro is
at . The_gy~o in a 11eadin . . 0 INDICATOR (DGI) , :f / ·rttiiining a ·pos1t1on :re_lauve to space, thus causing an apparent dnft m the
CJ tu de indicator, but its g .md1c_ a tor is mounted ; r-,-; ' ~ , · hyed _heading of 15° per hour. When using these instruments, it is standard
,l
a~~llt the vertical axis of thsp1~1 axis is horizontal p .n a_ double gimbaJ a . 'i},1.v . • ice to compare the h~~ding indicated on • t}:te_ direct;ional gyro with the
o sa ved gyro ind· e aircraft. Gyro h . . ~nn1tting sensin . ' s '1l,~n
.set to the appropri:ators, a~e not north seekjea~mg indicators, with tf of rc,wJ◊f\ 1
e'~itconipass at least every 15 mi,nutes and to reset the heading as necessary
di em to maintain th:;:eadd_mg _by !eferring to:g, theref?re tl:ley must 6: excepr jorl gte~i)v,i01 the magnetic compass,
ea mg indicati . magnetic com . . ?1anu:i1J,, ~~c!er:
Inherent in a magneti on, Without the oscillatii;ss. dRigrd1ty cat:s~~'f.
t~
1
. . c compass. an other er ../ . , (~(-'. Real Wander/R~ndom Wander or real drift/real topple i.s due to
. P nnc1ple· It . , )ts-. .,,
. •
Precess,on is used fc gives h d · . · ,.;, · · c-manufacturing imperfections, frictional forces and worn out bearings.
\ ea mg indication . .
or ~ro control. by using property of . . . ,(b)' _Apparent Wander is due to·the rotation of earth and movement of
1)rpe: Horizontal ax st' d gyro rigidity, Gyro on earth.
' ie gyro RP
M: 12,000
WANDER
f
(SHIF IN YRO AXIS)
{L ; DRIFT
(Shift in horiz.ontal plane}
TOPPLE
(Shift in vertical plane)
Re,a!Drift Appucnt Drift

-~om out bearin..- Rotation of eanh (.EAR.TH RATE)
·: Uneven mass dis~ibution on rotor
[ Movement of gyro on earth
1, ,. rictional forces (Transport Drift)
A head· · . ·· -.
fi ~m~~d . ERO! EARTH·RurE DRIFT, TD: TRANSPORT DRIFT
na/ zero omitted r.- ,.,plays headings bas· d .
T li e I' · ,•or exam 1 e on a 360° · ·
ac!)ustment knob is u / e, a 6 represents 0600 h ·1 azimuth, with the A/C on a westerly heading flies against the direction of earth rotation,
"r:1m pass. se to align the headf - . , d~ J e a 21 indicates 2 I 00 will expe1ience a greater rate of longitude change
ng m icator with th ·
e magnetic NC on an easterly heading will experience a lesser rate of longitude
342 change.
343
PART II -AIRCRAFT IN STRUMENTS
_________
-----· GYROSCOPE
_:::...:..:.:;:~::::'...;:-------
. Q26· What are the errors in a DG17

· 1. Transport wander.
\'
Drift 2. Earth rate.
3, Heading errors when banking and pitching,
4. Mechanical imperfections. c) A\\ of the above.
Real App~nt
a)_ l , 2 ,3. b) 1, 2,4.
I , I
ERD to ,_ Q27. What is the function of the latitude nut on II Dl?
A .
(15 ,x sin lat°) (GIS . )
60 XT,m £,/ a) To correct Coriolis effecl
b) To compensate for earth rate error.
pparent Topple=
. . 1ato / h our
15 X sm
c) To compensate for latitude error.
Q28. What error Is Introduced into a DGI d•• to movement ol the gy,o c,l•ti" ,,,
LATJTUDE ' NUT (COMPEN' . . .

the earth?
, ,. a) T""'l'Ort wand«/. b) ~ rth rate orro,.
~c) Altitude<"°'
~:inenEsRat)e. for apparent drift cau:~~~eNt:EVICE):
rotaa.on ofItearth.
;s used ;n a DGI
(EARTH RA.TE
to Q29- Th• maximum direetlonal gyro error to the wth ,otatlon Is,
a) 20°ihour b) 15°/hour c) 4°/bour
Whe
moved tn gyro is
· moved
. nSouthern in northern
latitude th .latitud
. e t h e nut lS
. moved inward and when
Q30, A directional gyro is:
changed at w;,rkshoi> condi~on:. nut ,s move~ Outward. The setting can only be 1. a gyroscope free around two axis
2. a gyroscope free around one axis
~erefo_re
so apphed thepresent
will be correction is Jati{ud
at all onl validTh for ac~oseo latttude.
. The compensation 3. capable of self-orientation around an earth-tied direction
18
change d latitude. ,' es. ere,ore It added to get total dr;t't at 4. incapable of self-orientation around an eartb~tied direction
The combination of correct statements is: c) 1, 4
SONI-South Out:&North In. b) 2,4
Q31. a)
An 2, 3
airborne Instrument, equipped with a gyro with 2 deg«" ol freedom ood
Total Drift = · Real + Lat Nut Correction + Apparent = RD + LNC + ,\D
a horizontal spin axis is:
Tot D = R.D. + LNG + ( ERD ± TD)
a) a flux gate compass
Tot D - Total Drift, b) a directional gyro
RD - Real Drift Q32.
c) a turn indicator
be beading read on the dial of a directional gyro is subject to error<, one ol
LNC - Latitude Nut Correction
which Is du• to the movement of th• ai.-craft. This error...
AD - Apparent Drift a) shows ;tself by an apparent rotation of the horizent:t I axis of the gyrnsc<>P' whicl•
GS - Ground Speed seems to turn at t 5' per hour to the right in the northern nerotSP"'"
b) ;s dependent on the ground speed of the aircraft, its tree track and "" a""''
Tot D = R.D. +LNC+(J5x sin lato /hour)± [<its x tan lat'] \atitude of the flight . .
c) is at its greatest value when the aircraft follows a mertd,an track
345
GYROSCOPE
PART 11 • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS •~/ ... ~ . AND SWP INDICATOR (TSI)

:t , Tl:JRN . degrees per second.
Q33. The gimbal error of the directional gyro is due to the effect of: pµrpose: It gives rate of turn m It is -normally electrically driven.
a) an apparent weight and an apparent vertical · l Axis Rate Gyro. . .
't\tpe Of Gyro - Jlonzonta . to give ind1cat1ons .
b) too slow precession on Lhe horizontal gimbal ring .., f gyro precession
Principle: It uses property o
c) a bank or pitch attitude of the aircraft l co-ORDINATOR
. ; i :,,, · TURN a/ . oiling in or out of
Q34. The characteristics of the directional gyro (DG) used in a gyro stabilized r . . f ·n when c ts r
compass system are: ' .J:_:.. :t ~ ,. . b th bank and rate o tul '
-f.'? . . . , . . purpose: It gives o .
a) two degrees of freedom , whose axis alig~ed with the vertical to the location is l ,a (urn it indicates bank ~gle. ..
. .
it gives rate o
f turn.
main tained in this direction by an erecting system When a/c is .established in.turn . -
b) two degrees of freedom, whose horizontal axis corresponding to the reference
direction is maintained in the horizontal plane by a~· automatic erecting system Principie: . . . the s in reference axis of which is
c) one degree of freedom, whose vertical axis, aligned with the real vertical to the ' . Single Degree-Of-Freed~rn Gyro: ~ogy::a1 axi;, such as the input or output
location is maintained in this direction by an automatic erecting system . free to rotate about-only one of the or!. . g . . . ,
Q35. The indication of the directional gyro as an on-board instrument ·are valid only ·a'ids. . ft rn gyro)-consists of a spinning rotor
for a short period of time. The causes of this inaccuracy arc: (s ometimes called a rate-o - u . ,. . .
A rate gyro . .
I. the earth's rotation mounted in a single gimbal.
2. the longitudinal acceleration
J. the aircraft's motion over the surface of the earth
4. the mechanical defects of the gyro
5. the gyro's weight
6. the gimbal mounf'ofthe gyro rings
Th e combination of correct.statements is:
a/ I, 3, 4 b) 1, 3, 4, 6 c) 2, 5, 6
Q36. The indications on a directional gyroscope or gyrocompass are subject to

errors, due to:
l . rota tion of Earth
2. ae ro plune motion on Earth
. e de ee of freedom; that is, it is free
3. lateral and transversal aero plane bank angles A gyro mounted in th1s manner h~s on gr . trained from precessing
4. north chauge m
to tilt in only one direct1on. The rotor ~ rate gyrToh~s ~esdone to limit precession
· . :' 11 , · g arrangement. is 15
5. mechanical defects by some me~ns, usua y a spnn . . . .on when there is no angular change
and to retur n the rotor to a neutl al pos1t1 . . f gyro is proportional to the
be combination of correct statements is: taking place. Remember, the _amount of precess1on o a
2, 3, 5 c) 1,2, 3, 5 ~
a) b) 3, 4,5 for ce that causes the precession. . d TSl
t
. .ft between turn coordinator an
\ ·,-
The main constructional d1 ~rence . . r d at 300 to tbe hori:zontal. Th
that longitudinal axis of the gyro gimba\ is me me
i,.:i. ,
.
, 1
346 '·
,. :·
allows i t to sense both roll a d GYROSCOPE
as tu r ning input force . n yaw. So.that the gyro will respond to bank
Rate I = 30; sec o . , as Well
r bank not more than 250
R ate 3 = go I sec Rate 2 = 6od sec .
R~te 4 = 1,20; sec
~~~ .
(~_,er . ..; ::~
Q1~· To maintain same rate of turn, if .CAS is increased, bank should be

· · \ · a) Increased b) Decreased c) Same
42, In· comparison to low level, to maintain same rate of turn, RAS at hi gher level
. \, is to be-
a) Increased b) Decreased c) Same
Both can have same rate even when the radius is different by changing
the speed or Bank angle.
TAS is directly proportional to Bank and inversely proportion al to Rate
.
~- . ofTurn •
:,, ":l Q43. In-comparison t.o low level at higher level, if RAS is kept constant to maintain
• ~· same rate. Bank is to be
a) Increased b) Decreased c) Same
Errors When the aircraft yaws , or rotates about its vertical axis, it produce~
a force in the h o rizontal plane that. due to prc>cession. causes the ~vro and it~
gimbal to rotate ahout the gimbal's axis. It i~ restrained in thi s rotauon plane hv
a.calibration spring; it rolls over just enough to cause the pointer to dellecl un id
QJ7. An a/c turns•Jeft from Hdg·()45o to:315° at rate 1. Time taken will be. it aligns with one of the doghouse-shaped marks on the dial , when th e aircraft is
a) 30 sec b) 45 sec c) . 90 sec making a standard rate turn.
Errors in TSI are caused due to load factor, RPM and sprin g tensio n . ,t
BANK= TAS +7 indicated in chart below.

10'
Q38. A n ale is turning with rate I with TA~= 250 kts. Find bank angle required.
250' +7 = 25 'f-7 =32°
10
349
GYROSCOPE
. :xorsi~Ii bar-restrained floated rate, g:yro: A fluid surrounds the gyro sphere
d:::,pr?\'}4~s ..~otatio~ . . It also pr_qvi~e~ P;.rotec~on fr~~ shock, and damps
';:_gsolltt191:1~ ~e&ul~g ~ro1?' sudden ~~aqge~ m the '":n.~ul~r rate i,nput. In
;~gyro,~.th,~',mner ~1!1-b~l disp~a~~m~~t mu~~. ~-e me¥Jl!ec\ _with .some type of
··,tr'icat'p~ckoff, As the<'.,gy°r<? case.is_.rotated about tJ:te-~nput axis, cl~ckwise or
·Loaq f\t:or (G)iG). . nteJdockwise; a·· preaession torqu~ will be d~veloped about the
·=- . . ' " ~ ~ s more ovet'read · -\{_~- .'- ' . .; ' ,
ERRORS: ltO' <fo'ftr . ' I-NCLINOMETERiSLIP.'t. SiaD IND!CATOR

.., ~ " . • • I,
.
-~ Spring.te\sion : . .
,., l :T he indinomeier in the iristrumends a black glass ball se.tled inside a curved
.I.VJ. is more over read°'. ,s more under read ·ks:iJlib"e _that is partially filled witl) a liquid for damping. This _ball measures the
,< ~fi~::'~-su:~µgth of the fo~c~ o( gr~yi&, al),d t!i,~ for,ce of inerti~-caused.by a tµrn.
";n't he aircraft is flying straight-and-:level, there is no inertia acting on the ball,
d.it rema;ins in the center of the tube.between-two,:wires. -In a turn made with
~;t!X a~gle that is to·o ste~p_;ith~ force·of gravity -is gr~ai er _than the inertia and
Rate-integratin G etKa.11 rolls down to ·the inside;of tlfe tum. If the tutn is made with too shallow
spring (i.e.' the v g )'ros_c ope. The rate gyro's f; a::tllrik"angle, the inertia is greater tha~:·gr~v-ity and tll_e ~~ll rolls ~pward to the
th e performanc/Z r:frchanism that allows it to fu!~o~r::~~e ~a~ limited by its oti-tside of the turn. · ' , · , ·
degrt:e- of-freedom~ t e~nents "'.ere mastered by the .devel i.n1ts its -capability), : ,;,r; . ·:i ,C
;:::f ::,:~i:~:f ro~:::at•~~::~;:;.iiz~;s~i;q:::: ;~:e:;~~g~;i:i~~; tda:i:~~r:
_T he inclinometer -does nQt indicate the amount of ba~k, nor does it indicate
J_):·,, slip;·i~ only indicates'the_} e1ati6nsh~p' l>etweerhhe·angl.e ·ofbaiik and the rate of
~o
im •,::, . •
oe
P o mamtain the gi bal 1s a ampmg
.:.
I:' yaw. ~- ,, ,,
I
flu ~01 a ting gyro is achieved by isolating them wat_ null. The perfection of the Use the simple rule, "step on the ball," to ·r~riieinber which rudder pedal
> a nd low reaction torque electrom . gyro g1?1bal by means of flotation , :' •. .to press. In_ a slip ;th.e rate of turn is too 'slow for ·the angle of bank, and the ball
agnet1c suspension · k ffs , -..~,.,.. ,moves to tl\e inside. .of •the. turn ...In-· a skid;.the
This type of rate gyr O ( fi1 s, pie ') ·, and torquers. . ' . ~ ~, ' ~' .,,<, ,'r~ rate
- of tum is too great for the
<,•. (,,., ,·. ~
k o en used in · · 1 • . _;,_.. ,. ·angle ,of b~~k, and the! ,bait ~OVfS ,to ,t\le quisi<;ie of fh~ ,turn.To correct for a slip,
no_w n as the floated rate ro T . . Inertia navigation equipment) is also ,:, decrease bank and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct for a skid, increase the
tor ion bar. The advantage ~~th - 1:µ~ unb1t generally uses a r estraint known as a ,:.' bank and/or decrease the rate of turn. -, ·
ne d . l e torsion ar over the sp .· 1. th h
~ s no ever arm to exert tor · ue Th . . u ng s at t e torsion bar
ax1 ·, a nd produces restrainin ~ . ~ tor.s10n ba_r is ~ounted along the output
pulling. Also. there is no im g l ~rqu~ m e_1 t~er direct10n by twisting instead of SLIP $KID
operation. g ba earmg fncuon .to cause interference with gyro
More Bank Less Bank (Acceleration due to gravity - (Ailerons - Bank
Less ROT More ROT (Centrifugal Force,~ (Rudder - Rate ofTurn))
PICKOFF To correct To correct
Less Bank More Bank (Centrifogal Force. - (Rudder - Rate pf Tum)'
TORSION More ROT Le5.s .}.\(?T (A.~celeratio11 d~e to pa,Yity-(Ail~rons - ~W,))

BAR
FLUID 'CASE
Rate-Integrating Gyroscope
350 351
GYROSCOPE
~ . _ 1 of which ls horizontal
. , r \ '' .. ; , ' 6, the spinning wheel aiuS • •
: .<v;-.. - .{, .,_?; ,,.. -_,. T.he comblnatlon of correctb)statements is. )
c l,3
,: :, -~,..~ ' , 2 5 1' 6
. ,( 1~: ,/,' /, . a)
,,. ;
·: ,.:
In
,
\;,-'Q·;is. a Tum-indicator, the mea~ure::n rate
h'ghbank angles, in measunng y
.
a;
t fa rate-of-turn consists of :
; · ,. a) 1 · th \l rate
. < . --b) 'high bank angles, in measuring e ro
. ·ng the yaw rate
, c) low bank angles, m measun • .
indicator reading 19 •
. ~9. in a turn at constant rate, the tu~n ,
Q" th · ft true a1rspeed
. _ If inadequate ngli~ ~dderi~ applied ·in,a''right him, a-slip' res~lts. Too:much right rudder ,.
a
) independent to e arrcra -
, aft true ampeed
causes the airy,lane,to'slciii,thro~gh tlie tufu. ,C~tering'fut,b!ill r~ults' in a'coordinated turn. ' b) inversely proportional to the a1rc~
' - ,._ • ' • • 1 • " • <''\ \ • ..,., ~
. h · craft troe airspeed
Q44. Tbe,ball in a servlceable'slip Indicator is_;;;....;_--'---'--- by1_ _ _ _ __ ' , c) proport1ona1tot e arr . 'th 1 d...,ree of [reedom and a
· ped with a gyro W1 -i,,
and ,:. Indicate the state ohlip. •cjso. An airborne i_nstr~~en~ cqmp
a)' ·Held 0ceritral, gravity, goes·not always · - horizontal spin a,ns is a. c) tum indicator
b) directional gyro
b)' Positioneci;'Acceleration, does not always a) {luxgate compass
h' h Indicates rate of turn.
c) ffeld central, gravity, always Q51. A turn indicator is an instrument w ic .
Acceleration -in,clud~ bofh:, a~5~l~r~~o~.pµ~) ~-8}'3~ o/-a~dH~ntri.fugai ~9rce. - Rate of turn depends on:
Q45. Increasing'altitude at constant TAS will _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the angle of Bank t. bank angle
req~red to achieve_a ~i:~t~ 1.ttu:n . .
2. aero plane speed
a) Increase ,~:-" ·,,,;~b) - De~r~se• c) Not affect
3. aero plane weight
Q46. ·Following;a ie~t,eri~e' failure 'the pilot of.a multi engine ale u~es rudder to
. ' oppose yaw. and l<eeps-the
-
aic·on'hdg 'while using bank to prevent side slip. •:' •.• The combination of correct statements is:
b) l, 2 c) 2. 3
The TSI will show: a) l, 3 '. • . the \e[t and n
Q52. When, in night, the needle of a needle-and-ball md1cator is on
a) both needle and ball central
ball on the right, the aircraft is:
b) Both needle' and ball to the right.,
a) turning right with not enough bank
c) Needle central and ball to the right.
. b) turning \e;'t wi.th too much bank
Since ale is mai~taininghdg; :the ale is riot 'turning, so needle is central_.
c) turning left with not enough bank .
Q47. The rate turn indicator uses a'gyroscope: b \l · d' ator is on the ngbt o
Q53. When, in flight, the need\~ of a ?eed\e-and- a in ,c
1. with one degree of freedom the ba\\ on the \dt, the aircraft 1s:
2. with two degrees of f~eedom - . a) turning left with too much bank
3..the frame ofwbicli i~,supported tiy,tworetum springs b) turning right with not enough bank
4. the spinning wheel aiis' ~fwhich is parallel to the pitch axis c) turning \eft with not enough bank
5. the spinning wheel axis of which is·parallel to the yawing axis

353
PART 11 • AIRCRAFT lt,JSTRUMENTS . , .,. , - -------~;..;_:,:_.;..~G~Y.~P.U~:>1,.,~v'.!:r~s;--~--,...., - .- -~ ,·t
• "',.,,,,,.. I ,.
QS4. When, in flight, tbe needle and baJJ ·of a needle-and-ball Indicator are on the . t~~. -Tbe,rate-or-t~r,n ls _the:
rigb,, the aircraft is: • ' ~ · .: ., • •·
1
ti) ,pitch rate in a tum .
u) turning left with not enough bank .. f b dm ' grate of the aircraft
• . b) change-o - ea
Dj ,urning left with too much bank
,,-w , .... c) aircraft speed in I,\ turn ' ' ., . , '-~ban attitude l~dlcator will show?
\,J lurning right with too much bank ,. ed in conjunction Wl ~ - .. . ·
;'.Q6l. A turn indicator us , ., , , :· · ., ·
QSS. When, in Jllgbt, the needle and ball of a needle-and-ball i_n dicator are on the
left, the aircraft ls:
?,;: :-.. 1 . turn direction. '-
1~·11;:7-( ,:-··?
a) turning right with not enough bank · 2• Rate of turn, , · ·" . ' l a:sis
·. b 0 t the true verttca • ..
b) turning right with too much bank 3 • Angular velo~i~ a ._ ~ .: '· al~-
c) turning left with too much bank . . ·• ikl about.the aircraft -v,e!tic ."'
4 • AJ)gular ve o~ •;, . . . - t ..
· l gltudma1-•~~
Q56. On the ground, during a left turn, the turn indicator indicates: S Angular velocity about ttie on . . ... c)
a) needle to the left, ball to the right ' b) 1,3.
, a) l,2.
oJ needle in the middle, ball to the right
·Q~l. ROT indications are?
c) needle to the left, ball to the left
,;, a) Proportional to TAS .
QS7. On the ground, du~g a right turn, tl;le turn indicator indicates: b) Proportional to C~S.
a) needle to the right, ball to the right
•·: · c) Proportional to mass: · d li indicator are displaced·to the
b) needle lo the right, ball to the left :'. Q63, When both the needle and ball of a turn an ,~ p .
c) needle in the middle, ball to the right . , /< right the aircraft-is'?· · , · ·.
QS8. Under normal operating conditions, when an aircraft is in banked turn, the · a) Turning right with too tn~c~ TAS-; ·
rate-or-turn indicator is 11 valuable gyroscopic flight control instrument; when b) Turning rigbt with insufficient TAS.
it i:; ass ociated with an attitude indicator it indicates:
c) Turning left with too much TAS. l ft mne fails in
J . the angular velocity of the aircraft about the yaw axis d li indications when a e ene~
Q64. What will be the immediate turn an s p
2. the bank of the.aircrar:t · climbing flight.
3. the direction of the aircraft turn a) Ne~dle and.ball l~ft.,,:•
b) Needle and ball-right.
4. the angular velocity of the aircraft about the real'vertical
c) Needle left an~ ball right.
The combination of correct statements is: • ?
Q65. When turning.at constant bank-angle the·rate of turn is.
a) I, 2 b) 3', 4 c) 1, 3
a) -Detennin¢1by,,~(eight1an.<Hfb.$·.-, ,,-. · w.i,
QS~. A turn indicator is built around a gyroscope with:
b) Detennined by weight: : ·' ·, "N i ' . \~·
a) 1 degree of freedom
c) Determined by TAS.
b) 0 degree of freedom
c) 3 degrees of freedom
355 ·
GYROSCOPE
PART II -AJRCRAFT'INSTRUMENTS ~:,~2,:· . d Ii i dlcator shows needle left and ball right in a bank ed turn .
,. .. •· Jfthe turn an• s P n d the required corrective action
_M•; ., · . •1s •••• • •.. ••?•
Q66. A ...,
tum ... c, lndkato~ used in conj~ction with an a ttttude ..mdacator
. can show? 1
;f,f-_\ ~ _, ,, the aircraft as ........ an
•
1• an;;, ma.turn. · >.t : ~ .)-:SkiaJing

C• , ., ., 8 .
push left pedal forWard.
I
2. Direction of turn. ,. , ,.. \ ·, ·-bJ ... Skidding push-right pedal forward.

3. A,nP,lar vel~~~~
., , about-the_
• .. . vertical
. axis of the -• . fi.t.• -
iurcra
• '::.._. X'."_-_· · ,
/1-iff"···;,,
1 •,--t- "' ,:,
) s1· pp;ng
·· C · 1 ·
push left pedal forward.
LU, .. l ired if the ball is out to the right in a left turn'?
4. Angular velocity about th~ t~~~ ; ertl· _,1,.·. x:1· · ' · ·"'
'ir,;t}rQ73.
·-··_.: What corrective
. d actaon s requ
b) More left rudder. c) More left ban.le
l,2 ca a s. 1
a) · b) 1,3. c) 2, 3. ,,- _,4 · · a) More nght ru er.
: _• Q74, If both the b•'I and needle are out to the left in• turn, the baU can he
Q67. Wlaat factors affect the turn indicator?
centralized by':
1. AofA. 2. AOB. 3~ TAS. 4. Weight. a) Pushing the right rudder bar forward .
a) 1, 2. b) I; 3. c) 2 3
b) Increasing TAS .
Q68. What are the. essen ti a 1 properties of a t·u rn' m
. 'd'.1cator? ' ·
• •. , .,,'
l. Two degrees offreedom. f•·' :;Q7s.·, For,
c) DecreasingTAS.
coordinated rate t right turn at 250 Kts TAS, in clean conOinntion the
2- One degree of freedom. correct AOB is approximately?
a) 32 degrees. b) 23 degrees. c) 16 degrees .
3. Horizontal spin axis.
Q76. For a coordinated rate t telt turn at an AOB of27 degrees, the TAS should hd
4. Vertical spin axis.
a) 200 Kts. b) 250 lets. c) 27 0 Kts .
5. Longitudinal spin axis.
Q77. The gyro in a turn indicator must have ...... gimba\. ...... and .... ... degrces or
a) 1,2. b) 2,3. c) 3 4
Q69. On a TSI what does rt indicate when the . ' . freedom?
baU out to the right? . . tum needle as out to the left a nd the a) One one. b) Two one. c) Two two.
Q78. If the turn indicator needle is out to the right and the ball is out to the left, it
a) Right tum with too much bank
b) Left tum with too little bank. ' indicates?
c) Left tum with too much bank. a) A left tum with too much bank.
b) A left turn with too little bank
Q70. a)
What should a tu d li •
Needle left and :~;eft~ p mdlcator show Jn a right torn on the ground? c) A right tum with too little bank.
Q79. What ang\e of bank is required to conduct a balanced rate 1 turn ,n :m
b) Needle left and ball right.
aircraft at 125 kts TAS at a mass of 55000 Kg?
c) Needle right and ball left.
a) 15 .Sdegrees . b) 17 .Sdegrees. c) \9.Sdeg:ree')
Q71. the
If the tum and
aircraft is slip and indicator
th shows
i needle left and ball left in a banked turn Q80. If tbe mass of the aircraft was decreased from 60000 Kg to 4~000 Kg?
. . . "· .. ··· e requ red corrective action Js ? · . '
a) Skidding push left pedal forward. .. ....... a) It would increase the required AOB.
b) Skidding push right pedal fo~ard. b) lt ,\·ould decrease the required AOB .
c) Slipping push left pedal forward. c) lt would not affect the required AOB, but less power wou\d be required .
357
356
PART II • AIRCRAFT IN~.TRUMENTS
Answers Chapter .
Q:
r. a
2
c
3
c
4
b
5
b
6
b
7
a
8
a
9
a
10
b
11
C
12
a
13
C
14
a
15 16 17
C b C
18
b
19 2
C
- C 6
Q: <) .
-l 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
--
40
-
A: C a a C a C b a b C b b C b b C a .. . b
- 47 48 49 50 53 54 55 57 58 59
Q: -! I 42 43 44 45 46 5 1 52 56 60 :
a , ,Since the magnetic compass, ,vorks on ,the, _principk of -magnetism, it is

A: a b a b C C C C b C b C b C C a b C
-b . n<ccessart for the ,pilot to have at least ,a basiC,unders,anding of magnetism, A
Simi,le,bar magnet has t,vo ,center s 0£,magnetism ¥1_hich _are called poles. Lines
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 ·74 75 76 77 78 79 · 8C
, ~f magneticforce flow out from each pole;in all di,ections, eventually bending
Q: 61 62 63 64 65
: -,, , , ,around a nd ,,,turning, to the oilier _pole, ,The ~ a through which these lines of
A. C a b C C C C b b C C b C b a a a C C C , ,, ,force flow is called the field of the magnet.,For, t e purpose o t ,s scussmn. the
- : ,p61e,·a, e di,sigf>aied knOrth" and '"; oU\h." I£ two bar magnets are placed near
' . ' each other, the north pole of one will attract the soulh pQle of the ocher. There is
- evidence that there is a magnetic field•,unouniling the Earth, and this them,' is
applied in the desigg._ofthe inagne;iv compass. It.acts very much as though there
, were a huge bar.magnet runnii,g along .the axis of the Earth wbicb ends several
hqndred miles below the surfa,ce . ...
The lines of force have a vertical 'compon·e nt (or pu~l) which is zero at the
Equator btit builds to' l 00 \>erCCnt of the' tOtiil force at the poles. If magneti
needles, such as the airplane magnet\c compass bars, are held along these· line
l of force, the· vertical component causes one end of the needle to dip or defiec
downward . The amount of dip inqeases as the needJ.es are moved closer an
closer to the poles.' 'lt '. if :this deflection OT dip which :causes some of the l~rg
compass errors. · ' •',' ·
The magnetic cpmpa~s. wNch _i,s the- only direction:s,e~}ung· instrument
the airplane, is simple in construction. lt contains two steel magrtetired nee
fastened . to' a 'float arbund which is mounted a compass carcl. The needles
parallel,' with'theif north' sceking Cnds , ,
3S9
3S8
MAGNETIC COMPASS
. d . th ---.; . . l ccessories io an aircraft disnnb the compa n ·dl l"s ;:i. nd
~omte m e same direction. The compass card has letters for ca d" ,A an d ekctnca
, Oil' .. a Th difference between the d'1recuo11
· ·m 1·1c .it
• · cJ \) ;.i
headings, and each 30° interval is represented a nu b th l by 'r 1na1 fl,ctute an 'add1uonal error. · ll \ ·
. all d in an airplane, and one msta ec m an ,11rp 1-,ml•.
e •
is omitted. For example, 300 would appear -as a 3 an:3;rio e aldst zero o f Which p tic compass not inst e
B'et th b ' wou appear as 3" 1iiagne .
ween ese num ers, the card is graduated for each 50_ v, . cteviation. .. . I
: . eadin r the compass' direction-sen ~1t1v1- m;:i. ~111· i 1 e r
lf an aircraft changes _h . bg, t th e •·1me direction while th P. ;:iirn ;i l1 w .
NORTH MAGNETIC POLE ·n t te tol p0tnt
11eedles w~ con ~m
lO a OU ~• - .
. craft turns, mt:taHic a nd electrical eq111p~1 '.' , ,1 :t w
t:t .
,..,ith re\auon to it.~ t 1e. ~ir lative to the stee\ needles·. hen ce . th eir mf1 u , nn :
aircraft change thelf ,pos~~~n and deviation change~ . Thu s, dev iatinn IP pf' nr~• ·
on the compass need'.e c f ft Although compensati ng mav,nc1 qr ' .,t
in part, on th_e _heading o d~c: :~i~r~e~iation on most headings. it i, im pn---.ililc: ,,,
con1pass·are:adJusted t~ re on all hi>adin s. Therefore, a devi.ation r ~1rcl , ,, ,,1;1\I l
. ;elitninate th1s.er_ror ~nurelfythe pilo~ em~bles the pilot to mair.tain th e rk i cl
, . the cockpit m view o ,
1n d'
Th• Eerffl'a magnel/c held compal'l>d.
·i magnetic hea mgs.
· · · toebermegnef ·. · · · Magnetic 90mpass '• lJ • the Magnetic Compass
, ;,, ,. _sing . ·s the only direction-seeking instrn mr·:1· "' rr ... ~,
. . \ , ,/, . Since the magnetic compass t ma rnetic comp " ~ h t>=>d ,n!!:
, The float assembly iJ.S housed m ia bowl filled with acid-free white kerosene " t,
The purposes ot th_e liquidiare,to,dampen out e_xcessive oscillations of the compas~
.
irplanes the pilot must be able to turn the airplane to ah
·-✓ a d mai~tain this heading, It's helpful to remember t_ e .0 oTh
'?
11 . l1 ar· c•e • ,<11 c-.
wing r 1 .i ' , , ic.,
d r
•••
d b' b . .' f ~ an h" h db magneuc clip e c iar act .s

car a~ . r_e 1eve · y · uorancy, part ,o 'the weight·of the float from the bearings. .:ort11e magnetic compass W 1C are ca~;e _..._ ...._ __ Southern Ffc.1 p 1r:·1·
] ewel·, eanngs are:use~ to''moui,1t the' ~oat assembly ,on -top of a pedestal. A line. ,,,.are only applicable in the ~?.:~~-:_i:n emisp ere. n ---
(<!alled the lubbenli~~) 1s,mounte,? b~?md the g~ss of the instrument that can be .. . _"', ~fie opposke Kfrue.
used for.a reference lin~,when aligmng. the headmgs on the c·ompass card. \ 7 ,,
. . , ~· ,; ( Compass Turning Error h
Compass ,E rrors ' '.:;!;;i- ..-.. If on a northerly h eading and a turn is made toward eas nr \,f:' 'i t. t ,
...., l · d" t a tuTn in c\iP 11 P ' u, , t
·v~ation. Although ·the magnetic fieli:l of the Earth lies roughly north and initial indication of the compass ags or m ica es .' r .,. ,. ' "'
south', the Earth's· magnetic poles 'dd not coincide with its geographic poles, which direction. This lag diminishes as the turn p rogre ses coward e
are,used in the c6nstruttion of aeronautical charts. Consequently, at most places (where there is no turn error) .
. d t d the east p r \, c-, t. tlir
on the Earth's surface, the direction sensitive steel need!es which seek the Earth's o If on a southerly heading and a turn t ma e owar .
dl ·u .ndirate a crre.itc r ;rn10 U. I
magn,e~c field y,,ill i:iot!P?intto ,Tru.e.~~rth ,but. to Magnetic North. Furthermore, initial indication of the compass nee e w1 t . . . , , - , he t 1• r ,
lo,c;~ II?,~gnetic ,fie!d~ , from miner;~l) iep9sits and other conditions may distort of turn than is actually made . This lead also dnnnu she. a ,
the ·E a~th's magnetic .fi~ld and;,C:3:~-~~. ~n: a9-dition11l errnr in the position of the progresses toward east or west wher~ there is no _rn·r_n ~~~or ti·, er• •~ : "
<:OTTipiiss' norµi-seekipg n;i,~gnetized ., neeq_l~s with reference to True North. If
a turn is made to a northerly h.eadmg from a n ) du ecth. , . I' .
o . l b h" d the tu r n 1 h e1,· ,rr ,..
Th,e ang1,1lat <;l~ff~~en.ce .b.~tw~~n J'~e· North ~nci the direction ,indicated by the indication when approachmg north ags e m d' _. ·\ d
m ~~~~tic,cqmpas_S::-<;¥.C.\ ¥gipg\d nv~*OJ\ er,t'{f"':i,sov,ar~ation .. Variation is different the rollout of the turn is made before the desi,ed hea ing is reac e -
for different points on the Earth's surface and is shown on the aeronautical charts If a turn is made to a south_e ,\y headu1g from~ d~:~c:i~~ 11~: ~ ~<'t ~r1; 1;
0
as broken u.:ies connecting points of equal_variation. These lines are isogonic lines. indication when approachmg southerly h:a~mrt' , d . p ·-sec\ Th
The ·lirie 'where the ·magnetic variation iss:zero is an agOnic line.
The,efore, the rollout i~ made_after the ;srr~or~::o~~l \,e;dings ~,n
.·n~~~f.o~;' Act_u~4Y1;~c,?~P~~~1is:~~1~ . r~r.elijnfluenced solely by the l~arth's
magneuc hoes of force. Magnetic disturbanse~ ~ro~ m~gnetic fields produced by
amount of lead or lag is ma..xnnum on 1e
361
360
depends upon the angle of hank used and geographic position of th,
airplane with rega1·d ·to latitude. · MAGNETIC COMPASS
An aircrafi flying at 45°N latitUde making a turn to north from east or"'"
ma in taining a standard rate turn a pilo1 would need to roll out of the turn wh, .,
th e compass was 45 degrees plus one half of the ba nk angle before north. (F,·o,n •
eas, tononh at 90 knots 0+(45 - 7)= 38. A pilot would begin to roll out lo straigh,
flight and on a heading of north when 38 degrees was read from <he compas,_ Q1, The compass heading can be derived . , ,etic, heading by·reference
. from the magn_
(From west lo north at 90 knots 360- (45 -7) = 322. A pilot would begin to roll th, to a: . . r es
aircraft out cf the bank at 322 degrees read from the com pas, to fly on a nortJ, a) map showing the isochmc JJl
heading. Making a turn towards south from west the pilot would have to roll the · · curve,
b) compassswmgmg , ,
aircraft our of the turn when the compass was 45 degrees minus half the bank
1.an gle (fro- m7)West
80+(45 10 sou th at 90 knots 180 - (45 - 7) = l 42, from east to south
=218). c) deviati0n correction curve d . mpus is'due to the action of:
Id c co - - . , fie ld - .
. Q'~. The quadranta e viation of the magne ,, th' g·eomagnetic
Compass Acceleration Error: " . · influenced t>y c . ·
a) the hard iron pieces . db the mild iron pteces
b) the hard iron. pieces.influence ~the·geomagnetic field .
o When on an east or west heading, no e rror is apparent while entering a
c) the soft iron pieces mfluenced by . heading with 20' bank at a .
turn to north or south; however, an increase in airspeed or accelera tion
will cause the cornpass to indicate a turn toward n orth; a decrease ii, ,
Q3 A pilot wishes to tu rn right ondirect
to a southerly . in order to achieve thu
reading compass,
airsp
SO t1theed
. o r acceleration will cause the com pass to indicate a turn toward . latitude of 200 North. Using a ximate heading of: .
°
he must stop the turn 0 an appro c) 210°
Jf on a north b) 190° · .
o acceleration oror south tion.
decelera heading, no error will be apparen t because of
a) 1500
·. Q4.. The ,
quadrantal deviation · a magnetic compass
of . is corrected by u~::ug:
R~ading the Compass a) soft iron pieces
b) pairs of pennanent magnets
The magnetic compass should be read only when the aircraft· is flying .,
straight and level at a consiant speed. Th_e compass is extre!T!ely erratic in any h d
c) · n pieces
a, rro , . · • . ofa 111acnaetic
• e the deviation ~ ·
othe,· fltoight
errors condition. Fol!owing this simple r uie will help reduce navigation
a minimum. · ·purpose of compass swing
Q~. The . is to deternun
compass:
lf the pilot thoroughly understands the er i-ors and characteristics of the a) on a given heading
magn etic
decenn iningcompass,
headings.this ir.strument can become the most rebable m eans of b) at a given latitude
c) onJ~n.y hea9ing i .b re during d eceleration following a lan_clini in an

. .northern
., ·o_6. In the .hem sp e ' · ass will indicate:
- Easterly"direction, the magnetic comp . . -
a) a heading fluctuating a\)out 0900
·············•···-··· .. ·····························•·..························•; .................................................................................................. ,....
b) a collftant heading
) an apparent tum to.the So~th . . bttding by meau ola

c h d' g can be derived
Q7. The magneti~f ~a m , '.. 1· es . . from the true .
a) ~p shq~g the is~lmtc ~
b) ~ap show_ing the:isogonal.lmes· .
362 c) compass swinging curve
363
-~ ---------!M~A~G~N~ET~IC~C~O~M~PA~S~S~~==~== ~ - -- - ·-
PART II -AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS .~ - . during deceleration following a landing in o
,. Q15 In the Northern hem1spherc, f compass will indicate:
Q8. When turning onto a northerly beading tbe 'rose of a magnetic compass -- : , · Westerly direction, the magne ,c ·
tends to "undershoot"; when turning onto' a southerly heading it tends to ' · a) an apparenl turn to the North
"overshoot":
. " arent tum to the South_
L these compass.andications are less reliable tn·tbe northern hemisphere th11 n/ ~-'.) . b) an app · . bout 210°
in the southern hemisphere . · - . _' :~ ·. , · . c) a heading fluctuatmg a d \ tion following a landing in 11
, , ,. . , . . here, dudng ece era
2. these compass osclllations following a -lat~ral gu~t are not-identical if the .- · ' '\> Qt 6. In the i:;outhern hemisp tic compass will indicate:
aircraft is heading north or south .- , " _, Westerly direction, the magne
3. this behaviour is due to the 'mecbanical construction of th~ compass · ,li;.,· a) an apparent turn to th e Soulb
4. this behavi~ur is a symptom of~ ba_dly swung c,~11lP_,as~ ~
2700
b) a beading fluctuating about
- - - · tu to the North
The combination of correct statements is:
✓ - - .,
·~ : : :· c) an apparent m . a landing in Northerly direction, the mn gncti c
a) 2, 3, 4 b) 2, 3 ~ . . Ql 7. During_ deceleration following .
. • • ;if'· compass will indicate:
Q9. Among the errors of a.magnetic .~oinpass;1ar:e errors:,.
a)' an app~e.nt turn to the East
a) of ~arallax; due to ~scillatiol}s of tli~,R:O!Jlpass rose . ..
b) an apparent tum to the West
b) in North seeking~due to b~ angle and magnetic b eading
c) no apparent turn
c) due to Sch. Jer type :oscillations t . . pass origir.ate from:
Ql8. The fields affecting a magnetic com
QIO. The purpose of a compass ~ing is to attempt to coincide the indications of:
1. magnetic masses
a) compass north and magnetic north
2 • ferrous metal masses
b) true north and magnetic.north
3. non ferrous metal masse_s
c) compass north anp lubber line
4. electrical currents
Qll. In a steep turn, the northerly turning error on a magnetic compass on the
The Co mbination of correct statements is: ) \ , 2, 4
northem, hemispbere !s:., .- . · a) l, 2, 3 b) \ , 2, 3, 4 c . .
a) equal to 180° on a 2700 heading in a right tum . d 1 ation following a \anding in a
Ql9 In the Southern hemisphere, durmg ece er. . . ..
b) none on a 0900 heading in a right tum . Easterly direction, the magnetic compass ·will indicate.
c) equal to 1800 on a 090° heading in a right turn
a) a heading fluctuating about 090°
Q12. Magnetic compass swlnging1s carried out to reduce as much as possible: b) an apparent tum to the North
a) deviation -b) turning.error c) variation
c) no apparent turn . .
Ql3. Magnetic compass ·works by: · · .an all nment of 0450, The isogomc \in
th
Q20. An aircraft takes-off on a runway Wl dg i tion is oo on a take-off wit
a) Converting earth's magnetic field to electri~t' field '. on the ·area chart indicates 00. _The compass ev a .
b) Sensing earth's magnetic field and.co!}verting it to. gyro motion. zero wind, the northerly turning error~ _ 0
c) Sensing earth's magnetic field andro~ting co~p~ s card. a) is such that the compass will indicate a value not1ceab\e above 045
"f ,. t \.,'. ~- ·"'· ; J ' , . :¥ •
b) will be null if the wings a\'e kept level
Qt 4: A pilot wishes to turn right on to a northerly heading with' 20° bank at a
• \ > • , ....
latitude of 40°North. Using a dJrect readJng compa~-:; :..-i order to achieve this c) is such that the compass wil\ indicate a value noticeable below 0450
be must stop the turn on to an approximate :.:': .. jtog ·~f:
a) 350° b) 010° c) ' 330°
365
364
, PAA'f II -AJRCJw=r INSTJUJMENTS
Q21. 1lllling: decdera:tion" ,II- - , _ ·- d' ,_ -..; HAGNmG<X>l'INS .
cumpas,.. will
. indicate:o.-.~IDg a ... a mg UI a Southerly direction, the magnetic ,
.: , no apparent rum • . fl nsc. • ~fSllklD:
e purpose or the Aaauadat4tt
. ult. ofrtlie
eitbar-in• • .
tbe,GYJlO or COMP mode
• beading fluctuating about 180,0 a) show whether the compass II opcndiDg .
:: an apparent tum to the East b) display the serviceability of the ~~ .L...
. -· - mail
• · cnmrbronised with t h e ~
Q22. \'a.ria.tioo iJ defined as the aagle between: c) indicate that fhe gyro IS-.,- , JI hclaa\.tlle ikect
3J TN aoo m. 060' to 3W in the Nortltern ,~an-__.,....._ , .--...
i9 When turn1D1 from
,Q : ,reading eompu, wOI - (J) causine an -·
00 lw!ie•doe .r111e tan.......-
.
i . andCN.
Swirl will _ (Ill) the error;
C) MNao.dCN.
a, (i) under read (u) over (ilil increase
Q23. A compau swing is used to: '} . , ... i) decrea.,e
b) {i) over read (a) under '-w
aj .:11ign compass north with lrue north.
c) (i) over read (it) under (iii) increase • will normally btdin1e "
,_,, align COIIIpas.s north with magnetic north. • h .eJ"ie, a magnetic compua
QJO. In the Northern HelDlSp • . • • ' ·
:: I et true oortb and lubber line aligned_ turn towardJ JII!ortb H: :
Q24. lo a standby direct reading compass there is: a) a left tum is entered from a west beading. est be.adiJ,g
a1 a low magnetic momei:t system, eillier of circular or bar configuration. b) an aircraft is deceLerated wbile
· on·an east or w 1,. __ ..:_ ·
h I a non-penduJously mounted magnet system_ · .
c) an arrcraft . acce1era:ted while on an east or west Ut:iiSUWg.
1S
'/ a ciicular magn.er or pair of bar magnets pendulously mounted. .·.Q3I. Which of the following s~menbi~are correct:
a) Dip is mversely proport:Lonal to H
Q15. ltat should he the indication on the magnetic compa.,s when rolling into
· tan dard rate turn
Hem13phere? to
the right from a south heading in the Northern b) Dip decreases with inc:reased in latitude
c) Dip is inversely proportional to z -
a} Theturn
the compass wiU indicate tbe approximate correct magnetic heading if the roll into
is smooth. . ft turns left from 045• to 315° in the Southern Hemisphere. The
An arrcraturn {i) .... an d liq uid swirls (itj -· causing an error.
Q32. magnets
J Tne compass will indjcate a tum to the right, but at a faster rate than is actually
occurring. a) (i) clockwise (ii) clockwise
b) (i) anti-clockwise (ii) .anti-clockwise
cJ TI1e compass will remain on south for a short time, then gradual1y catch up to the c) (i) clockwise (ii) anti-clockwise .
magnetic heading of tht:. airplane.
Q26. Aircraft magnetism: Q33 If the CH= 2200 ' var. =Ell, dev. = W~ what ls the
' corresporulin g '.TH?•
a) doe.snot vary with aircraft heading or latitude · a) TH= 234°. ~
b) J.n _= 2060 · c). TB= 230"
· . .
..
b. varies with aircraft heading and latitude Q34. The deviating effect of
· vertical
· - soft iron .... ..(I) WI·th•decrease of.magnetic
latitude, due to the .... {il) of H and t);t~ .••.._ (~) of z.
J ·aries with latitude but does not vary with.aircraft heading
a) (i) tn.g;_e~e.s (~) decrease (iii).~ ~
Q27. The d1recti'Ye force of the earth's magnetic field:
b) .,{if~~es (ii) increase (iii) decrease
a) varies with the heading c,f fhe aircraft.
c) (i) incr~ HD decre.ase (fu) in~r~.e
bJ I greatest at the magnetic equator.
c increases as the magnetic variation increases.
366
36-7
PART II .. AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
QJS. :.:~: :~ct::;:~: weaterly,headlng In the Northern Hemisphere the
a) . Tum clockwise giving an apparent tum t~wards south

b) Tum clockwise giving an apparent.~ ~~~ds n~rth
c) Tum anti-clock~se giving an app:n.ent tu~ t~wards north :.,,·
Q36. An aircraft is 11':ted with.• direct.reading magnetic coinpass. Upon landing in a
northerly direction the compass will indicate: · · ,
a) a tum towards'West
b) no change.
c) a tum towards East
Q37. .With,reference to the:.fl.ux valve of:a,remote indicating compass:
a) the _flux valve is pendulously mounted and so it is not subject to ·or affected by the
earth's magnetic field.
b) the ~ux valve isJixed to the aircraft and it senses earth's magnetic field.
c) the flux valve remains in-vertical position in order to liest sense earth's magnetic
field.
Q38. Durf ng_a sustal~ed turn ... the nearer magnetic pole, the effe~t of liquid swirl
wUL•."compass turning error.
a) towards;·-,·not
~ . .
affect.,
b) towards; increast!
c) away from;·notafi'.ect
' •:;
Q39. The principal advantage of s gyro magnetic compass (slaved gyro compass) is:
a) It does not have to.be aligned with the north
b) It does not precess
c) ,It .comJ,ines,.the north-;seeking_a~ilitr .of the magn~tic compass with the stability of
the directfon indicator . , ' .
Q40. A remote fndfcatlng compass bas usually le~s ~~viation er~or than a panel
, #, • • ,;,l,. , : , ,( , ' .. /," /
,< ✓ ✓
: .'( '
mounted ·compass because: , . · , . .

a) -it is carrying a well da~p~d 't1oaiing rna~et. . ' ..
b) it is normally mounted in a part of the akplane where magnetic interference is
minimal. .. ,
c) it receives a higher flux-density from the earth's magnetic field.
RADIO/RADAR Al.I ll"'IC I Cl'\ \"",_,,... .. , '
. half
•
• - The carrier frequency cannot be mcreas ed indefinitely
th n beinganddecr~sed
so, .after
at a
Chapter wavelength the change is reversed, th e fr~q~en9' e~d again, the complete
~~stant r~te down _to a sp~ci~e~ v~l.~1e before , e1~g ~er . ., . ,
"illodulation cycle/frequency sw~ep '.
7 FREQUENCIES
. Two frequency bands have been
used at present:
. ~~ed in the past, but only the SHF band
. -
is
4200 ·'MHz to '4400 MHz - SHF band

1600-MHz to 1600 MHz - UHF band
,I''. , •
•ca11 varied ±50 MHz

. ~ .. .
·L • • • ( • •
,, •t . frequency 1s automan Y . . alm t
The. total sweep of the earner
l . d
altttu e w1 ' th th·e · reflection returning
fr os
.. , 300 times, a .. second, At~very o"". . to give a measurable equency
, ,, ipstantaneously, a wid~ . sw~eR ~s n~cJ~:~ards from a flush mounted horn
Th e Radio Altimeter is a device capable of measuring th e h eig ht of a n aircraft : , d·«erence. The signal is transnutted
1
~1 '• 'de enough to always'allow
abo ve groun~ with a high degree of accuracy. Apa rt from p roviding a flight d eck 111
antenna. • , •
11 . . al b am generateu is WI . O" d
The c'omcal I e ip~c e · . ll •· n wi'th' p~tch a'n gles of ±3 an
display of he1ght above Ground Level (AGL), th e rad io altin,eter h as two other
important functions .
· portion of the b earn to •tra vel
some . vert1ca
cl Y eve • d from the shortest path to th e
Oo Th h ·ght will be, e,terrnme -
roll angles ?f ±6 · e e~ll al~a ~ be vertically below the aircraft.
ground which, of course, w1 y , , " .
(a) It supplies che automatic flight system with data to affect a u toma tic
landings when u~ed in associa tion with the ILS I MLS.
(b) The Radio Altimeter furnishes height informa tion and ra te of change 420 <4205 4202 .
of height, to the Ground Proximity Wa rning System (GPWS), and is a .~. :sf __,,,A ' . ,<1201 <1200 . -,
crucial component of this system. ,,J / ,, ·, ~. . ..., ..
The radio alr.imeter, o r te rra in-clearance indicator, is an absolute altimeter;

i( in dicar.es th e actual alti tud e ove r ter rain, however uneven. It op erates by first
ending a radio signal from the aircraft to the earth 's su rface. A receiver in the
a.ii-craft then picks up the re flection of the signal from th e surface. T h e ti me it
takes for the signal to travel to the earth and back is con ver ted into a bsolute
altitude which is displayed on a gauge. The radio altime ter d oes n ot depend on • · '' · , ., · separate antenna,
barometric pressure settings. · .be1ng,
Transmission, · · _>c.o nunuous,
·· it is . ..necessary
. . Th. to- eceiver
u~ a antenna needs to f
th "'ntenna
similar to e. transrm' tt'mg,.~ , · ·for. ·rec.ept.Ion.
'. , · e ·r h ··the transmitted.s1·gna1 ·
The instrument makes use of primary radio principles transmitting a be positioned far enough:awa'., tp ·4v91d mterfere~ce wit . .
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) iri an e11iptical pattern vertically '':,, 'l: . ·~ .......~ .. . V -
belo w the aircraft.
The Radio Altimeter determines the time it takes for a radio wave to travel
ro m th e aircraft to the ground directly beneath· the aircraft and back again.
During this time the transmitted frequency changes at a known rate from its start
evel to +50Mhz and back again to complete a "cycle".
370
PAP.T: II • AIRCRAFT ·1NS~UMENTS MAGNETIC COMPASS
-R.idiatedpower _' g enerated is ofthe order.of One Watt. -

s,m,mary: . modulated continou s wave nf
NC transmitter transmits freq~en~ quency from 4200 MHZ to 4400
continously and regularly changing e
·h e of 4300 MHZ. cl
MHZ wit averga . . d fter getting reflected from groun .
. d f uency is receive a . I
Transm1tte req , . f frequency being rece, el t
The transmitted frequency differ rom
receiver. -. b t een tr ansm itteJ and r ceiv ·<l
f- ' · re difference e w l
(iv) If the height o lllc ism~ . h . h t of ale is less , the diffe rence -, 1 cc
signal will be more and i.i the eig
them will be less .
. . . . d to calculate heigh t of ale. _
(v) This ume d1ff. is use , and above that n:cetver
. n only be used up to 2500 ,
(vi) Radio altimeter ca f cy as being transmitted .
starts receiving same requen
(vii) Indications are in steps of 5' . . ft - not from terrain ahead.
. ' Flg-'Radto Altimeter Indicator' r ... ) Radalf cnves clearance below a1rcra
. ,,vm o· d 1 ound .
. J{ei~ht ~ ~: .l.ii~.scal,e ;is l~~;lth~~ ~ei,ngexpa~ded from ze~o to 500 feet '
,
'.(ix) Radio altimeter can be teste on yon gr
••
0 d 500 ft .
f + / 2 feet between an
and _at .a re~uc~.d ~pn-Im~~r scal~\ ft:.o m ·50,0 _t~ 2500 f eet. . (x) Accuracy: Has a prec1S1on o - ,
± 3% + 5' ending altitude above 500 .
.Mask. The_height pointer2disappeats'. b~hind a mask:
. ► When altitude exceeds-2500 feet '
. ............................................... ·.......................................... . ......................... ....
► When' th~re is any ,fault iir the·transinitted sign al
► When the altimeter is switched off
'Failure W~ingiFlag. Th~)1~g aprli ars whe~-~h ere is too much radio noise Questions
which will corrupt the· returning. '.signal,".' d1
?if loptl reflections are received from
the airframe itself, or.in the.even'.t o( a loss of power ~o the eq'uipment.
:
Press to Test_Button. Whe!} this btitton is pressed, _the height pointer swings Ql. How does a radio altimeter work? . .
round to a knowri pre-set·a.Itih.ide·;·i'his pfov1des a·confidence check for the user a) Measures the Doppler shift of a CW transm1s~1o_n.
Is
indicating that the ~quipinent likely tt> operate satisfactorily. b) Measures the Doppler shift of a pulse transm1ss1on,- f a CW frequenc .
·Low Height Warning. The ·warning light iUuminates if the aircraft is flown
1
c) Measures the time from transmission t~ the re~eptt~::ce there is no Dapple shifl ,r
below any pre:.selected height set'. by the pilot. -The pilot sets a desired height on Doppler shift - There has to be a re\attve mot\On.
this instrument by:means·ofithe ·movable-iindex (D,1-l) control knob on the face of
Radio Altimeter.
the de\'.ice. This 9ccurrerice is 'also audibly ma1:ked by the sudden cessation of an
alert tone whid1: will sound with'increasing loudness from approximately 100 feet Q2. Radio altimeter giv~s height in~ica:~;s::smitted frequency.
above_the decision height setting. a) tvk ,t1ring the Doppler frequency c
. . d'ff 0 f a CW transmitted at fixed frcquen y.
b) Measuring time t • , fr y
. . . d'ff of a CW transmitted at changmg equenc .
c) Measunng tune · 1
373
PART ff • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
.MAG_NETIC COMPASS
QJ6. A radio altimeter is? ,,
a) Aircraft based and indicates true altitude. :6~~:-~ radio altimet~r bas a ~•xlm~m _effective height becaue?
b) Aircraft based and indicates pressure al~itude. '// · a) At greater heights 'the Signal will,~ ,tpo_weak. .
c; Aircraft based and indicates true height. · •::: ,, . b) At greater heights signal 1tom dµT~nt modulation cycl~ ov~rlap. wil!
QJ 7. Radio altimeten are ~'. -·,, ·~) At.gr_ea~r heights the ·signa.l .will ~~-.a9,~prb¢ by-~oisture .in the au.
a) Crucial to GPWS operations. ·:~) Radio altim~ters are •~curate i>Dlii wJt¥ n th.e height range?
b) Not reqt1ired for GPWS operations. ~ ·.a.) zero to 50 ft. b). Zero. to ,SOQ ft.
·""•":,, c) Zero ft to 2S00 ft.
c) Used to determine altitude above msl. .
"" .:((!" - - '
a
QJ 8. For the landing configuration radio altimeter indicates?
ers
.,, >
·•
;:
l
t.
a) H-:ight of the aircraft above-the ground: -: '•,_ ... !
b) Height of the flight deck above the ·ground. .•: •_ I' t .• .,,. .. , _{,, u:.:•,-,:,~~:•_•~·f•~;'}t' _;~, .·:;.r
1 .,,,_;, , ... ,,~ .,.....,i'
c) Height of the main wheel above the ground.·

Ql9. Low altitude radio altimeters-operate on the .......... wavelength?
a) Metric: b) Decimetric. ·c) Centi!netric.
Q20. If there Is a fault in the system the·raifaJt display will?
a) Ne~le wil~ disappear and aiutann flag wiU appear, possibly accompanied by an
audio warmng. ·· •
b) Freeu.
,'
c) Tum red and activate an aural warning.
Q21. A radfo altimeter -m easures?
a) True Altitude.
b) Pressure altitude.
c) Height above the ground or water over which the aircraft is flying.
Q22. A RADALT provides?
a) Height above terrain.
b) Pressure altitude.
c) Density altitude. . ,
Q23. The failure of the radfo aJtimeter would cause?
a) Loss of pi:essure altitude data.
b) Loss of density altitud ~ data. ' '
c) Loss of height data.

' .... !j f
376
3TT
D SYSTEM MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
POWERP LANT AN
'f~l . . ,. .
-'
n':
.J
.
'.,'
.' - . -. . ·. . . . .. a electromagnet ty pe with two coils

. ,, -The ratio meter can be a mtlbvolt mete: or ted with a wire in th e m iclcl\e
. d the rheostat is connec f
wl;ifoh attract the pointer an . fi ld is re - lated with tbe varyin g resistance n
-: Jf the coils so that the magnetic te gu
~.-,o ·,.
,the rheostat.
Engine instruments giv~ the .pilot information about the health of the engine
and how it is performing during-,the flight. This infonmitfon, is\ llso-r equired to
keep the engine r~nning within.i~ operating limits so that.it will reinainreliable•
throughout hs iifetiine. Erigin•e data inonitonng·and logging tools create a hi~tory
of data in which hentls can be detected helpful with preventive main.teriance and
keeping the~engine runnil)g
, for years to come. PIIOM ·
Some common instruments are: RPM, pressure and temperature gauges;
fuel level and,flow gauges .are sometimes integrated in one unit. In multiengine
aircraft th.e re is usually a set of gauges available per engine.
Engine Mo_nitoring: Accurate engine monitoring is very important to keep
the engine running within.its limits so as to ensure a safe flight. RPM , pressure
and temperature limitations may not be exceeded at any time. 'Zt.
Pressu·re Measurement
~,J. II.rt'
11\e Bom:don Tube
Pressure Gauge
Sens~rs:These are either made of a diaphragm or bourdon type sensors. This
depends on the pressure they _are working with; bourdon types are more suited to
handle higher pressures. Reading is direct .(with the pressure line running to the
cockpit) or indirect with electrical wires and the sensor close to the engine, either
Manifold Pressure (MAP)
· •Engin~s wit?_·a-,con~oll.able P:~p:~~:~ ;e;!~~~
-power settmg with th_e selected 'P. P
au e to ~et the c.orrec
~~!c!s f~e\ c; nsu ropt1on b
220 0 RPM at 25" MAP, engin
on the-engine or ·firewall. ,, ·having a slight over squ~re conditton, for examp1e
efficiency is also greatly improved.
379
378 -
Temperature measurement
· The various principles on which tempera'iures involving an aircraft can be
measured comprise:
·. \f T~1e expansion· of a solid .·~ ~ts temp~_rat~;~ 'i9creases, ~o a measur~ ~f its

M£R010
. increase in le,~gt!i <;an be usecl t~ mqicate.~~ temperat;ure ~ise. It is m~st_h~ely
BEU.owa , that in fact'it,will involve the:differing ,coeffic1en~ of 1:xpans100 of two dissimilar
· me~ls where a h,elical bi-metallic,~trip coils and uncoils as the air tempera~re
· ... changes.{ • I I
' · ; / ,;
Manifold Ahsoluce Press ure Gauge '. 2) The expansion of a liquid as its temperature 'i ncr~ases so again me.:1.Su.ring its
. expansion, say along a tube, can be us~d· to indicate the temperature nse.
Us uall y an aneroid ca . l ·. . .
- •· , J'b p.su e or d1aphr •
c: :~·~; ~~a~:t;~ si~o~,r:::~:;• ~~c\es of me:!::rt(iC:~~~t~~ ~:: ~t;\:s;ith the
3.) The electrical resistance ofa subsµnce changes with variation ofits temperature,
1 so measuring changes of resistance du} be used to indicate temperature change.
p _rcssure, from lO to 30" (in
hi gh e r, up 50" a d .
0
J )oost (pressure above atmospheric) or ru~ent
g and for turbocharged . marn1o)d
. · _ Usually the element used is a platinum ,resistance wire.
' n someri'mes more. . engmes the scale goes " ' < _4fDissirnil_ ; n metals when ·joiried at their ends (a ·1netm~ouple) produce an
Fuel Pressure · , .. · ,; · el~c~io-magnetic fo_i;-~e (em6 :_This.tp.erhlo-emf d~pends upon the temperature
•, ~-. difference between the jl:ln~tions so measuri·ng the emf gives a measure of the
This instrument 1·5 s · .1
.
se nsor is normally a diaphra
im1 ar to a rem t
t
·
·1
o e OJ pressure described above. Th
·, ·· junction te~perature. . ·. ·. . '· _ .
UsualJ~ found on aircraft witf::iJf e. and;onn~cted to an indicator in the cock

some high wing aircraft do h . l1Jecte engmes and low wing aircraft althou h
pi: f
·
_·r 5) Many liquids change their ~~te froip ~li.<;Iu.i d to .vap,our•~ the t~perature rises .
Rise in temperature cap be i11.dka(ed by measuring the rise in vapour pressure
ave one too. ' g. is
tra~smitted: al.ong a Bourdonj~~~: 4 ,.Bourdox{.tube a 'p1;essure-measuring
The sensor should be fitted in the .
and purnp to protect it from poss 'bl d' p~essunzed fuel line after any fuel filter
U·,
f
i device co~s~stmg bask~y pf 'i iBir~l ,o r.,__ C-shapecl metal tube h_aving ~n (?Val
cro~s-secUOJil. Qne e. ~~•, ~ -to. ,wp!ch _the vap01.1,r ~der pressu:e 1s fed, 1s fixed
. 1 e Irt m the fuel tanks.
f while the other en~ is 'fi:~e to, i;noye and conn-ected to the d1spla y system. As
Meanmg of Coloured Sector C I
Red indicate the range and 1· . s.f o oured f1rcs of Green, Amber Blue and .i in
pressure increases 'the 'tube 'because ihe temperature has risen, the tube's
.
m aximum im1t o the system A d d' I 1· . ' ~ cross·- section 'tends ,to become more ·circular and thetube to straighten. The
1
permissible MAP f; k · re ra Ia me mdicates the
lean and rich mixture ranges.or ta e off power. Blue and Green arcs indicate the ,[ t~be mov~me~t ' is 'then: lin.k~d . mec~anically •to. dr1ve a pointer or a digital
f display. .. , . , . .. . 1. , •• , ••• • ~
The radi~tio~ ·~~t~~d }(.t~odf )~ de,term~ed by 'its temperature. lf ~he

In case of a 11 engme
· oil· pressur · ·
are gauged by red lines and
·
I e gau~e maximum and mjnimum pressures
· i 6)
. . norma operatmg range by Green arc. f emitted radiation· is-m eaSured this eri.ab'le1 th~ hody's temperature to be found.
-~ .
Am ber md1cates caution, wherever used.
~
i Fro~ these basic pri~ciples, have been develope~:

,.
' ·(a) expansion,~ype the.rmometers -~oiid.and liquid elements

. } ! ...,,
380
--~~~~~~~~SY~ST!:E~Mi!M~O~N~IT~O~R!!:IN~G~IN~S~TR~U~M~E~NT~S:.::
POWER PLANT AND .
i .. PAR'n 11 ·• AIRCAAFT ,INSTRUMENTS - <; 31'\c'
. inlet or exhaust gas temper~ture gauge
cernperature ~nd either .~::etemperature is also usually_indicated . .
(b) ele~trical-ty;pe ~hermqmeters -resist~nce or. thermo-'electric . ssential reqturements. Ai . d the hottest cylinder ex hau s1 p1pc-
(c) .. vap~~r:pres,s ~re type ther~9metC;rS , , e (EGT), Fttte on . If <l rol:> •rl
. Exhaust Gas Temperature for leaning the e ngine. one P_ . .
( d) radiation-type thermometers. , .• ~, , . f some carbureted engines ~dE~;~ndicator. FAD EC controlled fuel ir-ie~~~~
Of these types, in aircraft the rad1ati~n pyrometer system may be used in . ' ., -. o h c linder should have an_ . . easurement, since they re~u a te -
turbo-jet _engines put .for air- tempe11~fttre m~a'surement, mainly one of the type - .~,_ .. eac. e~can•not live •without th1s·~mportaMnt rod MAP to obtain the best ouxture for
(b) is used.
. ,,., '· . ' ,-• . ~
, - ; · _· ,
s;- _.,.,, •engm ' lf · with RP an
, : ·.aritount offuel ~n,com tn~~o:t detonation in the cylinders.
.-,~il ~ ~'-: :~ : the power req~irement w1 . Also a thermocouple prn~e fir te d i n
Ram Rise. ·. ",,
- C' linder head Temperature (CHT) b t it is urnaUv m ~•:-tll ed n n
Thermometer sensor. In order to of
get the best rpeasure the ambient air y
the cylinder head . Eac - cy n
h li der should have one, u
h
.
be this doesn't so much depen in cw
d l
temperature, often' referred to1as Uie Stati~ Afr Temperature (SAT) for instrument .
1
purposes, a p9sition has to·be 'sele'cted'' for''the temperature-sensing probe which . the hottest cylinder (w~1ch ever t ~t m~ y' tinders) . Made fr .:,m iron n opprr
b tl e rruxture entenng t e C 4OO0c
as fai· as ·possible .avofds · air subj~ct' to ;compres'sibility. Neve_rthele'ss, the usual . -,
- • <) • •
Pos1t10n ut( on l and me . k 1 II ) and .,.ble to measure up to .

-- e a oy "
compromise betweeril an ideal Ioqiti'o n 'ani('physibuly llie· most practical Ideation co,nstantan copper e This is not a thermocouple hu t ither ~
will 1:esult in a chosen po_sition subjed/to·sorrie error in the·indicated temp·erature. ,' Oil and Ca1::buretor Temperatur . . bl esistanc.e ' ratio .., e re r) ivp e. T ,11
b ( Id t e aircraft) or a vana e r ' .
bourdon tu e o er YP d b d of br? ss bend o ver a certa.tn a r .
F-~
' · •
..
.,.
l5~urdon tube is a ho:low fl~ttene tu e ;:a ~er end attached to a poi.nte1 An·.
'~ .-,; ,, s . ' a d fixed at one end m the instrument, t e o . .
n I , . d in the tube will try to straighten it, moving th e p oin, er
.,,,, !
pressure app11c
~
~, .- '
In,~ome lig~t-·~i~~aft,, tl}e- t,hermotn~ter se~sor ·protrud~s through the side

~i~d9.w pf~e ,cpckpj ~ ~He! !s,, dJi:~ct)y·s:o~nfC_t~!i mechan!cally to t~e instrument's
) • ·,
the· ~n't:loM-1.
dial on' the''insic:le 'of •">·'"
....., . .(,•~J
Mosf aircraft'however
,.,,,. •. -~ ;,i,"~,~~ ·.,.. -• • ! ;.,_··
I .
have
.
·1
electrical resistance
· -,.
sensors re,~9tely located. Either tbey are mounted flus~ ~ti?, the fµselage skin
-flush J>ulbs :or irt _spe'cially'designed probes~shielded from sofar •radiation.
A volatile chemical like methyl chloride is used as fluid i~ th_ prnl::e · •l
. . .., C~rfe~tia' ~-~ts.i~~- .ai?'t~iper,a~jiie, (CQA1); When the ind_i~at~d . ~ut~ide ., bourdon tube in a 'partly liquid / -gaseous state. Its pressure will n. e w en be.
aif terriperatu're as givel orf tne'. aircraft's thermoniete'i·' dial on the flight deck
temperature of the probe rises, thereby moving the pointer.
t>f
i~ ~oi r~cted~,. elth:'~r ;~ -~~t~W; ,h1'e\ BM6t 0! .i:mtoinatically within th~ elec~ronic
S}'$t~m·s for.known.J ~rt>fJ;:~i);~Vtf hestd_e tetmi,hcible,~a.foe of the temperature of The electrical resistance sensor changes its resistance related to t~my eratu re .
the ai[ .f hroughwfo~htt~~:airct af(ls··n,fit1g'and for navigational purposes is called The circuit is a ratio meter as these are not sensitive to voltage vanauo n : th :Y
the ~orr~ct~d ..~_utsipf~r't~m'ijbr#t~ri:~'oi- COAT for' sh'o rt. . - measure a current and this current change only as the resistor enses a cha n ge m
1
1'.empt;rature"~auges;.' These, instntments .mostly use a .thermocouple to temperature
measure. temperatqres ... .A •thermocouple ·cq·nsists:of-two dissimilar metals welded Meaning Of Coloured Sectors. Temperature indicators are coloured ,n c to
~ogether .and, they -for.m:-the sel}5.i:ng ,probe~•the :hot junction. The cold junction show their operating range. Green for normal, amber for cautio n a nd R ed u pper
1
~;~t lJre,}~fffU .JP.1-:P,~t(~f!nip~'? !t '~~,~ffJ,·,.~~ep,~~e ~Pf ju.~c5i~_n ·is h~a~ed ·a small or lower limits .
. Jt~rtY~l'.~ a~;~t;~e h,ot an_d ~o~gJ\,Wftl~~ lflN.d~ tt~ e !DSt:J!1ent. The scale The face of the oil temperature gauge is m arked with a GREE'\ ~ C' m
to indicate the safe normal operating temperature range ; RED lin e i.nc.\i u1 te
:fill.i9l., applir.ati<?n~ f6r:' ',te'~te;~ii)ie::~~u~;.-~cin air&aft piston erigine the minimum and maximum safe" operating temperature . The :arburetnr :1i,
°:1°.m tormg system tare·"oil •temperature; cylindershead · temperature, carburetor temperature gauge is typically calibrated from -50°C to+ \ 50 C The e an 1hru
air temperature and exhaust gas temperature. In gas turbine engines oil
coloured arcs on the face of the ga uge . YELLOW, from -l 0°C to+ i s· C. i H l w ,11, ·
382
383
. PART fl ·AIRCRAFT.INSTRUMENTS .
POWER PLANT ANO,SYSTEM MONITORlNG -lpiqSTI\UMENTS
the icing hazard ran e G --
range. RED ab .g . ~~N. from + 150c to +4ooc : h
' ove +40C indicates detonation hc\Zard. ' is t e normal operating -di~·magnet. The cup is fixed'to ~.spring and pointer1so it can nottotatebut itis
. f. · dragged along by the magnetic field, hence the name: drag cup. -
i·
Tacho - RPM •.
RPM I d' ·: I: Elec·trt'cal tachos have either a DC o. r AC ge11er_~tor .on. the_engine. The DC
. n •cators, Piston and Turb. E . Ii
generator generates a voltage related to RP¥, ~~~ ' ~~ops.if -~~e.".iires, are ~o
<
;~ee~ 1s of vital .importance, since t~n:th:rn~s. The measurement of engine
. nu ol, and monitoring of the engine ~an b wit~ other parameters accurate long. The AC ' types ·relate RPM 'to' ~ frequency ana tnese are immune to w1!e
crankshaft speed that is measured, whilst e ach1ev~d. On piston engines it is _,~ \;~ · length orresistance and are more rehable than.the DC models.
~: th ebcoi_npressor. The RPM indicator is ca~:Jas ;urhbme engines it is the speed , .,: :·· · _... The la~est modern engines have an,electri~ pi~lmp f:om either a separat~ ~oil
ree as1c methods of measu · . · a ac ometer (Tacho) Th . ..', ., on the engi_ne (Ro,taX _ ,) o,r,•. on,,the m.a,gn, eto. Th1s._s1~l is pulsed so tha! a d1g1tal
. . ring engme rotational speeds: . . . ~re are - -
• Mechanical (Magnetic) h . _. . ' ~ ;count~r caq be ,':JS.eel t9,indicate1engine RP~.
11 0
Iii., Electrical Generator Syst:: (:aectehr. G ' . ' :, ,,,/ ~--' Meaning of C~foured·Sectors. In line 'with other instruments, coloured arcs
• • .a., o enny) ~r indicators lines 'are used to show ·ranges and limits of engine speed. Green
'- Inductive Probe System. _ r~presenting normc1l operati~g rang~, with· Ainber denotin~ cau~on. Red · arcs
Smaller aircraft plston . - 1 . . i , _ . -_ ; . - ·,show . maximum or minimum _~peeq; : arid range· that are restncted because
· · , engines com I ·
1n _~h1ch a drag cup is_drfvep. directly .fro-:~~y use_ mechanical .tachome~en,,
·- ,, - ·" · '' · · ' h~ r '- · RPM h uld al 'be
·,r,:::·oP e,;:cessivet vibration. · On'1a·•piston· ei'fgipe t e re1erence s o so .
drne. RPM measurement. in lar . . .t e .engi?e by means qf,a flexible " :,'. _p,J.a.s;arded. - -
electric tachometer, in which ihe ~~r ~:s~~n engm~s 18 ~ften by m~<1Il§.. of. :~·n ;:' ',ft. RPM 'gauge· displays \isually ~ihcdrpo'iate _'c dlotired ·a rcs and limit markings,
a synchronous motor and d,·ag · ·
_using an electric tachomete;•in
b _•_·~
:i~ifr
engme-dnven :alt~rnator J'.?OWers
;~t~~~me engine R~M may be me~~~-( ed
;,wi!h:a GREEN arc indicating·thf noIT11:a1·op~rating range of engine speeds and a
·,RED liqe indicatingeinaximum perin,issible RPM~•
rs convtrted to pulsed DC and d ·. · , h. - put of an engme-driven alternator · r: ,,
~1ves.t e RPM gaug · h •
mowr and potentiometer: Turbo-{an ~ 1~ ·n " e pomter t rough a torque Con:s'Ull)ption Gauge
prube method of RPM meac ' ~gt es usually employ a magnetic tacho ''· '· · · · · -
- urement. . ·: Fuel Flow. This is usually a vait'e' sensor located downstream behind the fuel
lnterfadng Of Signal Pick-Up RPM ·. G-
0 )t::filte~ and pump measuring_the a':'loi.rnt:_'1f ~el going'to the engine. ·Fuel injected
. . 110 . : aug~ :r : -~Ilgines might have a{uel return~line·r'9_nnin'g ,to ·the tank in ·use, so for a correct
. Older a1rcraft have a . mechanical ~ bl d • . reading the fuel ret~rning-musi: ilid0b€riie~sured with a flow sensor.
mscrument are a couple of fl - . h a. e nv~n ta~hometer, mside the . . ,-
RPM. Noc very common in yweig tsdto w~ich a pomter 1s attached indicating , . :;: . )'here are ~~i~/. p;1~51p~.. .2~etl:iod~ '.~(· -11\~asuring fuel flow in aircraft,
newer mo ern aircraft anymore. ~nd~pendenJ anq ~ntegr~te~ s~steJris. ,., . .
Independent systems use a metering device fitted in the fuel supply Jine
thatconverts mechanical moverµent of a spring-loaded vane into a proportionate
. electrical output, either by meaiis'fof.,.('.pi>tenti'ometer or an a.c. synchrony of the
type described ahove in connection with pressure indicators and illustrated. The
,electrical output operates an indicator, which is simply a milliamm~er whose scale
is calibrated in"rate. of.fuel flow (gals/hr,,kg/hr and so ,on). -
. _. _ T~e ,niovi~gkti~e fl9~ )net~r:nojlllally inco~porates a spring-load~ bypass
opeh1i1rthe
valve, whi'ch' will e\leni
of.tfie'\ane· sticking and blocking fu~ flo'! to
the engine. Opening of the'vcµve may.'activate ,a warning-indicator on the flow
,gauge;/ , -: ;•!, ,.'\ · l., , :.~ ,.1 \ ·
'h_de~'end~iilf\iet flti~ ststerii'use aflow sensor iii'tne form ·of a'sprL'lg-l&dec
'385
YSTEM MONITORING IN-STRUMENTS
RPLANTAND S .
POWE . d w h e n t h e :11 r
ta'n capacitance an l
·' PART Jl·-AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS , These rods have acer . • ·nclicatin g fu e l leve on
, d from each other. l that capa cita nce changes i
vane in the fueJ feed line, the defl~ction ,of-which increas~s in proportion to t~e · .. , j$01~te them is replaced by fue ..
. be~een· . trument. . h . h imped ance se n s1t1ve
rate of flow and is converted-into an electrical signal by-means ofa potentiometer. , . ' ircalibrated in s b easuredelectronically _w1th ig t i.n sid e the fu e l ta nk .
The, output of the ,po~e~tiC>f}'!et~r operate~ -~ milliammeter, the fac!! .of wlµch 1s '. • ,:~. . : The capacitanr.e can em o time a high voltage is presen . k h as
calib~ted i~ rate of .(uel flow. Integrat_e d .£19w Itl~a.s ur~ment systems mr orporate ·.- .·. , , -' "" i . ·ts in such a way that at n b calibra ted as ea ch fuel ta n
. ~~ l integi:afor whi~ .co~ppt~_ s furl :nC>i ,
-against . time :~o . di~pfay fuel ~sed i~ ?C , cJrcu1 . h . t ument must e k
~ '.~: ·. A.s with the float type c e tlnls r I to drop on line air in tJ1e tan .
addition to fuel flow. ··F -i-•.t . • g the fue eve
• . .i'.'i
. . ' 1·que form caus!n
. a un
High- Pressure Line Fuel Flowm.e ter'(Function, Indication;, Failure Warnings). ,: .;_.
' •integrated systems display ·both ;flow (kg/h'f) and tc,tal foel''Consu·med (kg). To '' . ". '~sons for Incorrect Indications . . method of tank contents m ea u re w e; r ;:~I
achieve this the system includes ai:i iµ tegrator, which compute s .fuel flow against ,'•:/;
time.to give.fuel.used. Fuel flow meteringam;I tran~giission i,s a.little more complex \ . ,·:.:~; ~~~~;~;:g:a~f
e. . .
:~;er;;~~:~a) fu;~:~avpe;i~~:ei~y: ~ee.::r~a~/ c~n
ed temperature. -
. \de ~t s
p robe a n an
th~ in the in~eP.endent. system. ,In .essence it '. consists of a turbine impeller in· i pansion due to mcreas . . number of measuno g ,
the fuel supply line, to_the engine, w9ose ,meed of rotation depends upon rate ".' . ,u~e-ment overco me~ (a) b~ using a the tank conten.t.S tf.I1L ge. Expam10n
of t u~ flow. $p~ed of;;ro~ation is ·conr,e.rted. j n~o ,;m _electrical s~gnal, by electros p.eas . "system in the electncal supply cod d per.mittivitv of th e fu e\ , o
"averaging . ffset by the ecrease . , . fuel
a
m_agnetic jnducti~n an_d .,fed tq c,o mputer., Tl)~ .compu~r. qper~tes the fu el flow ... .·d··lie to temperature increase ~so_ _
. . ... tant remain essen
u' ally the same despite an in crease in
.
and consumption gauges. · ' th'at 'the dielectnc cons
In l_arg~ tur_b ine engine .fuel ..syst.em_s .the ;flowmeter is usually situated in the ,Jtvel. , . , . . ;e onlv accu r ate wben t.h e ae ro
high~P.r~4re.,!fu!l .line !>~tween .µie fueJ .co~rrol lunits .(FCU) and, the. b.u rner : ;·i,. Fl tType The float and resistance syst~~s a U ' f h e r o plan acc. lei .\ t "
oa . . 1fl' ht Add1t1ona y, I t e a
nozzles. The associated gauge typically i1_1clicates bo~h flow rate and fuel used and plane is in steady strat.g~t and le_v_~ l~~e-offuel indicated on the gauge alsn •a rt_e
may incorporate a low fuel flow warning. , ot:rthe temperature changes, t~e vo . . ·r the voltage fl u ctu ates . w h t h
. of au e is also subject to maccuractes i
, " Fti~l Ga~ge -TlllS type g g 1 lator settings or a week battery.
, :,, .. ~ti • ' , Jo,.,_ /l . · may be caused b y vo tage regu • h tank it lie.
M~rement _o f VQlµ~.ef.M~ss,, Uni~. There are two principle .methods of . . •'fi nt amount of water mt e ..
> Capacitance lype. If ther e is a stgm ica . b alancin g p,obe. h ich
indicating the qu_a ntity o.ffuel carr_ied, Either the Volume (e.g. Gallons) or Mass at the bottom of the 'tank, 'affecting the co~pe~~au nFg o r • mple if th e tank<; a
(kg or lbs) are.rri_e ¥ured. The.former.is now only used on ligh t aircraft as the Mass a· ·' ' t' fthel cahbrauon
results in an incorrect a Justmen o
or ex.a '
l ·th ~ater the p ointer w t\\ tend tO
of the fuel is of mo,re inter~s~.t~ the _pilot. This assists the pilot in calculating the
aircraft's 'all-up~weight' and alsd g'ive.t/ a: better indication-of the energy that can be , drained and then refilled to ~e safmbe 1eve ~l. , ·s be~a use wa ter h a . a gr ec1 ter
move up the scale to a new pomt o . a ance . :us l
released by the fuel. One pound offuel has the same
number of energy molecules density and dielectric constant then aero plane fu el.
regardless of temperature and volume. -·
Torque Meter
, Measurins, ;Sttnsors . · \ t the torqu e cl e,;rrih c r\
The power produced by a prqpeller is p r oportiona o . l ' . . f th e>
Content, Quantity Indic,at9~s · ·_, - · ' .d l b th rop eller about t ,e a · 1~ " ·
best as the turning moment pro ucec Y e P
~el Quantity. There .are itwchyp,es;-in use: the float ·and the capacitance output shaft. ,
qµ~tJ~ seR50,f:.'!fte/1?~t/ fP.e °le-~spr.e~,f~e.U ~vefby.a float in each tank con~ected The power developed by a n e ngine driv in g a p ro p eller is i:iea urcdi.: ao cl\
to da ,varihable ~es1stapce. I_t IS ~ot v.~ry ,<:iCCUra~· dµe to turb9lenc~, airplane attitude indicated b, . , 1uc meter. S ome large superc h~r1Ted
-- o
piston engmes . ared 11 tt .ec
anJ~ sue . ·' · · · · · · · ·
.,ments, but in general they a r e more commonly as~oo.ate wit1
• .- • 1
I , t ·, •
with these
1
The . capac!~nce type is: much m~r: · acc~ra~~ especially during flight •in turbo-propeller powerplants. Torque_is th_e t~ming mo~ent tr_a ns~1 u~d ~h n~n .g \~
turbuJe~t. cond1t1ons._It consists of _a probe ma~e. pf fwo conce11tri_c ;metal rods the propeller reduction gearing and is pnnc1pally co n sidered tn te rm n ' ,ti
386 387
. . EM MONITOP.INu ll"Q' "vr11;1-.'.,
p0WER pl.ANT AND SYST ·.
P.4.RT II • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Questi()il._s
lon.1ue developed by the engine when it is driving the .propeller. When the
propeller is wind milling it develops negative torque and drives the engine . . output of a \ow pressure booster
sed to meas~re th e
. · -
The power output of the engine is the product of rpm and' torque, so clearly What type.of senor 1s u
t
. .,, , ·;-..
if both are known. the po·~er can .be calculated, either manually or by a ·simple . · le c) bellows Ql, .
computer. Since exceeding the torque limitations of the engine and its reduction anero1dcapsu pu 111P• b)
gearing can lead to serious damage, it is essential that the pilot of a turbo-prop , · a) bourdon tube - . ding pressure gauge are:
aircraft be provided with a torque meter. , •~ rincipal types of direct rea
, ' Q2, The two p . d the capsu,le, ppe~t.¢ .type. . . . ~
Iudicators. Aircrnft torque meters are usually either h ydro-mechanical or - ' ·, · · a) the Bouroo1,1 ~Qe ~ ~ · ·. . ,c · · · • , .;
ekccronic devices. citance typ,e·and \>,cllQ~ S- . . . - :. . . . '/. ·, - -'.
b) capa ' · • · ~and 'eno-- 'oine pressure~...
· ~;r- - -· - · -
T he hydro-mechanical type ·operates on the principle of pistons that are . c)' manifolq.P.ress~e. ·,.. · . : , .· '. • ,. ·~ te~peratur~?,,
moved in their cylihders an amqunt proportional to the turning moment. The . ·i are used to 01,ea•~- . .. .
: Q~ . . Which oftbe-follow ng., . .:. -,. . . . . .. . .,
C)' linders are connected to a closed hydraulic system and so the system pressure,
du e to the movement of the pistons, is directly proportional to torque and is used 1\ Tber:~oco11Rle · ~ " •
to operate a pressure gaugt: calibrated to indicate torque. · 2. Resistance
' '
Electronic torque meters .are ,typically actuated ~y strain gauges placc::d in 3, Reactance. · "·
a suitable location in the -:!rive train between engine and propeller. The small
el r::c trical ouq..>ul of the strain gauges is amplified and fed to the torque m~ter in 4.Mercury . : & ,, c), l,3,&4 . ._
4
th1: cockpit. ) 1 2 3 4 \?) l, 2 ' 1 ; • , ' 1 . · .
· d
· a ' ' ·' ' · · .' · · acltance fuetcontents gauging system an
Units: Units of torque ar.e: .newton met.re (N• m) or the Joule per radian or ,'Q4• An aircraft.has a .compeqfated cap · · ·: · 7 6 000kg·at a temperature of 18
pound-foot. -, ·· · · · ls refueled so {l;i_~t th~ to~~• (uel ~~"\~.D:h~-,• !!,:r·a'n· aa parked the tempentu~e
;> ,, ·' ' · ~, · s G f o 81 whilst t e-....... .., -
Meaning of Colou;ed ·Sectors. Torque indicators · are sometimes colour- . de~rees C.a,nd,~ll: -' ' ·,: . 0 ). t• ! : •: JSG "t,econies0.80. tlie indicat~ ru~l .
coded in a similar manner ~o other engine i~struments, with red lines i.µdicating
incre~ses t~ 2~. ~egf~ (? an~ · ~ • • · · th
contents ha_ve: -. -- •·· :¥ ed the sam
- -e. ·
permissible torque limits an~fa gr~ep arc t~ indicate the normal op~rating range: " · .. ,, · ·b)' · incr~d by 100/o _ c) remain
In some cases a ·yellow arc ~n the lowe~ nmge cautions ag~nst the onset of negative. a) decreased by'5% ,; · ..
torque . The " Bourdo~ tub~'' is.:used to :ineasure:
C) pressure-
a) fuel flow b) ·vibrations
., .......,..,, .. ,, ,,. ,,., , ... ........ .. ... ....

... , .. , ....., , ........ ,,. ,., , .. ,., , , ..,, .. ,, , ..... ,, .. , ... : , , , ,..,,, ..., ..... , ... ,. ,, .... ,,, ... , .....,, ,, ,, .., ... , .......................
~wers
.,
Q: - l 2'\ 3 ·4 · 5
'·
i'
A: a a \ I) b ,C
389
388
BASICS O F ELECTRON IC DISPLAYS
i
· · . h "t i·eforthcnavigalional da ta liase. andpcrform s th t" lu 11 cr1 1 n1 ,
L1 tcrum t1 s t e" o . ·. .· ·
(PmP . . . perform·1nce compu tation , J,av 1ga:.on a nc1 pf ,,1 111111
'Jl' T}ll plann111g, opti mum ' ' .
Chapter ot ,g . . .· d . cl navigation sensor seleuion gu1cl;rncc ;in,1 •;1t-~:rn 1g •
.1·rnmation, ,ur aw an , . . . . .1 ~
d1.:.•te d . JI . L Jata base of ·u, FMC updates th e 111form:ir 11 in L' \T J v -
all)' -1n vcruca y. 1 11t: c ' . • • (
' d on- Airport~ (id e111t fiecl 1i,· i 1.w, r 1< · ' 1
);11er
. The . at.a b ase .me 1u· de s. i' nfiorm ·ttion
' · · . '
9
1
dar, . d )· I tit de and lo n gitude, i·unways, approach aid frc: q u1 ·11rie, .: ·1• .
.1-lettC I co. ~s . I a. ul SI D . n d STAR.s · Wa)'poin ts (irlenti fied by na mf-) : la r1L11rl<
.0 ts clec1s1on 1e1g 11.s, sa • . ·
I e11 I, n itude magnetic variatio n , associated h old mg pr()cedur es; . av ,u< 1'
~no.• '.~ e~ b : n ~me): type, latitude and longitude, fr equ ency, elev~t 1o n , a~~nua ic- d
1
~d~:'.~g pro~edures; Airways (identified by name); Per for mance a1 1era rt t:,.-pe rl;,1 :•
.· . . f• ··
·. o_lo l' ng. 1·1t·r
" JllCll C I · ·•
drag< ,
e11gine fue l tlows, engine t hrusts, p erform•;.ince fa ,nnr . . •
i'
i·':
· 1/lY I U it (CDU) is '· 1 cathode
,. Contro 1sp ay n ·
ray tube presen:~ ng th e info rm al i,,n
cl · I k. t CO l' - ,!
}. above the keyboard. The required fie lds a,·e selecte 1:>y t 1e CVS o n 1e tin ·
f , .. · the conte n ts displaye<l en the C Rl.

··.•1t,·'·; The FMS is operated th rough three groups of keys com pri,i n,,..
(a) Fu nct ion keys -used to select the display;
. Flight l\ilanagement Systems (FMS): ' '·•· _i:< (b) Alphanum eric ke ys -u sed for data entry by the crew;
. FMS .has··b~~n . described :1s 'pilot-_interactive navigational computi ng and · J.i
(c) Line keys -used for crew inter acti o n with the displays . _
display system·s designed to assis t in flying a'n aircraft with ma.'Ximum economy ·'f' ,
FMS use may he d ivided into Route Managem ent and f' ~rfn ~:11 .rn , 1·
and safety to.a p reviously,planned route defined both laterally and vertically.' , ,, ,, · : Management. In large airliners. twin Hight management svstem s are ! JI :ed
. ~ e··!n.sre,ased .~se ·i9,ai'r90:r ne applications 6f compact; high-speed computers
enables'FMS to providefoel-:effideri t aircraft operation together with navigational t, Electronic F li ght Inst rume n t System (EFIS)
guidance redudri'g'fligllt-crew wor kloads especially in terminal airport areas. .i .
(a) Flight M_a nagement _and .Guidance Computer (FMC) • u ses both 'J,
m a-nual and automatic inputs of data to compute 3 dimensional position,
performance data etc. in order to'fly the aircraft accurately and efficiently' Ji .
along a pre-defined route. ..•~"'-·✓ -A-• •
~ <' ~
l .•
l ..... . : :..
(b) Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU) · th e interface f' •..,. . =""" . , .. •.· _.. .• ..... ~--- ·;. •
between the pilots and FMC.

tk ."'/. ' ' ( ·,.1·! '
:' ' -. "-:' . J" ' ' ' ...-,.· .,. ' ,._
f,. i . ~ .. ·:,., --.... ·:-· 1 • . · ·""
< ...
• ·. ·r • ~. _-.. • • •' , .1"'{-
(c) Flight Control Unit . supplies the commands to control the lateral and ~-- .._~ l . I • • . :. -
: .. : .
vertical flight path .of the aircraft.

(d) Flight Managem.e nt Source Selector - selects the sources of inp u t to be
used by the FMC.
(e) Display System - any means of displaying the required dat1/information .
to the pilots. · · · -· .. .. ~- "
~ ~:.:1.S.::,:i;;.-'':'-"
Si....ll.;,;,:.;,,
, ~,:_::
• ,·,:.'
..:.._~ ,·, ~ ___1,.=:::..~~:.:....:.::..:~~_.;_;~- ·- - "- -·
Flight Management Systems basically coi;isist of two units - the flight
management computer unit (FMC) and the control/display unit (CDU). The A 380 Displays
391
390'
Boeing 777~300 Primary Flight Display and Navigation Display
The natural process of evolution has now brought bod1 civil and military ,' ·
flight decks to the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) or the so called ·
Class Cockpit with its coloured cathode ray tubes (CRTs) presenting information .
p r e 1·io 1,slr sbown by mechanically operated instrume11ts. There a re several · Interpretation and use
flecrronic Displays in us~ with s_e veral common features .. The features discussed '
below are of general narure and may or may not be found in all displays. Scale and associated labels and figures, p ilot actio n , OT data
EFIS displays information on two, approximately 5 inch square , screens for entry. E~amples: -. d. VSL pitch.
c'ilch piiot. One screen corresponds to che ADI (attitude direction indicator) or • Scales markings (airspeed, alutude, hea mg, -
Primary Flight Display (PFD) contains the basic instrume1i.ts information like map· ranges, etc.) , , altitude)
:-urspeed , altitude, attitude, azimuth etc., and displ ays mainly flight parame ters. • Pilot-selected values (airspeed, heading, . )
T he ot her corresponds to the HSI (horizontal situation indic.:a~or) or Navig~tion • Secondary flight data (TAS, wind, OAT, nmes, etc..
Display (ND) conrains navigation infor_m ation. Terms PFD and ND arc associated
-.:ith Afrbus £FIS and ADI'.and'HSl with Boeing.· · - 1ten:15
_ IFR navigation da~abase • (airpor
· . with instrument-
ts
approaches,VORs, inter:secuons). . th
There is ~lso a multi-fuµcti9~ display , (MFD) _ which may embody or CYAN is also used to in~cate power-off glide area on e
supplement the weather ,r ad,~rdisplay. Other displays can include ai~craft srstems moving map.
status and, eng1ne perform;u~ce monitors, an electronic c_ent~ahzed aircraft
monitor (ECAM), crew alerting. system (CAS), or an elec~romc h~rary (EL) . .To indicate electronically calculated or derived data and
In put. The input to, and -the basic components for, a typical 'EFIS are shown certain navigation database items. Examples:
in Fig. • A<;tive wayp 9 inJ related symbols
• C:::ourse data {desired.track, CDI) .. d
•. YFR.airports,NDBs • VNAV Alu.tu es
· -- · · · .. · · . . d d altitude rcadpU;t .and
' As a -figure ·baokground fo~· ·~P~ an a for usable,portiO'I\
for conformaLrunway dep1cuon (hght gr y rface$. '
of the active runway, dar k g-ray for other runway su -. - .·
392
393
PART- II - AIRCRAFT INST"'
"UMENTS BASICS OF ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
GREEN Tol indicat · EICAS/ECAM
. e normal .or valid , . . .
~o o~ng. status indication e~f~r~t1on (afrspeed, altitude ta e computer-generated electronic displays which show th e aircraft sy~tems
• . rcraft ground track• . . xa mples: . p
gc,n.erally known as ~ither the ~ngine_lndicating _an~ Crew Alerting System
~kyw_ay symbology ~ t<;J\S) or as" Electrontc Centralized Aircraft Morutormg (ECAf.1) . Basically.
• Advisories
DARK In 'terrai n··m
· d'ication on th . JC-AS is a Boeing term whereas ECAM is an Airbus term .
.
. , e ~ ovmg map .:SJCAS. The sensors collect d ata from various points around the aircraft anrl
nsrnit it to 'the·computers. The computers process the sensor data and generate
jplay information. O?'ly one . c~mp uter is necess~ry to drive t~e system . The
'p~r display.shows_pnmary engine data and warnings and cauuons. The lower
ispfay show engine secondJl,ry d ata or other system information tlependm~ on
YELLO\V Id enu
'"fy 'con d1' .:t1o
. .
ns th at' re
'
. . . •. . . .
. ' ·\oqe!ection . If one display f~ls the other will show a engine prim.iry tlatJ and
awai:eness. an d sub q~ne immed iate pilot ·11er ibformation in a compressed format. If both of the disp!ays or both of the
. 1 C au tion -1.-nd' . . s~qu en t pilot aqion. Examples· ;fuptiters fail the standby engine indicators show essen Lial engine relat<:d Jata.
, . 1cauon · )' '~
: Altitude' or .neadirig alert

. C_om ponent failu re ind ication
•• M'P1tch,.limit'
. - ind'icator (l. ow-speed awareness)
· . u;u mu m altitude ·
.: -.g.~\nn~-~~~~s at _f~ll-~_cale ?eflection
.E ttl>Ulashes yellow on reading DH.
'I. n . a \i~ii~ty
, . ad es
. ofsh· •. to m
· d icate
' earthtterrain on th .
p nma~ ·flfght display altit d e
a n d m~vin g ~ap: . .. ' u e tape (grou nd level and below),
' BLUE In a v~r!~ty of sh_ades to indicate the sky portion

,.of the•p r1mary:fhgh Fdisp lay an d bodies of
' water :on the_moving map.
!0 :-in~j~a~e 'aircbifUimitationi or conditions which require

1mmecl1ate pil9t.action. Examples:
: · ~arn:i?g~ '(~~ame operati?n limits, terrain awareness)
. fttch hm1t md1cator (low. speed awareriess)
., : :,.• ..... ,,
Bl-..:AOK: As a :backgroundfor t~e I?-~ving map,'.f or figures on a gray

background, -and for ,outlining certain fi gures/elements on
.background where ·contt~st-is minimal. The basic EICAS system has.three modes of operation . These an: Ope1:tium
· ce Only the operational and status modes are ,w<.lllablc
status, an d mamtenan .
39 S
394
r.CTRONIC DISf'V."15
8ASICS0f EL"'
'. '_- '.-; .
llig hc The maintenance mode is not available on the flight deck and can be used ,:~ , : .
o n1 ' o n the ground. · : ··t·
~- .: -~
F.,\DI/PFO Display
'fbe system provides the flight crew with information on primary engin/ ·
p :tr mete~s (full time), with seconda1-y engine parameters and advisory/ caution'•
'\ ': unio g alert messages d isplayed a '> required. '
ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRA.Ff MONITORING (ECAM). , ' Aircraft
far as the processing and display.of information are concerned, the ECAM syste Symbol t:"/)
J iffers significantly from EICAS in that data relates !!SSe ntially to the primar:
_.,_.._.
E~lM) '_
sy rems of the aircraft, and is displayed in ·check-list and pictorial or· synopt.i"
speed(Wl ·,..
fo rm al. Sc;l!le GrtdcSloQ.:8
Aull)throttle [)e¥\a~
Scalefl/)
Tbc ECAM system has _four modes of operation . These are normal, ;1dvisory;': StalUS' (G) '"\
fai lu re and manua l. ln normal mode the ,sys~em displays infqrmat'. ion relatin g ; AUtothrollle
AFos -'·
Modo(Gl Status (G)
to I he correct stage of fiighL This information is shown in checklist form o n the
AnnedRDII
lel·L:.crccu and in diagrammatic form on the right screen . In advisory mod e is · Atm8d P~c!' . Modefl/)
Mode (W)
sd ecced a uLOmaticaUy in the event -of a 0011'-e,mergency change in the status of . Engaged Roll
Engaged";
-any of lhe monitored systerr..s. Failure mod¢;takes precedence over all oth e r and is Pitcll
MOdel<:>l
Mode(G)
se lected atrcomaticall:y if apf morutored systegi ·par:ameter exceeds pre-set limits. ' silpIndicator
u,caliser Deviation Scale CN)
AJJ fo ur ECAM modes are aya.ilil:?,le in fligl}_t;
· . ' . ' N ' •gati.on D isplay (ND)
EFIS Cont:rnl Panel: ' ' HSI (horizontal situatio.n,m d1cato r) _9 r ') a~ - ,
, , - . 11 . llows ·selectiop, to be made of:
,,, , . - The Display Mode Selector; typ1ca y a . . . . . .b f the display with the
' . f ' · 1· · d picted at the ottom o
MAP • T he aircra t 'pos1t 0.n is . e --- - ' ·b - · - th control panel the
· ·s -e o r arc .- V.ia push uttons-on e '.
track upwards to a com pa~ ros . , ". . ,•, , ·navt ation reference or waypomts
l> c·r i~io11 11 ighi
l ndicat<
ADI.
EHSI
Range
Selector
d isplay also can show: w.~alh~_r- r.a~.~r ,J~~R~
(WPT) n avigation aids such ·as VQ~; ·AD . etc., .
'Nl
VAI D) airports (other than
DATA) b aring
· DHiREF W origin , destination) (ARPT~:E!N~J\~t:fli'gp.~ pl~nne<l;~~\~!E instead o;track,
DH . 10()" information of tuned nav aids (VQRY~F) t~ge~~er wit ). e , g RP) with SRP
Rcsei¥-•
holding patterns an:d proceq.ure·tu~r,.s, seleeted reference points (~
radials and SRP distanc~. cvcle.s:. : · _,. · ,
DH -
CENTRE-MAP : ih;::'4~fi'.:aJi/s;F'?P.l::i~J~~~,v~:i~
'the middle
with either a compass ro~~,'}>r.~,~~,,qy;c.:_'j];h1s.1 ~,ode -~~<!,.bles the map
or::;;t;~:~:~
Select ·• located behind the aircraft{rp · pl~ ,Rli~'~etj(~d tct the p~ot.
,~, ' ' ..,....: . :' ~- ,~
EFIS Control Panel
396
PART.If -AfRCRAFr INSTRUMENTS
Map mode
Navaids (CJ
Heltdlngs.et_ ETA next

bug (M) waypolnt (W) Woypolnts Active (IA)
Inactive (WJ
lnslontaneous Expanded
!rack (W) . compassrose (W)
Adive ffight
plan route (M) ,, i/ertical dovfallon • Off roule waypo1ms (C)
pointer ('-1) .
Range scale (W)
~ radar display
(G.'t'.R & M ror
Wx+T. if fitted)
Vertlcnl devlaU011
Scale (W)
a Wind direcUon (WJ
Trend \/8ctor (WJ Colours

Aircrolt symbol c Cyan IE
G Green fill
M MagentamB
Windspetld w White 0
& diredfOn (W)
Locsli$er Deviatlon Sc31e CH) · Lat&ral deviation pointer (M)
NAV AND EXT~DED NAV MODE : Navigation information . Selecting

expanded NAV ·mode puts the_;aircraft ·symbol at the bottom of the display so
enablin_g the simultaneo_us display of the wea ther -radar:
PLAN: This displays th~flight.plan fr~m the Flight lvfanagement Computer.
PLAN MODE
398
PART II -AIRCRAfT INSTRUMENTS Apash ·dot line parallel to aqive_route.
O([set path
•identifier(M)
Symbols
,LAN MAP, VOR, ILS MODES:
I
S-ymbol Designation Explanation LL VOR MODES:

Distance (W) Distance. to. next FMC Waypomt
. or tuntd DMF. ;, ~ Compass data is provided b)' lRS.
Heading Magneuc North Between 600S . d 73·o ' Full Compass
Onentation(G) lats and Tirue North abcive anfats. N
• these Rose(W)
In<lica1ion(W)
. Aeroplane positi~n at ihe centre
Reference(G)
1~~?pfane •oftni-S)'mbol. · ·
Selected Headingsetin symbol(W) · · < •
f . . , .Meo r. Dolted
. lme
. extends
Displilys diffe'r ence between FMC tr~ck
Hcading(M) r~m _aero{)lane marker to selected Drift.angle and lRS Heading:
he,idmg to facilitate tracking. poiriter(W)
Extended Compass Approximately 700 is displayed.
Rose(W )
When'incerseet:ed with uroe line it I
MAP, VOR, IIS MOPES: Altitude Range p,re~icts the p~mt where reference
Arc(G) · a1tjtude ~ill be reached.
Track Une and Expected Track with current l1ead'
•I
Range Scale{W) · d5• Range is distance in NM
and wm mgs. , i_P,redicts_cl,Cfqplane directional trend at
Trenµ Vector(W)'
the end of 30,~0 and 90 secs.
■.I,--:---:;-,\~V.;in~·d~
-~d;ir~e~~ic
and Speed(W)
io;n~--,---:"ffi
· ~&::;::~~~-:--------j
• Nind
. dir li · · ··.
e_c . on ts with respect to ·ma )
d1splay·onentation and Compass
. l
Vertical Pointer(M)
and Deviation
scale(W)
··i~cii~atCS:-v·e~ti~al·deviation fr~m selected
vertical pointer in descend only
(±,!i00ft.).
f . , ·.
. .. re erence. Speed is in knots
Aeroplane
. Symbol(W) •. pos1t1oi:i
.. of air,~raft
. . is at th , . Altitude prof\\e . , , ;i:1n .~?H Q,~ D.~sc~{!d), T/C (fop of
WeatheriMa:p·p· _ . . .· . e apex of the tnangle, Descend). and S/C(Step Climb) is a FMC
identifier(G) ·
· · mg·
radar returns fntens1ty
G' . of , we : a th er ·mcreases with colours
Ot/D . calc,ulated poµit on flight path.
G,A,RIM) . reen
R. d/M is less
,, ·· mten
. se, /Amb. er more and ,
( e ' agenla is the most intense return.
PLAN MODE:
MAP, PLAN MODES: , , ~ ' ~ .
North Pointer(G) M~,P background is oriented and

referenced \o True North..
ETA(W) ETA Waypoint based on Ground Speed
Waypoint Acti_ve-: Waypoint the aircraft is current! '
nav1g~ung to. Inactive - Way/navigation} .
ILSMODfa
Active(M)
Inactive(W) on active route. · point lndi~tes Glide Slope ~cl De,•iation iri
GS Pointer(M)
Active Route(MJ Active rou_te is shown as a continuous and Deviation . 1LS Mode .
Active Route Magenta lme joining Wa · . sc.ile(W)
route is indicated b h_YP~ mts. Modified active
Modified(W) . . y w Ite s11crt dashes and
Inactive Route(C) mact1ve routes are in Cyan long dashes.
400
BASICS OF ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
PART II ~AJRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
~ _;'._Which of the ronc;wing displays arc part of the Electronic Flig}lt
Questions ir· -/ ~ • 1~strumentation System -(from Boeing)?
1
:.; / a) _Navigation display and Primary Flight ~isplay.
b) ND and Electronjc Attitude Director Indicator. . . . . ..
Ql. The. Prima~ Fll_g bt Display (PFD) displays information dedicated to: c) Electronic Attitude Director Indicator and Electronic Honzontal S1tuat1on lnd1ca10r.
a) weather situation
b) systems Decision height is displayed on the:
a) EHSl in Map mode, and bclo"." t000 ft is shown as a circular display which is
C) piloting '
erased anti-clockwise as the aircraft descends.
Q2 . . Reg~rding Electronic" Instrument Syste,;n .(EFIS): - b) EADI, and below 800 ft changes to a circular scale which is white wit~ a magenta
1 the Navigation ~ -ispl~y -~ ~) ~ispl~ys Flight Director Bars - - •.
DH marker.
2- the altimeter
. _ . setting • d·,on •the
. _ . -is d'isp1aye - -PFD (Primary
.. ·
Flight Display) c) EADl, and below lO00 ft is shown as a circular scale which. is erased anti-
3 the PFD-IS the malifflyiiig] n stfu-fuent - - - . .. - clockwise as the aircraft descends.
4 th_e -~(F~ig~J ~ode.A'.nnu~ci~tor) is part of.the ND _\,o~At what height does the DH, on the EADI display, starts flashing _yellow?
The combination of correct statements is: -
a) On reachjng DH.
a) 3, 4 . b) 1, 4 c) 2, 3
b) At DH plus lO0 ft.
Q3. Which colours ar~ fypically used on an EHSI? c) At 1000ft AGL.
a) Black, blue, purple, red, green and white. : Qll. In addition to attitude and auto flight modes, what information is also
· b) Red.and blue. ' ~ . typically displayed on an EADI? .
c) White, green,magenta, cyan, yellow and red. a) Engine indications and systems information.
Q4. An EFIS _in~tallation ·{Airbus) consists of: b) Speed, Altitude, ILS localiser and glide slope information. and sometimes al o
a), PFD iind ND,' ;· . - heading ir..fonnation.
b) PFD and ECAM. c) Altitude, speed and sometimes also heading infonnation.
c) ND .and EICAS. , - Q12. WXR display is controlled from:
Q5. Caut_ionary information on ·an EHSI is displayed in: a) a special control panel
a) yellow/amber. b) · white. c) cyan/blue. b) both captains and co-pilots EHSI control panels
Q6. The wind directio~ s~boldisplayed all EHSI modes except PLAN mode i· s c) captainsEHSJ control only
oriented: Q13. Aircraft electronic display systems normally incorporate:
a) witlfrespectto aircraft heading. a) one symbol generator for each CRT.
b) to .grid north whe~.-flying at.liigldaiitudes. b) a single CRT for each pilot position.
c) to ttue north'. · c) glass cockpits with colored CRTs.
Q7. Ob a.HS'r map ·mode, distance to go is displayed in the: Q14. The weather radar display data can be shown on:
a) Botto~ right comer a) the First Officer's EHSI only.
b) ' Top ·1eft co;er · b) only one EHSI at a time.
c) Bottom left comer c) the Captain's and First Officer's EHSI simultaneously.
-403
40i
PART rt • AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS BASICS Of ELECTRONIC OISPlA'<S
: .· · · , . ,.,_ ed · - wbich of tbe following
Q 'S. 'W ith an EFIS flight
· di rec t or usmg
· EFIS guidance, reference north can be·
qii ~ii an ~HSI display, wind velocity -can be ua-y1ay in .
~ ma.g ne~c north between 73° N and 65° S and true north above these latitudes ·
•,,· :, ~ modes.
bJ magnetic north between 65° N and 73° Sand true north above these latitudes ' ,, a) Map, Plan,Fu\l JLS.and Full VOR.
c) magnetic north only .··b) Map, Expanded IL.S, ,Full ILS and'Full VOR.
Q 16. When using EHSl, weather radar may be displayed on following settin s· .c) Plan, Full I.LS,,ExJ?anded VOR·and Full VOR.
a) map, VOR/ILS g •
·i4, Thefunction-pf EI~AS is to: · di l
b) map, expanded VOR/lLS _/ ·. ~) show .ch~ck,lists·:on:the 'left display ·and systems _diagrams on ~e nght spay.
c) VOR/ILS, map, expanded plan 'b) show en·gine primary .indications on the upper display and engtne secondary
Q 17. Decision height is adjusted and set on the: indications on the lower display. .
c) sliow engine primary ~di:ca~ons on the left display and engine secondary
a) flight management computer
b) ADI or HSI indications on the r;ig~tdisplar. . ; · ·
c) ADI section of the EFIS control panel . Which of the-following wouhl, be 3.n_EJCA~ information:
Q18. The beading reference used ~n the EHSl is: a) Primary E1;1_~e,p~~met,~!A
a) True or Magnetic. b) Magnetic. c) True. b) Decisi:on·Hei:ght
Q J9. Decision height is.;. c) Range to a way11oint.
~;' ~26, In addition t~ altitude and au~o-~glit .~oc!es, what informatio~ is also
a) displayed on the :EADI using FMC inputs.
~ . typically displayed on an E~I? , ·, .
b) calculated by the flight management computer.
a) Engine indications and systems info~a!i?n.
c) displayed on the EAD! , and set by the pilot using the EFIS control panel.
b) Altitude, speed and some~es hea,ding:mfoi:m?tion.
Q20. The EFIS control P1!.~el allows selection of: c) Speed, altil\ic1e, ILS Localis~r and Glide Slope information, and sometimes heading
a) EADI operating mode. information. '·
b) Decision Height. Q27, Regarding the Electronic Flightlnsti ~fu~nts System.(EFIS).
c) Autopilot operating mode. 1. The Navigation. Display;(ND) displ~ys,F.Uglit l)ir~c~or Bars.
Q21. ~adio altitude is shown on the EADl and changes from a digital display to a 2. The altimeter setting is displayed on tbe,Priinary Flight ~isplay. (PFD).
circular scale: 3. The Primary Flight Di~pl~y (J,>FD). is th':':main flying instrument.
a) at DH. b) at 2500 ft. c) below 1000 ft AGL. 4. The Flight M_ode An~uncja!or'(~) is part-ofthe Navigation Display
Q22. The speed tap~ on an EADI is located: (ND). .. . . . .
a) on the left hand s.i<le of the HIS. The combination,f~groupfu~ .al( ,o f the ~o.rrect.statements ls'?
b) on the ldl hand side of the EADI. a) ,l, 2. b) ·3,4. c) 2,3 .
c) on the right hand side of the EADI. Q28. What is the ~urrenLa·ctiv~ w;1yp9iµ,(·(n !~e·.diagram.below'?
•a) BANTA . , . 'Q) 1'DPN . c) TRK
404
405
ELECTRONIC~D~l~~PLA'~'f=-.~_ _ __ _ _ __ _ _____
BASICS OF - ==---
PART 11-AIRCRAFT,INSTRUMENTS .-:-- - • hOWD on diagram?
VOR display IS s
. . )
, .6 In diagrams, the f ull
QZ9, WJten us~g tbe.EHS.l, the weather r:adar may be displayed on the 3 following . (13 • .
settings? ·
a) Map, VOR/ILS,
b) VOR/ILS, Map, Expanded plan;
c) Map, Expanded VORiILS.
Q30. Airspeed is sbo~ on?
a) Only,o~ the Captain's EHSI. b) On both EADrs. c) On both EHSJ's.
Q31. Which mode~ selected on the Navigation Display (.EHSI) in the diagram c))
below? · · . )I b)2
a i the diagram below indicate~ ';'
a) ~fap mo?e. . ·b) Expanded Map mode. c) Plan mode. . r left corner n
37. The white arrow lD the 1owe ,
Q32. On a HSI map mode, distance to go is displayed in-the?
a) Top leff'co'mer. ' 1
b) . ·' ·Bottom
Jeft' bomer. t) Bottom right comer.
Q33. Weather i:a_d ar data can Iiot be displayed on the' EHSI in wbich of the
folfo~g inodes_?' .
a) VOR. b) ILS. c) PLAN.
Q34. The symbol below wh,n shown on an EHSI display represents ?
a) TI1e selected track and track reference.
b) The selected heading and heading reference.
c) The heading orientation,' cui7entheadi.ng, heading reference and heading pointer.
', '£'. a) The next heading will be 1000.
. expenence
· ·· 100° , speed 20 knots.
d .1s
; Mitt■
b) The current wind bemg
c) The active waypoint is located on radial·-1000 at 20 runs from VOR 2.
Q35. Which of t{lt; \fiagram~ belO':"•iUustra,es i,n appx. 30° right bank and 15° nose · wi a VOR rsdial. From the EHSl
Q38. An aircraft is under guidance mode f?llo ng h t the aircraft is?
down attitude? .
represented in the diagram, it is ~oss1ble to deduce t a
a) On a selected radial of 130°.M.

b) Located to the left side of the selected radial.
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 c) Experiencing left side crosswind.
406
-:~~~=~=:=~f'A~R~T~l!_:1·:.!_A~IR~C~RA~FTI.!!IN~S~T~R~U~M~EN~TS~-------:._ BASICS OF ELECTII.ONIC'DISPLAYS
03 9. The speed t ape 1s
•
located?
·. • '.
.~ Jn the diagram below, what ls the meartlng of tt1e w hite circle with (fNTC) next
Qit••
to it?
/ndJcar, d AJr
Sp er d 'fil pe ..............
~
.,
.
....,c...tJMft, to~
• t •.nte a.n r
~°'....,~.,.--....... .. _.
~ -,
'1 ) On the left side of1he EADl.

"'~""" ....,
c.: ) At the top of the ADI. b) On the left ~i de of the EI-ISi.
Q40. 1n th e diagram below tbe T/C . a) It denotes an active waypoint on the flight plan.
is •.••• . ••• and it lviU be reached
··········· b) It indicates a location where you will intercept radial 095° from 1'1~PVOR and
DPN . A._,.. .., track inbound.
►.~fi\ DPN
OVJJ. -' Vrc c) TCAS indication -you are being intercepted by military aircraft.
l °ru k u :
' '" .... . .... &le
Q43. What heading is the aircraft currently·flylng In diagram below?
t ~--
. , Heedlog 030"
, H~!'dlng 037'
ai FMC calcu l11tedtopofdimb a . ~

bJ Actual top of climb 6 4 fr ppx. 4..)nm ~o_m present position, before 091 2.SZ.
. . run om presenr posmon afl'er 0912 :5Z
c) Pomt on FMC t t h' . . ' · ·
. rou ea w ich climb begins,iat 0912.52.
Q41.
What is the current active waypofut in 'the diagram below? c) 037°.
Q44. Which mode is selected on the Naviga,tion Display (EHSI) ln diagram below?
I
a) Letters IPR
b) Letters PVR
c) Letters IBT a) Mapmode. b) Centre Map mo9e. c) Pltµt mode.
408
409
,.. .r BASICS Of ELECTRONIC Ul::»t'LJ-\1.,
. .,
lll ,
Tn<k
, JJll" M
rARAM Is appi. ~
l"1 des, from
MANAV,
, , 1.::,· --·i'. ;,•

b) 1480M.-
c) 338°1Vl.
a) Full V0R mode. ! ; b)
~
~i:cpanded V.0R mode. c.:) Expanded NAV mode:
• . ~., •. , ....~. . 1,. " ' ;.,· .·
a) 168°M.
Q46. Which mode is sclecte,d -in the Navigation Display (EHSI) in diagram below?
tre weather returns are?
In the display below, the cen -
cu,ter ncscling
nrcloo~ - 353
326 cl~- ~
deg.M
d!Jtaoce --
44 nnu
' .,-_ .. ;,~VX•·~·f:: ✓; ?- , Ooudsal

a) Full VORmode. b) E~p~ncJed!VOR mode. c) Full NAV mode. 333d~
n,bilrv~
Q47. Decision'beight is adjusted and set on the?
a) 342° M, 50 nm.
b) 333° relative, 44 nm.
c) 326° relative, 89.6 run.
Q50. The heading reference used on the ~HSI is?

a) True.
b) True or Magnetic.
a) Flight Management co·rrtjffit~: c) Magnetic.
of
b) HSI section the EFIS con~lpanel.
c) ADI section'o'rthe BFis·coiltrolpan~l. ;:·
410 411
PAR.T II - AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
-
,..._
--. · I
\ )· 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 l7 18 [9 2~
I
\ ,\ : b a <h b b
-
l
C C J a a C C
'
. C (; a C a C
- b
·.n 2::l 24 2S 2G 27 28 29 30 · ·31 32 33 '.H 35 36 '.>,7 38 39 40
:\ : C b h b a C C b C b C a C C a b b C a a
'-~: 4 l ,12 43 14 4 [1 4n 47 48 49 50
1, I) C b C C C a b b PART Ill
RADIO
' '
,,.
NAVIGATION
412
·aw;,e:.e
Chapter
.,)~ikSr{
,...·:
·· 1
,~rit:'
,.-
., '
IV~~<--••
·=- . . ' -. ~-· -: ·_ :, :: ::- ,,: .-. : .=·
" .. ,· -...
rf~1J1!$ifupte AC;'CirCuit : A changing eleclric fiefcl produces a perpendict lar

;:t1.i ~Tu~i~~1a.gnetic field, and a changing 1n agne tic fie ld produces a perpendicuh · ( •I f~< ·n ·,(·
::~i\¼¥iNfiekl.
0
~j~Jlj:;:;:' <__:/ . All of this can take place· in open space, the alternating electric and rnagn et 1c
{~~}~~
1
~:/ :~:~!1~ supporting each other as they travel through space at the speed of light.
:11\t;:/:~his dynainic structure of electric and magnetic fields propagating through sp ace
~l\i!;~~I:d~ft ;hetter known as electromagnetic waves.
11~: ~ ·.
ple AC- Circuit: Sine Wave 'construction

Current !)ow In a si~_
.
is
Frequency. Tl!t nunl.ht:r ?fr~di(j'fa'\'esPasSiUg thr~ugh
called the Frequency of Ra.d10 Waves. · ·
apoint per -
~avehLength. The distance covered by a wave m uni t: of le 1 ~ t . . ,,· ,- ~jL,
trave 1ng t rough 360 d egrees is called wave lengt . c
415
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION
Phase Difference. .. ·' BASIC7MDIO:rHE0RY
..r-. ~.;:·- · dary radars. In
-_,,_ .J ' ;,r, and ..and
consw1t
· ch functions
. , ' t.i'. ~--: ,_
1 I.'. of short coded pulses, e.g. used in primary,
n antennae
• ,_ · 1orm d · r use commo 1
. this case, transmitter an rece1ve .
8 · .. alternately.
lov..:r c-
Where lhe .3)(!0 m' sec ( s ~ of em 'M!Ves/ light) higier the~·l'dmgth,
ti"equc:icy and ~se vma.
1 cyde-lHZ
l000HZ-1 KHZ-ta3HZ 1.lcm= 1000m
1000KHZ-1MHZ- t04 HZ 1 m"= 100 cm
lOOOMljZ- J GHZ~!cf H~, lcm=10rnm
) ,,.._ , ' .:!<,
Polarisation:- In an KM,
wave· two component Le. electrical and m8gh etl[ J.
compon~nt travel perpend1c~lar ~o· e~ch o~her in a direction which is mutually- >P
ut1erpend1eular to both. The
,n~u ion of polarization . direction tn which electrical component lies is called
Polar diagram:. In gives aerial characteristics of a transmitter or a receiver.

For a transmitter its drawn up to a distance
50% of transmission. . ~here, signal strength ·reduces up to ·
- F.M.
,,. ·
; Process_ofsu~er
Modulation:. : . - . . audio
; :impos~ng ; frequ~ncy or information on
. wave
~o earner - · · called mouulauon
1s · , .
Modulation is of 3 types:-
(i) Amplitude (ii) Frequency - (iii) Phase
Main Beam
(i) Amplitude Modul~t~o.n: ,. ·" varied ~ · accordance to amplitude of
- The amplitude of the i, ~arr\er wave i,s . . ":VHF communications a, i AM.
1
• ' ·e freg_uency
audio frequencie~ kee~,~ng th · constant.
, , : ., . ' :
SSR Horizontal Polar Diagram

Types of Propulsion:
) Continuous Wave M~d~Jation: It is a continuous transmission.Transmitters
and receivers ' use
f.i.m ctioning.
-sepa:-ate ant~nna~s - and are capable of independent
J Pulse modulation:- In plllse modulation trans_inission i,,-m3il_e"in th_e form of

sh orr pulses of either A.M. or .F.M: signal or information and 1s earned m the
. 416
4l7
PAR"F Ill RAoro .NAVIGATION
BASIC RADIO THEORY
Characteristics of Amplitude rnodulation:- -----... ...... -
·w) Phase Modulation:-

(a) T~tte~ is comp"Jicated to design, where as receiver is simple.
(b
) ~tis susceptible to ~,,,tic a nd noise. . (· . wave I-5 var,·ed after fixed interval (used in G.P.S .).
Phase o f earner
Static· Any disturba nce d,.,t· 1, . e :-.:"ternaJ;
Noise - disturbances•with in the syslem; .
(ii) Frequency Modu'lati~n:~ "
Frequency of the carrier wave i .
d.. . , . . . , '- . ;
signal, keeping the atnpJitude coi;istasO:;~ne lll accordan.:e to, frequency of audio
Freq_ue~cy
Modulation
MocMattng
Frequency Bands and Associated Wavelengths
✓-::
wavelbrm
Band Frequency Wavelength Wavelength
Range Range Denomination
VLF (Very Low Frequency) 3-30 KHz 100 km 10km Micro metric
LF (Low Frequency) 30.-300 KHz 10 km- I km Kilom etric
MF (Medium Frequency ) 300 KHz - 3 MHz l km - 100 m l l l .\ ,1 111dr: ,
HF (High Frequency) .3-30 MHz 100 m - 10 m J'li ;mwtrir
VHF(Very High Frequency) 30- 300 MHz 10 m-1 m Mt>trir
UHF(Ultra High Freque ncy) 300 MHz - 3 GHZ l m 10 cm Dec11nc: u t<
SHF (Super High Frequency) 3-30 GHz 10 cm -1 cm Cc 11 tinieu ic
(M ic rowav<')
EHF(Extremely High Frequency) · 30..: 300 GHz 1 cm - 1 mm Milli metric
1-2 GH Z LBand
2-4 GHZ S Band ·
4 - 8 GHZ C Band
8-12 GHZ X Band
Characteristics of /irequ~cy Modulation:- ''
Properties Of Radio Waves:
(a) Transmitter is,simpler whereas:receiv~r-i; complicated-to design.
(b) Fr ee .from static and noise interferences. E.g. - FM radio, aeronautical (i) E.M. waves travel at the speed-of 3 x 108 m/s
cop:imuniquion.
(ii) They get refracted; refl~c~ed, diffracted a_nd a~ten_uated during their
Draw Backs: · For same transmission power range is lesser. propagation (attenuation is lessening of amplitude m llme). .
(iii) Therr direction and velocity both change while passing from one medium lo
other.
418
419
. . PART__
HI_RA_D_;IO;;.__:_,:NA:~Vl~G~A~Jl~O~N'!__ _ _ _ _ ___:_
\ hi e passing fr . . . BASIC RADIO THEORY .
lo 3.rds C1e n I om medium of lower d .
or ,na and vice- versa They 1 ensuy to · higher density they b .
. a ways bend towards tJ1e denser med· eng_ 0~gh the obsJacles; . th_e intensity Qf the ~l~ctr.o magn~~c waves will decrease
iun1. · ·p,idly. surface wave propagati<;>n is possjble only.for those wayes which have very
essfrequency, nearly,~MHz. E~mplts VLf, L..li' an9 MF. .
:·?1,Ground Refl~-ted Wa~e: •· ;At wave·:received 'at a receiver after a reflection
•;t'qi tpe.ground. • i; ',/,,, ( ; , ( ,. . ·, 1
, • 1 .
,-r~\ni?fW~ve!· Under' certain -~~tep~olo_gic'al ~9nditlon_s, r~di~ ~a~~s in th.e

HF, UHF 'and ·Sf.IF ben9.s,.. ~lj1~ not;_rpaj,ly trav~I:_9l,lly m straight hnes, may
f'pavein ,i"way which is at first sight sinJilai: to ·sky waves.
-~~/ the meteorological conditions required for d.u ct propagation are a· marked
~;perature, i11:versi9n ~cVi1);a,pid. dec~~ase _in 'hµm\dity with height. Figure
.shows ducting which~ iri 'this"case, is O:d':u_rrihg,betwe·e n ~e surfac~ and a low-level
Propagation of Radio Waves ., .inYersion. The ~ignal is eff:ecii&ely~• f!appe~_un$'.ier~the,, i,n version and may travel
EM waves travel from a tran . --. _/,{ hundreds of miles with little',attenuation. In, th,is-way; wh:en high pressure systems
smmer to a rec · · · · :_--o prevail, interference may be hlard fron,i distarit VHF communications stations
(i) Ground Waves pro . . . e1ver m two ways, i.e.
pagatwn . · ·:· w~ich are far 'beyoncrtne noriiiaj.;,_dif~cfwave''r,ange':'· - i · ·
(ii) Sky Waves Ionoshere propagation
Ground Wave: - All waves oth h
co vered under ground wave pro er ~ an those _refracted from atmosphere stlRFACE WAVE FOI..LOWIN<UHE. CURVATURk OF THE EARTH
. pagation. These mclude· are
Direct wave or Line ors· h ·
fro n tl · ig t waves: · A wave d · 1 •
, 1e transmitter is kns;>wn as direct wave irect y rece1~ed at the receiver
LOS (range) = 1.25 ( . Examples VHF,UdF,SHF and EHF. TRANSMITTER
REC~
Ht = ,.,,et ~ + v1Hio]'i[xf
- Range= nm Ducted Waves
Relationship ~e~een ~ ,equ~mcy ~nd~o-u~~ ~ave-ittenuation:-

Frequency/ ·
Direct wave
Surface Waves: - A wave hi h ., Drawbacks oflower freque~cy:
c.ius-cd by d iffraction a d w ~ follows curv~.!..ire of earth due to bending (i) Static disturba~ce
. ., n attenuation is called fa
• ,11.u1~ cht' obstacles which co . . . sur ce wave. These waves bend
(ii) Larger antenna size.
me 1l1 the path of these waves. Due to this rounding
(iii) High transmission power.
420
BASIC AADIO iHEORY
PA.RT Ill RADIO NAVIGATION

The Ionospheric Layers
. Sky Wave / Ionosphere Pr . _ _ _ _ ___,;~- .
getung refracted fr opagation. A wav · (i) Electron density is maximum in F \ayer and \ea,t in D layer.
2MHz to 30MH,. p::q:::~here. The sky waves h:,:~~ive;n;' r:eccive, afi. (ii) During night D \ayer disappears and electron density reduces in E lay«
than 30 meters), including bro~~ow approxiri>atelf JO Mn';\wa!e1e:gehbetw,,, due to lack of UV radiation.
propagate most eflicientl b asts m the me<liurn wave and sh gt s longe, Th• height of ionosphere apparently increases during night .
(wavelengths
th d shorter th any30ymeters)
sky wave ·at night. FrequenCles
. aobrtwav,~
ove 10band•'• skip Distance: Distance from transmitter to a point whe« fa st ,,, ·, '"
e ay. Examples of sky waves aTe Mip1acally
. an HF.propagate most efficiently dM~1.
urin~
IONOSPHERE
' return is received.
Dead Spa<<' Distance between limit of surla(• wa~e to the _point whn fo '
• : s'<l"wave return is received. In dead space there" no a<gnal available e>th« frnu>
ih~orpben: i:0 ground wave or from sky wave.

1· j\ngle of Incidence: The angle which a radio wave forms with nonnal at
transmitter is called angle of incidence.

Stn!ospbore
•·· Critkal ,\ngle: The angle of incidence at which fi,st sky wave is ,ecei,ed oc
. earth is called critical angle. Signal lesser than critical angle does not retur n
IONOSPHERE·· The layer of negati 1 -

presence of U. V. rays is falled ionosphere. ve y cha~~ed par~cles caused due to
. ~ Pa
~00
300
200
CJ
J F, -4~
~LA;J
, ~,
The lonosph~rlc Refract\ons
Fading: Due to the disturbance created by the waves, ,;ome vari.ation~ G1l•
be seen in the signal strength at the receiver end. This is known as fading e[!eCI
¢ E E If the frequencies of the sky waves will be high, then the fadi ng cliet! wi\1
100 ,.
b J increase. Errors in data transmissions and data retrienls ar' also caused b j
f D ~
fading. Fading basically varies with time.
l'ilHffll~Y
IVllhllEflOIIY NIGHT EFFECT ON RFCOMMUNICA.TION: Al night NC goes into tlesd
~""'11,1111
space and hence frequency has to be reduced.

During night D layer disappears and electron density decreases in E lay r.
E Layer 100 - 150-km (Aug - 125 km) A wave leaving transmitter has to penetrate further in ionosphere before getti ng
D Layer 50 -100 km (Aug-75 km) -413
-422
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION BASIC AADIO THEO RY
re~racted to earth. Due t? ~is, skip distance increa~es and a receiver comes in
•' t Freq. ·= , t Dead Sp~e
, () ii) D.ead Sp~ce t Freq. = i Attenuauon
dead space. HF commumcauon frequencies are reduced to half during night 10 .
. \iv) Attenuauon . = i Refraction
111 e vcr, l receive r Lo come in dead space. ·
: ~t:,~ Ionosphere Refracuon
" ''\;. ,..(v);, . . . /N II
t Freq. . . \'k NDB VDF and VOR have
e Radio aids I e , . dio
'I
{__,./ Reme mber Sun up, frequency up, sun down, frequency down J. . /one of confusion/no md1cauon u zon : nterin thes cone do not receive ra
' . ,;,u ·rspace, over them in conical shape. Aircraft _e ~ merit gets confused and behaves
.:i~.
/4t
I \~/ VLF, LF a ,·e a bso,bed by laym.VHF and above pass thmugh the Jaye,s · ;~;- ,'rratically~
. - -it.'. :Is. Therefore, the needle of the correspondmg eqmp , .
' . ·
-
;Y
:1 ~::· · ·-·-::~
~ art of MF a nd HF are reflected back. ' ·
. '. :~:,r-:z;
~ Sy!ltem
!Jee,~
Lo ra ,1 C
..
-, ,UF
- --
I i r t· , ,111m1 1n irarions
Operating Frequencies
Frequency Range
70 to 130 KHz
100 KHz
190 to I 750 KHz
'.? to 25 MH z
Band
LF
LF
LF/MF
HF
!·,__
JLS Markers 75 MHz VHF
Ql. Frequency = 0.02 GHZ .Fin1 wavelength In
1'-~\
I LS Localiser -108. l to 11 1.95 M H z VHF
VOR 108.0' to 11 7.95 M H z VH F Ans. Frequency 0.02 x l 09 ~Z
VHF Communications
I LS (;lid cpath
l 18 to 136 MH z
329.15 to 335 .0 MHz
VHF
UHF
,\ =+
3X l0 8
11\JE
-- --- - -- 960 to 1213 MHz UHF = 2X 10' = 15m
I~:>---·-
Sitco m (lnmarset)
1030 and 1090 MHz
-
1575.42 M H z (Ll),1227.6 MHz (L2)
1500 ,to 1600 MHz (Aircraft lo Satellite)
UHF
UHF
UHF
= 0.01 5 km
Q2. ). =~ .'Find fin 1\-IHz.
4000 to 6000 MHz (Satellite to Gro und) SHF Ans.

Radio Altimeter 4200 to 4400 MHz SH F l = 12.95m.
8
Weather RaJar 9375 MHz SHF f- 3X l0
- 12.95
i'v!L'> 503 1 to 509 1 MHz SHF
f= 23.166023 MHZ
ATC Surveill ance Rada rs 600 to 1300 MHz UHF
i--- - Q3. 1n an amplitude modulated signal, the amplitude of the carrier wave will:
• 1! (' (:ir, u11 d :\ f. i11llt'111re Rad ar., JOto 16 GHz SHF
a) remain constant', an'd tlfo1freq\Ye'rtcy will vary·according to the amplitude of the
Refationship between frequency and atmospheric conditions. modulating signal. · ·,, " ; ·, , i;,
(1) Cr;Lical Angle t Freq. = t Critical Angle b) vary according to the;amplitilde of,thc',rnodulating signal
1 iiJ Skip Distance . f Freq.= t Skip Distance C) vary according to' the frequency of the modulating signal:· .
424 42.S
. ,BASIC AADIO THEORY
PART Ill RAOIO=NAYIGATION A.~ C,
Q4. To establish and maintain effective-HF commnnlcations the frequency used ,, -~-'ii . -_,::,---
, '. 'fhe·frequency correspondmg
. to a wavelength. of 3.5 cm is:
MHz c) 8.57 Gl-11 ~
L_....;... .
a given range: . . . ,It , -:-' ti• b) 85 .7 · d
a) should remain constant. J·\;, '< ' . . a) 857 MHz.
. "( - a ation the distance between
the end of the surface wa,·c :in
w ·12. In sky wave prop g ave is called the: . .
b) should only be varied by season, decreased in summer and increased in winter. , the first returning sky w c) skip distance.
c) should be decreased at nigJ:it.- . ' .. , . b) dead space.
.,.- ) maximum usable range.
QS. For a given set of lonosphe~e.condlttons, as the f~quen~y ~fan HF sigriai is •(, a f 295 KHz would be described as: ~
!. j A frequency o c) MF
lncreued: . . '. ·Q1· • b) short•wave. ·
a) ~e size of the dead space increases due solely to the decreasing minimum ~kip a) LF. , y lonospherlc refraction ... and ~~
S
J
distance. · 4 As a radio signal increases in frequenc '
b) ~e size of the dead space increases•due.'solely to the increasing minimum skip

Q!,.. atmospheric attenuation .. , . . d eases c) rncrcases; mcreases
b) mcreases, ecr .
distance. ✓ a) decreases; decreases. i ht in which of the followmg i--
c) the size of the dead space decreases·because the surface wave coverage decreases, "QiS. Sky waves are not likely to occur by day o r ~ ~
and the minimum .skip distance decreases.
frequency bands: b) HF c) MF. t~
Q6. Around a radiating transmJtter aerial there ls: a) VHF:.,v ♦ n eat which an ain:raft at !!!9-can obtain ~
~ ·
•
a) ·a ma~c field. 16. The maximum theoretical r; facility sited 325 Ff above MSL is:
b) an electrical field. bearings from a grou nd VD NM --: c) 134 NM
c) an electrical and niagnetic-fteld • a) 1\4 NM b)
h t
107
aircraft, at a range o
{113 NM must flv iu
, . 69
'S
, ~
Q7. The rat.e of attenµation of a radio wave which occurs when the wave travels a
7. What is the minimum level t a anfor VDF bearing from an airport sited l '-,
.close to the Earths surface. order to contact the tower on Rff ' ""
a) decreases as the frequency of the wave increases, and is greater over the land than
FT above MSL? c) FL80
~ a) FL60 b) FL50
the sea.
tu · sky wave called?
b) increases as the frequency of the wave increases, and is greater over the land thar, Q18. What is the first re rmng =-t c) 'i'be spa~e wave.
the sea. a) The critical ray. b) The sky ray
c) .decreases as the_frequency of the wave increases, and i~ greater over the than the land. - : d' t e of an NDB wavelength?
\I, Q19. What ls the metric ,s anc -. . . c) Metric of Kilometric.
Q8. The frequency which corresponds to a wavelength of 12 mm ls: . tric b) Centimetnc.
l a) Dec1me . o erties of the ionosphere?
a) 25 MHz b) ·2.5 MHz c) 25 GHz Q20. Wbich·rad.io frequency employs the refraction pr p
b' HF c) VHF.
Q9. For a·given HF frequency skip distance will normally: a) EHF. .,
\:
a) be greater by day than by night. Q21. VOR wavelength is?
b) be greater by night than by day. a) 2.46 Cm.
b) 24.6Cm.
c) belessby~nt~tth~n9r*>\ ;i., •. _,,. ,, .. ,.,
Q22. VOR wavelength ls : . c) Metric ..
QlO. The rate of.refr~.ctio,n .of.a r~~9,:wave .~blch occurs ~1~hln the Ionosphere: a) Millimetric. b) Centunetnc ___,,
a) decreases as th; frequency of.the radio wave increases. ' 23 When is fading in the medium frequency band most likely t~ occur. 1 ,
Q • k b) Dunng ramy l a)S
b) increases as the frequ_ency ofthe-radio'. wave.increases. a) During the day with ground ands y waves. --=~
c) i.s greater at nighL:7' "1 • .- • c) During rainy nights
417
426'
Q24. What is the waveJeo t
19 cm. . g h and waveband of a radio aid th t
) 15.79 Hz. ELF
a uses a frequency r
J o
Q25 . b) 15.79 K.hz. VLF )
. The wavelength of a 121 95 MHz . . c 1.579 Ghz UHF Chapter .
a) 24.6 Cm · signal is?
. b) 2.46 rn.
Q26. What '8 sklp distance? c) 2.46km.
a) The distance betw · .' · .
een a receiver and·the firs
b) The distance between th . t and second fundamentals.
. · e transmitter and the fi .
CJ The distance between th fi fun . 1rst returning sky wave.
. e trst damental tum ·
receiver. · re mg to the ground,-and the
Ql ?. Weather radar is? -~- . ·ADF / NDB ·. .
a) Centimetric b) .
Metnc.
(}28. The wavelength of VHF di c) Kilometric
a) M'll' . ra o signal is?
I unetnc. . ' b) . Centirnetric
· c) - Metric. The ADF navigation recei~er) s·connected electronically to a rotating pointer
Q29. Tbe wavelength of IL SI ·liz. • needle on the· face of' the-ADF indicator· in die instrument panel. The ADF
. . • oca · er 1s.
a) Mlllimetric. b) C . . receives signals fiorri',non-dir~ctionai beat ons (NDBs) or-from broadcast stati~!ls
Q30. A tmospheric ducHn I
entimetnc
.
c) M tn·
e c. within (roughly) the 190 - 1756 khz'ban'ds.' . .
f '
~
'I . '
g c ose to the earth is most Uk I ? N,ote that the AD F receiver in the.cockpit is a .different set altogether .Tom
a) In an inversion with constanth
---? h. 1 . .
e y.
um, ity at all altitudes
•er ' . the NAV/COM radio. Frequencies of speciji_c NDBs cag be fow;i.d on the chrrts.
) 0 an mversion wifu hum ·d·ty d . . . · -
c:) Over land. , t ecreasmg with mcreasing altitude. ?--- NDBs operate within ,the Low Freque11:cy (J..J<). !'-Pd Medium Fr~quency (MF)
bands between Igo•kfiz ancN5tfkHz. Voice'informa'tion can be transmitted from
.in NDB kt'ou_n:d •;tatio.n 'tcf ap aircraft but ifis not possible for a pilot to reply using
the same frequency on "the ADF radio set. .
Answers
Q: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 '10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A: b b C b b b a b a a C b
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A: C b b .. b
b a C C
RBI Jndica&i a~ of080'

There are many different designs in ADF control panel but they all have
these items in common:
428
429
ADF INDB
------ . . . finder - NC f,quipment
Fanction switch which can be turned to!
.nf == Automauc direcuon .
~ G nd 17 nu1pment
. cu· onal beacon- rou '-"1
• OFF. the ADF is off; / DB == No n d tre . roach and e -rou c
v . U d for h omi ng, holding, app
• ANT or REC), the ADF is n ot automatic, u se this setting for tuning; purpose and Use. . se
• ADF (or COMP), the ADF is in automatic mode. purposes. . _ KHZ (N DB) 190-1750 (ADh
4 0
• CW (orBFO) Switdi to make the IDENT audible. Frequency: . LF and MF. 190 - :, ~00 kHz is the inte na inna
NDB band is from 190 kHz to 4.50k~z:Be~~::Pd for I ' DB . \ q() - 1, :ii) ·· 1P.
Frequency selector, to tune to tlie required NDB or ~!"~ad.cast station. . . ) frequency, it 1s n - . ' ..
ritirne distress (l!mergency fo A.vl commercial nidio _ta i•: r s , , '
Test buttoB which, wnen pressed, the-station 'ident' is verified. Even though ma F) This includes 530-1750 kHz '. be ed on ADf for gu1cl a.111.. 1..
tAD · . d Low MF).AM radios can run · ,. .
the correct frequency may have been selected, it is pomoJe for the frequency band (Hight.f an - . B . gbyloop theory, switched ca '1 0 '1'
elector mechanism to malfunction. However; in modern ADFs which use digital . . Of 0peration: . Relative ea.no:
pnnctp1e
LED read-outs, the frequency shown lS- the frequency selected.
ONA.IA. The signal con:mts of two separate elements, the NON portion rn.he of Bearings: rth
~Jr b . - . measured from True no .
and the AlA portion. The N ON part of the signal is, as we know, continuous • True eanng etic nor h
carrieT wave, and is ideally ruited to enable the ADF to establish the direction from . \..--~" g - direction measured from magn - .
• Magnettc L = ~ d.
which the signal is arriving. The Al A part of the signal periodically replaces the . d from nose of a/ c or h ea mg.
Relative beanng - measure
0 · 1 transmission an~ being interrupted carrier wave, is used to carry the two/
three letter Morse identifier for the NDB. NONAlA beacons are normally used
t ith h igh power outputs for long range . DBs. However, ! CAO recommends Working:- . i.e loo and sense antenna
·o. A2A beacons for long range beacon-s. In this system, BFO is kept on for ♦ ADF coOS1sts of 2 antenna · p · li Pd 1· •• 11
d. . . al property \! hen loop ts a ·
tuning, identification and monitoring. ♦ Loop antenna has rrecnon . : na1 in di.fferenl phase. ca . i •~
. h NDB both vertical arms receive s1g .
NONA2A. Similar t.o N ONAlA stations but now the station identifier is Wlt . rial different which in turn induces EMF.
ca ried oy the A2A signal (keyed signal tone amplitude mod~latio~)- NONA;A paten . ~ . duced EMF is zero . To e e o e
♦ When loop antenna is 90 to. DB , m . l
beacom are normally used for medium range NDBs. BFO 1s sW1tched or, 10r induced EMF varies as funcnon of antenna ang e.
tuning only and kept off otherwise.
WOClll.wlt~
Ou'Vb fl'OC1t
t!x ..W"
~~ ==
_ ;~=
/ca,,w-2:IOIOtz
~
~
ll!bdn9 Wllr)
%1 < H a t o ~
for audio output
WO ~ LOOP Aerial
JC KJfz
431
- ------.!.._ART Ill RA:oto NAVIGA.noN
> A .:.imple loo

----....;.;.:::_:~---
ADP Loop Aerial - - - -:
ADF/_NDB
► p an cenna suffi .c.... Long range NDB: Used for Jong range nav. No fixed range,_range
Direction ers irom lBoo amb · .
cnaJ p rop ercy error (l Boo amb . . . 1gu1ty. . depends on factors like frequency, transmission power, location etc.
· tguity) is resolved by usi -
Polar diagram f - ng a sense - Factors Affecting Accuracy of ADF:
. o !oo p aerial i fi -
i:: ~~~: 0~
0
::;;:!~ar D ~ ~eo;~:~:~~~;r _o f a sen~e _antenna
s IS a card101d Which
·-1. Night Effect: During night, due to lesser electron density, sky wave is present
- in MF band also. This sky wave interferes with horizontal arm of loop causing
B . osiuon of czrdioid isoneusedmmim. .
Null p . . - distortion of the melt position. RBI pointe-r haunts oscillates. There is a loss of
► t:a.nng Indicator). to rotate pointer of RBI (R . signal and fording. This error is called night effect.
Loop e1at1ve
ancen_n a is >-otated in such Meth.ad io Reduce Nfght Effect:
ground stat.ton a manner that null · ·
. - IS a1Ways 900 to Use the beac~n which is t~smitting at low frequency bec~use lower the
(i)
frequency moi:e is the ·~o!l~spJter_ic att_enuation . Presence of sky wave
will be less. Night-effect is maxim1:1m at dawn and dusk.
(ii) Use the NDB which is within 70 nrri from ale position. As first sky wave
return is received at a slup distaqce of 70 nm or more.
(iii) Use a beacon which '· is transIJ!itting at high transmission power, as
ground wave will be stronger. ,
2. Coastal Error: Atzµospher~c density-ov.e r ~sea is lesser than density over land.
A radio signal leaving coastline ivilrben,d a-;,ay from normal or towards land/
Factors Affecting RangC"()f NDB• denser medium. This will cause relative bearing of a/c to be shown in error.
(i) Tx power· ·
This error is q1lled coastal,errbr.
R- . more p ower, m ore will be range
an ge O ~ •
1o Double NDB r . -
(11) ) • ange, mcreasc power 4 times
erraw: Between land and . .
(iii) I"x frequency: lower the fre sea, sea w1!l have more range.
Night Effect: It causes NDB q. more will be range.
0 . range to reduce to max of 70
pecationaJ DOC: Causes NDB nms.
range to reduce.
A ccuracie (d 1
s ay only): Upto 70 NMs + 20
lypes of NDB : - • Beyond 70 NMs .:t 50( within DOC.)
Locator NDB• I
• ess power NDB Coast.allError ·
marker beacon Loe t h s, are normally co- located with ILS
NON A2A. . a ors ave 15 W powe~ 10-25 nm range and are Metho,d s t9 Redli,ce. Coastal. E~ror:
Homing!H •~· (i) Fly as high as possible as atm,ospheric density will be similar at 1,igher
. o., Ing/aerodrome NDB• U
~i~n;:;_:ment approaches. Have 200s~pfor me~Oum range navigation , level. ' • -
. . ower, nm range and are (ii) ' Use a _b eacon whose ~ignal is lea~ing coastline at 90°. Acuter the angle
more 1s coast.al error. · - _~ -· , _
432
433
ADf I NDB
PART Ill .RADIO NAVIGATION
s.
~
i.touulain Effect , Hills and mountains rd\ecL and ,e-radiate >he LF ,, t ff
signals of an NDII. Consequently, >he AD f m low-fiymg mnaf. ma : , .•ei :•·
. Use a beacon which.is located
(iii) . near t0 . boili the great circle signal and a re-rndtated stgnal at the same o,ne. Th, •,_,,,
(iv) Use a beacon whi h . . . . coastlme' tllan·inland.
b e Iess and so thecerror
ts transmitting' at h.tgh er power as the bending ·u
result in an erroneous bearing, as shown al Figure.
3. Quadrantal Err
.
~g:il ~ u nde<go a. direcriong
e quadrantal erro~ Th
.
or: Electroma n . fi
c::g~~ rd .
. w1
'?etalic surfaces ofa/c causes rad'
. e ore it reaches ,loop Ariel Th. ,o Composlt. elgn■I
gMnQ erron•ou■
the a/c-quad ran ta1 or on inter
. error is n
ecardinal maximum h . . ts error
~~
d. w en signal is approachin t>Nllno
d ta1 . . g - - R.ttec:Ud
,, ., - - _ ~lgnal
Qua. ran correction card • . ·
(Q.C.) JS applied to A.D F Re d" ts provided with. a/c. -Quadrantal C · .
eliminate Quadrant.al. error.
. '. ' a mg,
, ,also known
. as·Loop
, Scale
., R d. orrect1on
ea mg (L.S.R.) to
I .Relati~~
. Bearing (R.~ .)-
- ~SR.
.. ±Q.C.
Mountaln Effect
1
6. Static Interferences and Precipitation: The interference cau'>t''\ lw P~ r , • . ,

"" aw11o_-,
048'-- i / atmosphetk conditions e.g . thunderstorms. CB. , l p<edpi» tinn · ntl" ,r ".,
.
-. "
"-.,_ _
1 --
snow reduces range and accuracy of . DH - Th e•e r\i•t1 1rha n rP ~ n11 P QTP-;,,rP 1
inaccuracy in ADF bearings.
7. Lack of Failure Warning Systems: The majority of ADF instru ment~ do ri o'
inco,porate a failure warning indication. Consequen~y, failure 0£ anv pa ' c.!
the airborne receiving or ground transmitting apparatus ma . produce: ", 1-e
bearing indications which are not readily detectab\e.
Quadrantal1 Error 8. Bank Angle {Dip): The angle ofbank induce~ emfs into th e hori1n r-a\ PlPmPn"
. .
4. Interference E.rror: DO Cis• Designated opera-tin&
· -· . of the loop aerial resulting in a bearing error.
w1thtn coverage area of mor · ti< . • brange. When NC is operating
. e uan one NDB 1t ma . .
e error caused due to thts is call d . £ ' y experience interference
is given in AIP. In DOC . . .
Th e mter erence error. To prevent >hi, ooC
· ,it lS' guaranteed that there ·11 b
om any other NDB . It is also d . _ wi not e any interference
fr ca 11e protected range. -
....................................... _............. .................................... . .................................................. -...-· ... ... .
DOC for NDB is valid only dun,1}g day. .
Interference Error Designated Operating Range 435
434
_ _ _--,..._____ PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION
AOF/NOB -
Questions
Ql . Direction
property error is known as?
------- There are,two NDB1, one 20NM Inland, and the otber·-50NM Inland from
the coasL AnumJng that the error caused,by·coaltal refraction ls the,same
for both propagations, the extent of the error in a position line plotted by an
a) 180° arnb · · •
tgwty b) 90° ambi · aircraft that ls .over water wDI be:
Q 2. Wh t. gwty c) quadrantal error
a is used to resolve 1soo b. 11) greater from the beaf_on that ,is 20NM inJ~d
a) Al . am 1guity?
ign radio compass to True North . b) the same from both beacons when the aircraft is on a relative bearing Of 180° and
b) Sense Aerial 3W0 •
·) :..oop A~rial. c) greater from the beacon that is SONM inland
Q3. An AIC is flyJng on HDG of 3150 , Q9• What ls the wavelength of an NDB transmitting on 373 kHz?
1
maximum quadrantaJ error. 'which of.the following signal will : '
a) 800m b) 80m c) 8000m
l.
a) 36oo cause
b) 225° QlO. An aircraft is "homing" to a radio beacon 'Yhilst maintaining a relative
~
j
Q4. Va riations of signal . ND . c) 135° 1
bearing of zero. If the magnetic heading decreases, the aircraft is
. m B receivers du k ' experiencing:
a) rnght effect. es ywaves indicates the pre sence of: · "~ ..., a) zero drift b) right drift c) left drift
b) coastal refraction.
" J.-? Qll. Errors caused'by the efl'ec o coastal refraction on bearings at lower altitudes
Q S.
c) m0Lu1tzin or terrain efft•.ct.
Th,e BFO selector,on an ADF
. ,>. · are maximum·when;the NDB,is:
. ~
J
rec~ ver is used to· .'t ::; ; a) inland and the bearing crosses the coast at an acute angle
..i) t1nd the loop "null" position . ;··f:.·: b) inland and the bearing crosses the coast at-right angles
b) stop loop rotation . J;,~: c) near the coast,and the bearing.crosses the coast ~t righ.t'angles
c) hear the IDENT o/some NDB ta•: . .
s ~ons radratmo a c f . · ·1.·
.·..··--.:_._ '._'_: ·· (H2, Quadrantal errors associated with aircraft Automatjc...Direction Finding
Qo. 'W hich on Ofth . "' on muous wave signal : :,/ · · (ADF} equipment are caused by:
e e following distu b .
inaccuracy in ADF bearings? r ances JS most likely to cause the greatest : ,':' a) skywave/ground wave contamination
a) Quadrantal error · ,: b) signal bending by the aircraft metallic surfaces
b) Local thunderstonn activity f >~ c) si~al bending caused by el~ctrical interference from aircraft wiring
c) Coasta l effect j. ··. Q13. 11 Nigbt Effect" which causes loss·of signal and fading, resulting in bearing
Q7. Factors liable to affect most NDB/ D
J,. errors from transmisslons, is due to:
include: A F sySfem performance an d reliability f a) int.erference from other transmissions and is maximum at dusk when ea-- t
~ of the NDB
a) static interference- nigJ1t effect- absence offailure wami
b) stutic · t ti
- . . m er erence- station interference- la ti tude error
c) h I
eig ll error- station interference- mountain effect
. ng system
·I';,. r , b) ··stati( activity iftcr~~ing afnight particuWly in the lower 'frequency band
c) skywave d~1tortion,.of the null position and is maximum at dawn and d•:isk
Q14. Which of the following is likely to have the greatest effect on ADF accuracy?
I a) Mutual interference between aircraft aerials
r:r
. l:"' b) Frequency drift at the -~ ~und station
c) Interference from other NDs;, particularly at night
436
r
1
437
Ql5. An afrcraft,Js maintaining track outbound from an NDB with a,constant _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _!_A~D:'..'.:F_:_/..:_N~D:::B~-------~=-="d · · • t l' " " :T ··'
:::•fl,.. bearing 0(184• .To return to the NDB the relattve bearing to Dlab,t,la -
An NDB signal crossing from
Q24, a) . decrease, away fr om
land to sea will ... speed and ben 11 ...
els
b) increase, towar •
c) incmise. away fr 0n1
a) 184° b) 004° c) 356°.

1
25 Long range NDBs norm ally employ: c) NON/A IA
Ql6. Consider the following statemenh on the NDB transmitter: . Q · b) A9E
a) It is operating in the HF/VHF band.
BFO b
J:
~
. ·, \ · 6 :h~:slng a NON A2A NDB the should .A'~
b) It is vc,y ,;mp!~ bell\g requ"<d to lransptit only a c,nier wave and identificanoo. l, - Z , a) off for tunmg
. and on for identification.
. .
c) In India, most NDBs operate in the frequency band 4:<;5 - 1750 kHz. r, ff fi tuning and off for identrficatton.
Qt 7. The purpose of the BFO switch on the ADF receiver ls to:
a) cut out the static noise.
b) improve the strength of the received signal
.·
t
t ..•
·
b) o or .
c) on for tunmg an
d off for ;dentilicafion.
"7 Whatistbeapprovedfrequeo
cy band ass Igne
d to aeronautical AD'F ~
c) 190-1750G Hz
'
r
:' ,Q. • b) 190-1750 Hz
c) make the signal audible. ' ' . ·, : . . a) 190-1750 kHz NOB Is applicable:
.- QZS. The promul ga t ed range for an
Q18. When using NDBs night effect is most likely to be greatest at:
a) dusk. . b~ da')Vn ~r dus~. , c) , dawn. :, a) during daytime only. t rror around dusk and dawn .
b) throughout 24 hours, but is most prone o e
Q19. With regard ~o the following types of NDB 1whJch statements is correct?
a) Locators have 200 W power; 50 run range and are NON-A2A. c) during night time only. L W hich of the follo wi.n g N B ~ ,-ui
b) Locators have 5000 W power, 50 nm range and are NON AIA. Q29. An aero plane J8 flying paralleltito aLOP
coas -
error?
give the greatest coastal refrac on .
c) Locators have 15 Wpower, 10:25 nm range and are NON A2A. . ) NDB sited on the coast-RBI 3000 .
Q20. The D layer·oftb1do_posphere affects the accuracy.ofNDB bearings: :) NDB sited 30 run inland-RBI 33~0 .
a) never.
b) by day and night. c) NDB sited on the coast-RBI 330 . M B what factor should the
Q30. A radio beacon has an_ opera . range
ttonal 10 N · anYoperational range o r 10-
ofachieve
der to
c) by night only. transmitter power be. increased m or
Q2l. An ADii' uses ·a ,sense aerial fo:
NM? c) Two
a) ansmit the beacon ident. a) Eight b) Four
b) determine the null position.
c) resolve ambiguous·l,earings.
~ . ~· Answers
Q22. Which of_tbe follow~g.equfpme!Jt~.do~s not have a ~ystem to warn the pilot
th.at ft fs fnoperative: , , ; .
~ .. 6) I~ c) VCR . Q: 6 7 8 9 lO ll 12 \?i 14 15 16
I
i7
Q23. The BFO:
A: a b C b a C a b a b b C C
a) is used to make the i~t from an AJA NDB a~dible.

b) is used to detennine the signal strength ofan 1-i~B. Q: 21 22 . 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
c) creates the audio ident for an NDB:- · ·
A: C a a a a b
438
439
Chapter "'rr~ck Error:·
Angular difference betweeil! track,resiuired.an~l,track made good.
3 If TMG is right of track requix:ed, it is called STARBOARD tracli. t:rror and

·.\;..hen it .is left of.track. required.it is called,PORTtrack error.
·TMG RIGHT OF HEADING,' DRIIT STARBOARD

TMG LEFr OF HEADING, DRIFT PORT
'TMG,RIGHT'OF:'F~eK REQUIRED, TRACK ERROR STARBOARD

TMG LEFT OF TRACK REQUIREP., TRA~K,ERROR PORT
· Wind lriangJe·· s·ix vanables

. · ·
L Jangle . If four variable given in the fig. below .
r,.pr - cnted by a sinrrJ s are known, other two can be r codnstitute. a velocity
o e arrow, Track/GS b . LOUn . Headmg/I'AS ·
pee d by t h ree arrows s1· I . , d. ' y two arrows and W1"nd o' . . . is
d bl · ng e an thr 1rect1on/ w· d
ou e arrow is the resultant opposing t~::.rows alway~ follow each other ~~d
Track· A h · I
i~ ·J . .. p ys1ca path being followed
~ ~-v~ys
u
r ourng from one place to anothe; T, k :k
m 'T unle,,;s spe6fied. Re uired t:.r J~ be followeci on earth surface
is the track required to follow
/Jdlt_, ;.i cuaJJy followed by aircraft ove; thr;-c r£ ad e Good (TMC) is the track or
Q code and equivalent Turms:
.1oin m g starting ground position and know~u ace of ear~~ - It can be obtained by
Drift· . . ground pos1t1on a t any time. MBT - Magnetic Bearing To MBF - Magnetic Bearing Fro:n
'fi . Angular d1ffere:1ce between h eading a d k . . TBT - True Bearing To TB:F - Tr.ue Bearing From
d n t. n trac made good 1s called
COURSE/fAS Air Poalti(\n

RMI - Radio Magnetic Indicator
RT ~ Required Tr~ck.
...
,_;'
TMG -Track Made Gcod
,., .·:f"E:'fn(ci~'.E.~011 ..
H-Heading MH- Magnetic Heading
RB - Relative Bearin'g ·.- , -l.SR - Loop Scale Reading
·, .•, i'!
QC - Quadrantal ~Co~rectio.~·s I
Ground Position QDM/MBT/RMI/Homing/ track or TMG to a radio station: Magnetic

heading to be steered by th:~l:airq:aft·,:wftli.no' wmci, to make for the station is
wh •, he ~ ~ra ckf1 (TMG) .is ri~h.t of heading it is called STARBOARD drift and ....... Degr_ees. ' ., ·
c:n t c Js 1e t of headmg, it 1s called PORT drift.
QDR/MBF/phase · cliffer'ence/tra~k or"TMG· from a radio station/.radial/
440
TRACK AND DRIFT QUESTIONS
bearing, Magru,Oc bearing of the aircraft in nil winds i, ... .... .. degree,.~ -
!;!TEn'BFltrac_k
the a.,rcraft or
tn rul wind., ,s
TMG on a map or chart &om a station , True bea,Jng
• ••.•. • degrees .• QTE - QDR + Variation
01
steered
..
Q~fl'BTI track or Tlli:G on a map or chart to a station, True heading to Pe
by the au-craft. with···no.
... Degrees. · wind.
· to head
, fur the
' direction finding station ;,,
. MBT/F=MH ± D
For Starboard Drift use(+), Port (·)
7
Heading is Magnetic in this case. .
I
llemember:
Winds are _always True .. Aer-Odrome METAR and ATIS winds are Magnetic. ·
.In case of True H ea di n g' Bearing To/From mll be True j
Runway heading is always Magnetic.
MBT=MH+RB
Track
Rou tes are and TMG is·always
Magnetic. -. True, unless otherwise stated in the question . ATS f Heading is Magnetic in this case.
.
. In case of True Heading, Bearing To will be True
~ 360 ,-~
TMG RIGHT OF i:IEADING. DRIFT STATBOARD . , ubtract 360' from the figure.
LEFT OF HEADIN.G, DRIFT PORT
TMG RIGHT OF TRACK

REQ,UlRED, TRACK ERROR STARBOARD
TMG LEFT OFT-RACK REQUIRED. TRACK ERROR PORT
Iftbe result 1.s
-=-------RE~~ill~~:;--=-------~
'~:<it~:L_I~f~th~e~~figu~r:e~h~as~a~n~e~ga::tiV=e::=:•..:__ _ _ _
_ Reciprocal Heading
value add 360°.
~-~====--
Heading, The· d irect.ion. in ,wlilch N C longitudinal axis is aligned I nose is . "f the head fog i, equ al to m m nee •h "
poin ted . ( ~ fincJ

To ) 18 Oreciprocal
'. subtract of
180'
a h. ead mg,t ~ an ( < ) 1 soo' add 1 soo_
If less _J
TMG = H ± D
TMG=RT±TE
Starbo~rd and ( +), Port subtract (~) Relativ e Bearing (R.B.) L.S.R. ± Q.C.
ReJative/ADF/Rad10
" • ·' ·. ,. ,'Compass
_ . INDB
. Bearing: Bearing
. from the longitudinaV
fore and .aft axis (neatlin"g) of the air craft .to the Statton.
...... ,...................................................................................... . . ......
. QDM =QDR ± 180° .

, 11i,i, 'Irk to gO to sin. (QUJ) = HDG (T) : :
Mag,1rk to ,go ~o stn.(QDM) = HDG (M)
,. ~ :r. ,._, ;, ''?'1
: · ,' · , -,;l!JJ=QDM,±·,Variation-
. fr,o.m,~!n.
Tiue beanng. . '.,(QTE) ··= , ~ 1800
' ,QUJ
443
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION TAAC~AND D~IFT Q\:JESTIONS
Questions A}C.is flying away from -1tatio11i0n-2700 wlth-ts•~P:.dtift.-~llid ~F reading.

MBF = 270° MBT ~ 09(11 MH = 285° aRB:=09()0!2S~Oi: _t95°;+36(l°' = 1650
QI.
~ ale is hommg to station on 0900 . - o
indication. Wl~ 10 starboard drift, find RBI
An ale is flying ai ay-f;orp[{!irto;:tin.'a:~a~~eti~ h;~di~~~f030'.RBI is

showing 185°, find tr~ k~a~!Ya~ift: , · ,
M AT = 090°
MH = 090°. JOO= 0800
RB = 090°- 080° = 0100
0
RB= 18S0 MH = 0300 MBT =RB+ MH = 185° + 030° = 215° Track= 035°Drift = S S
Q2. A/C is homing on to station on 3600 with 150 Port drift. Find RBI ind' t'
QS. A/C is flying away from station on·atrk of 200° witlil0° S drift Find heading
and RB indication. · ·< · ·. · · ·- ·
tvlBT = 3600 - o ica ion.
'MH - OIS RB= 3600- 01 5° = 345° MBF = 2000 MBT .., 02-0° MR= 190°
RB = 020° - 1900 = -170° + 3600 ='190° Hdg= \ 900 RBl indication = 190°
444 - 445
Q6. TRACK AND DRIFT QUESTIONS
An a/c is Dying away from stati ~<
Ffnd RBI and drift lndJ~tion. on on a hdg of<27ot·maklng'good a trk or 2<iO~ An A/C Is flying hdg with 12° S drift and making good a trk 5 nm to the left
MBF == 2600 MBT == osoo . MH. , .. of center line of the airway but parallel to It. Find RB of NOB situated al
. - == 270° centerline of the airway 30 nm ahead.
RB == ogoo_- 2700· ~ . I 900 + 36?o = 1700 . ,
.Drift= 10° p
Presume heading of ac 090° to the station . (You may presume ~ny hearlin ~'
..MBT(Requ.ired Track) = 090° + 12° = 102°, TE1-\ = 0 -= (5 X GO) -· Jfl r'
Final MBT(TMG) = 1120, RB = Final MBT(TMG) - heading = 11 2" -- 09(1'•~ re·
1o. An A/C is flying a constant hdg with 12° P drift and making good a trk. S am
· to the right of center line. Find ADF reading for NDB situated on center and
Q7. 30 nm behind.
After flying for 2 'h~ at G/S of 80 kts .
remafnlng tfmeto g'6:to sta·ti· · - - L
.
'AD!
on 1s 2 -.urs. Fmd
shows 168°, Hdg of a/c is 0900,ifthe
(i) New hdg to .reach station. (fl) Trk ·
._ req; from place of departure.
RB= l 680 H = o~o -. MBT == l 680+ 0900 = 25go
Track= 07go Drift.d ~2op I 2/60 -,.; P/16ff p = 32 nm CA = (32X6O)/ l 60 = 120
(i) R · ' Presume heading of ac 090° from the station.
eading to -reach stn ==Total Correction to heading= 0900 + 120+120 = 0 MBF(Required Track)= 090° - 12° = 078°. TEA= 0 = (Sx60) .;- 30 " l0-.
114
(ii). 099°
Final MBF(TMG) = 078° + 10° = 088°
QS. After flyj~g f~r.J8'.9 ~ , on a.h~g of200° ADF shows 1860, ff remaining dist to RB = Fina 1 MBT(TMG) - H = 268° - 090° = 178°.
go to destination is 120 nm, find new hdg to the station.
Qll. An a/c is flying a constant heading with 8°S drift and makinj! good a tr k. nm
to the right of centerline of an airway but parallel to it . Find ADF r eo ding
from an NDB situated on the centei:line of airway 30 nm ahead .
Presume heading of ac 090° (to the station).
MBT (Required Track)= Heading± Drift = 090° -t- 8° = O93c
'"--.:-·.:::: . - .
¾:;,:, ~•r:•.,..:,l• .'1 ~ -,.,:_'►,, ...."'- ' .
MBT = 200° + 186~ ~"3:B<t ~:026° . Track= 026° + 180° = 206° Drift= 6° s
0 /60 = Pl180 p = (1-8~6) ~~ i's
6-C)'.:~- nm CA~ ,( l 8 +120) X 60 =:= 9°, TC= 9o + 6° = 15°
Heading to reach statiJf =2i>cii1 :. ·15°::.: •185° · · - · .- t TEA= (5 x 60) .;- 30 = 10°, Final MBT(TMG) =- 088", H -= 090 ,
RB ~ Final MBT (TMG) - H = 088°- O<lO°-= - 2° + 360° = '.1,58°
+f6 'lr·_ · 447
'4~-
• . ale .is ny ·mg a constant hd with· o

QU. An
c: nterhnc of airways but to
• •
!;ft
f S S d~1ft making good a trk 5nm to Chapter
, 1t uatrd 30nm ahead of Cl!n tcrliic.ccnterhne. Find ADF reading from NOB
. - .. - ;.{_
.. , .
···~..!,. '
-...·-
4
.
Presume heading of ac (to the station) 0900

·.
;i"~\.
t
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY
l:t : . . .... , . _. -
:-V IJJT (Requ1re
. d Track) = Heading±
. Drift= 0900 + 50 = 0950
TEA "' (5° X 60) + 30 = 100.
:fOIRECTION FINDING STATION
Fi n I MBT(TMG) ., 0950 + 10° = 1050
' , RB = Final MBT(TMG) - H = 1050 - 0900 = 0150
Vlff D/F stations.in Jndia are mainly available at Air Force bases.
.) IJ. C ompass heading 2700, Deviation 20w . 300 E,Rehltive bearing 3160.
'What is the QDR? ,Variation Ground direction-finding (VDF) stations are normally locat:!d at airfields
.and enable air traffic to ,de.terrnin.e the b~aring of an aircraft which is equipped
a) 224°
. b) 0440 c) 0460
with VHF radio (1 ~8- I.37 MHz), hence the abor~viation VDF.
Q l4. The inbound track to ND.Bis 0750 . .
relative bearing to maintained on t~T), ~~riahon 100 W, drift 70 Right. The Principle: Bearing by Phase comparison.
:,J 183 Rel ative, •. era ,o compass to reach NDB is: ► Aircraft VHF R!T signal is-received.in different phases depending on
direction of ai1'craft. Polar.diagram of rotating loop antenna is rotating
b) .!53 Relative.
fig. of 8. A sense antenna resolves 180° ambiguity.
' 1 007 ReJa (J ve
► Phase diff. between signals at any place c0rresponds to magnetic
1
; ; ~::,:~~,:~~•;;.:•:::~• ! ~;~:::::::t:;~:;~!:•:,~~:::::!:~:::~;:;:,ndng bearing from the:ground station .
► Ground receiver measure~ phase diff. to give indications.
•1, kl 1Jn fL b) right drift c) a wind from the west
·\ tl 'l ' • l\ f ,')
I (r I j 'i 4 5 6 8 9 JO II 12 13 14 15
I The ground,controller wilt give.magnetic or true bearings, identified by t1
t\ : b C b
'Q' code system:
449
448
..., :c
~ 1"- :t5Ti"'C ?Xtl "WiS
PART lrl RADIO NAVIGATION
(a) QDM, magnetic h din ----. VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIP-ECTION FIND ING STATION
(b ea g to steer to th · · .
~ QDR, magnetic bearing of th . e Stabon m zero wind conditions.
{c) QTE , true beanng
. of th ·. e •atrqaft
· from. the stati on. The pilot cannot transmit using a V H F-NAV radio hu1 it is p• , ~i~ lc ~,. ~ :> n
(d) QVJ, true heading f J e arr~t from the station. Air Traffic Service ground station to transmit on a VOR/NDB id t>nt lr r c ,y , ,· ,·
"'--: o t le stanon from th . e.g. when providing Automatic Terminal Information Service (knuw11 a, AI l.::i ) u1
--i ....pment: Ad cock aerial, CRT e atrcraft.
-.,,.__ on gr-0und and VHF R/r . when using the frequency in situations where this may be the only w:a · in ,·h1cb
-~e: Depends on line f . . on aircraft. to contact an aircraft which has su ffered rad io co mmuni c-..,_tion f::iilu n .: .
atmospheric conditions like du:ln;:gnt, obstructions, transmission power and . Purpose and Uses: Navigation, magnetic bearings by d ay an( nig l , i•
Puipose and Use: Track ··· .. · . routes, instrument approaches, holding, radial in tercep tions . ra ck 111t1inr-:-n , ur
controller interpreted (QGH) , pilos1~on line, homing, instrumetil ·a h and position information .
· , P ot mterpreted (QDM) tr' · . pproac . es_
Accuracy: Cl.ass A= ± 2 o, Class B _ + 0 _ • ' J.angulauons for fixes . Band: 108 - 117.95 MHZ.A total of 160 cha nnels.
- - 5 , Class C = .± I 00 Class D - I 108 - 112 MHZ it shares with ILS localizer.
Errors: ' · - > 0°
Propagation error and, site error· d . - . .: :
All odd first decimals e.g. 109.5 , 110.5 localizer.
structures arou_nd . • ue atrcrafts1gnaJs reflected from gro~nd/ All even first decimals e.g. 110.2, 109.4 VOR.
Multipath s·1 ....... ,_ L_ Remember LOVE (~ocalizer- odd, VOR- even). /
6-....uJ:> .uum obstacJ • Ai .
from obstacles, resulting in beann · es. rcrafc _signals can be blocked or reflected
· g errors. 112 - 117 .95 MHZ - exclusively for VOR.
Aircraft · . .
attitude: May cause einfinto horizon Principle: Bearing by. Phase comparison of two 30 hz. sign al-.
Very High Fr . t.al arms and create error.
equency Onuu Direction Radi 0 Ran Radial: magnetic track radiating out from the station .
ge (VOR)
Principle ofVOR Operations: The VOR facility transm its t•,,·o , i;n 1,J, ;,, ·'• ·
same time. One signal is constant in all directions, while the other i ro ;l t1 <.'. ;i \)• )i_ , ,
the station . The airborne equip ment receives both signals, looks (ele,Lro ni call vl ;it
the difference between the two signals, and interprets the result as a rn dia l r! c,m
the station.
Flxedtlp,A-1 Vari.able llgnal of
301h 30Rz
!he VHF omni Range (.VOR O . . • . .

nav a1d and is one of the most 'd 1 r or;;niJ ,Js a high-qualuy !me-of-sight radio
operates on a frequen in th wi e y,use aids to en route navigation. Each VOR Flud ttfert<1« Rootooyanl
Typical VOR fre ue 9'
FM AM
e VHF band_between I 08.00 MHz and 117.95 MHz
on. q naes are ,ll~t 7.0, l _l6.30 _(shown below), 1 I 7. 75 MHz and s~
A fixed aerial transmits a ref. signal (frequency modulated) o n tran,s n i , in
The VOR radio set with l d. .. freq. from an omni directional antenna. The signal is received in sam e pit,1, e · r
panel a.s the VHF-COM co?tro s an switches is normally built into the same all 360° directions. Polar diagram of fixed antenna is a circle. A d ir cr t irm-1 ' " ..
transceiver the two rad'10 · t II ·
referred to as a NAVJCOM sec. ' ms a atJons combined are then variable signal of 30 HZ amplitude modulated is transmitted by a n dir ecU(,i ;1\b
rotating antenna at a rate of 30 cycle per second or 1800 rpm .
4Sb·
◄ SI
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIRECTION FINDING STATION
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION ., ~~
T h~ .)ignal ,is recei ved in differ -

)_ ·, : . ~roTE: vor can be tested auy where on ground. VOR test is at designated points.
<111tenna. Polar dia ra em phases depending on direction of ·
ifoth £ g m of rotanng antenna is ro t:1ting fig. of 8. -~ .;· ;;: : ~cVRACY: .
re erence and variable si al 5
Phase diff b . gn
.
are m phase with magnet.ic north.
f: 'i) -Acc~racy of transmitted signal should be ± 3° at 95% of time for ground
. etween signals at any I ,", l · equipment.
bearing from the gro d . p ace corresponds to magnetic
un station, OT 4°
Ne recei ver measures phase d'ff . . . . ,,·4:'.',f,> ii)
.
Accuracy for V ± , ,
\I C P, -, . I • to give md1cat1ons.
'· . !r:•: :)' Accuracy ofVOR dur-ing airborne check± 60.
, J • t., ;.in s 1111u<:r u·ansmit~ 3600 M agneuc . tracks. . ••¥4'
r. µt ll · f . c: • b h - d d . f
t ccuracy 1·s + 5° at 95% o ume 101 ot g1 oun an aircra t
.u rn brned jJ Olar diag . u fVO R transmitter . . LIMACONS
is . if:,, ,. iv) overa eqmpmen a - .
, •· f;; , :· equipment.
Pol.er Mean ·.: ~· NOTE: A VOR idenJ.ijication code is transmitted eve1y 10 sec.
Dtae:ram Propaplloa
iJ .rlt., ··Jdentifica.t ion code is ~em~~ed_ i~ an,y of the fol~owing ta~es place.
(i) Bearing inforrnaf10n 1s wrong by more than 1 •
t.
Q VORQ 4>·
Mutmum
Propaaatton
{}
Mlo.l.mum
.hop11atiua
Llmacou
;; ·
(iii) Reduced signal~t~;:: ;/~:::~;;i:
(ii) Failure· of monitoring equipillent .
t~nsmission pow«
J C,
vmpurtson of ADF (Cardioid,I and Vi""R

v J (L.imacon) :-
/' Cardioid - is c~eated at a/c (receiver) ./
::; Liwacon-i creaLed ac ground (Tx) ../
3) Cardioid - has a well d efined null ../
;; L m ..; curi - does not have a well defined nulJ .../
Ji. , :O:f : One acceptable way to formally check VO R accuracy is with a VOR
c l an ity. more commonly called a VOT A VOT . I . . A VOR transmits a horizontally plagiarized signal at an angle of 40°- 80°
locat ed r - f h 'd · rs a ow-power omni stat ion
l 011 nany O t e_m 1 -to-large size airports. A VOT d iffers from a standard above the horizontal. There is no signal transmitted above the transmitters. This
Hnn, rn that it transmits only a single rad ial the 360° radial It · cl area is in the form of cone where no signal is available is called cone of confusion.
\' ( JR rc,t> iver The cf ffi b . . . is use to tes t
111 L'l r;c ,11 s . l erer.ce er ween reference an d variable sig nal is I Bon in all Indications over cone of confusion are
(a) To/ From will flicker
Llie um; until_ the CD! n '.::edJe centers. Read the numbe r from the
k ui <1. l t:
11 ui 1J ~ d 1 mg ludicacor nng or digital di splay. To be legal. the gauge must be
(b) CDI will oscillate
"'JL 1• 111 ·l ul enli er 180° with the TO flag showing or of 000° wi th the FROM fl
(c) Failure warning flag may come o~ .
. : ,, (1 ':
. ,l 11 , N u 1 , ag
CONDITION IN WHICH FAILURE WARNING FLAG COMES UP:
Remember: Cessn a 182. a) No power or low power to ale.e quipment
ODS ' l BCt :!: -J. 0 (li(,0. 184";- CDI centc, ..... To- From - Io b) Failure of a/c equipment.
C BS = OOU ± 40 (3560 - 004°)-+ CDT center - To - From -• from
453
452
· -'! fflt:"f.!I' Pl iii &¥#¥,Flirt

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIRECTION FINDING STATIC- N
c) Failure of ground station equipment

f'ACTORS AFFECTING RANGE OF VOR:
d) Failure of indicator
(i) Tx Power (ii) LOS (Line of sight) (iii) DOC
e) Wea_k signal from reference/ variable signal. 1. Tx Power: Higher the transmission power more is range. H t:1 ce t n cl P t blL
f) During tuning of equipment. the range, power is to be increased 4 times.
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY Range avTxpower
(i) Site error OF VOR 2. LOS (range) 1.25) (~ + ~
(ii) Ai rborne equipment error s } Ht= feet Ran ge= nm
(iii) Propagation error A Aggregate Error
p 3. DOC (Designated Operational Covenge): l f ;m :\j rr: rn f t i~ opt>r.it1n 1I :i i
(iv) Beacon Alignment Error high altitude the situation may arise whereby the VOR set !s recci ir,g •ig •;,. ~
(v) Pilotage Error . from two stations operating on the sam e frequency. One oi the se sta lw n w 1! 1
presumably be the station selected by the pilot, the other st~ti on will _J, ,,r,,~n n· h ,-.
~· SITE ERROR: The error is caused ct·
terram or physical obstacles in th . . . . . ue to presence of structures, uneven interfering with the desired signal. The consequence of th1S station 1nterf erenc
caused due to presence of tr e ~iaruty ~rVOR transmitter. The error may l;e will be an erroneous bearing indication.
II d . . ees, wires, fences· or ove . .
ca e course displacement error. , r grown grass. This is aL,o DOC is the area in which it is guaranteed that there will n ot be an~ i, 1 • h, ~ r
Maximum permissible is 1o If
from nearby operating VOR. DOC causes VOR range ,o
reduce f-r ,1 '·r.;:, :) ' :·
transmitter is switched off. . the error exceeds, either code is removed or is given in both range and altitude, whereas for ADF it was onl ra nge .
DVOR • Doppler VOR: VOR transmitter aeri als sh ould be ~i1 n l ,.,, fl :,·
~
terrain to minimise site errors. If such a site is not available, a com pl t>" ,.,,,,. .. ,,
system may be employed to transmit the VOR signal. This type of st.allu 11 1~ 1-,.n1 , 1, 1·
as a Doppler VOR (DVOR) beaco n and produces a signal which i.s re;1s< 11 ;:1 ► ,I\ 11·, 1
of site errors even when the transmitter is site<l i11 hill· terrain n · ·,, · ,, ... · ·
Ohrtacle an tenna to eliminate site error. Its' working principlt: is otherwise S;\ln e a h, t , '
a conventional VOR . Airborne equipment to receive bo th type f \T) : ; . q,,,,.
2. AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT ERROR· .
inaccuracies ind uced during m fi • Error is cat_1sed d ~e to VOR receiver In this system fixed signal is on AM and variable signal 1s n 11 1-' I\
. _ anu acture or over a period of time .
FREQUENCY: fre quency Band and Principle of operation are qm ;i , 1 ;1
Maximum _p erm issibJe error is ± l o ofVOR.
3• PROP~GATION ERROR: Error is caused dur in the · ADVANTAGE: It does not suffer from site error.
!;;:.~~7 0
: edium. The error may be induced d ue to refleftion, r~; !~~: u~~
lypes o/VOR
4. BEACON ALINGMENt ERROR· If r · · Standard VOR(VOR): Widely u sed to defme airways cemedi.nes , u ·..u1,, 11t\ll,
not ali ned .. . h : . .· : ,• re,erence and variable signal are power normally 200 watts.
g . wit .magneuc north, radial may get displaced. This error is called
be aeon a 11gnment-e rror., · Terminal VOR (TVOR): Low-powered beacons used as airfi.f": c: \p, ;, •; , ~ ,,· ··
5 Widely used in some parts of the world in conjunction with D, I ,. . ., 1' '
. • PILOTAGE ERROR: Close to a VOR statior., radials are closely packed
causing CDI to b ·· d • approach aid .
radial. ecom e sensitive an It becomes difficult to follow a p articular
Broadcast VOR (BVOR): Broadcast VOR beacon p 1ov1ch ·, ,t~1-:1.
information in the usu al manner. Additiona\ly, a voice modulation i supe ri m1J1 1<,e1'
454
4S5
,.. .; d ie ;ffner wave Tl . --
Jc-r- 11 11 11a l ln t c • • le audio in fo rmatio n normaJJ _ . VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIREGTION FINDING STATION
~ ormatron .Service (ATI S) rn .· y p1 ov1des an Aerodrorn .
~ n1u: a bt1Jtv st I t· . ,, ., 111 0- pr<>~en t we;i tl10 e . , . • • d. .
· aeo rh eai1fi e lda nrl ,1s~o . l' 1 . :· r, rtrnw:iyi 11 usea 11 d. <,';, ~osingandReversesensmgm acattons:
r_,~DlCATOR • · · n ;ttc--( nc1v,g,1t,on ;i ic!s · ·~i · : · At Figure, on the left, the aircraft is attempting to·Q"ac~ ~00°(M) outbound
SYSTEM: VO R/I LS COMBINED · ",/· from the VOR station and the requfred magnetic track of 300° has been correctly
. ,. 'dialed in the window. The aircraft is presently located on the 306° redial, the OBI
I a,, . ··:. -~,:,, shows three dots fly left and the FRO~ .Qag is visible.
306M 306M
- ~~ MN MN
300M ~ . . 120M
~
~..;;
1
~
k
. ,_o,,,,,a..,...,, 9 ... ....,, ros•i
0m m Bea.ring Sci!'!ctor · It .
..
.
• 1s rotaung kuob b
m.,g. ll':ic s can be selected · i _
wu l 1espect to the
tiAvn
h.
118
Y w 1c11 any of the 3500

cl .
Tra~-~
_Cotrect sensing on pas..
fly left and from Indications.
6
·voR
Reciprocal of track seleded.
Riivenie Mnalng on 06S, wrong
fly left and from Indications. VOR
Cour.H' Dt:viarion Ind'
1
. . groun station.
Sensing and reverse. ~ng .
ICa tor. It g ives dt" ria ti ( 1. f
u; frum
.
, u J i c.:ator · D . ' ' ' r un 1 ~decced track.
. ue.s not show weache a/ . . At Figure on the righ t, the aircraft is attempting
to track 120°. inbound to the
d\\· <1 7 !rum su i. lndica Lions ar e d d r c is going towards or ' VOR station (~o track inbound .on the 300° r edial) . The redprocal of the required
(i) O BS selection . epen ent upon. \ ,,:;,,;:},l.1Pgueti~ track .has been dialed in the window. The a:_rcra:ft is again h :ated on the
(ii ) 1-'osition of aircraft with 06° r adial. T,qe needl~ $hows ~hree 5lpt_s fly_ left wh~n it shou!d show tl!ree dots
d Ala . respect to ground station. fly right. The FROM flag is visible and it should be theJ'Q flag, Aft is, NOT as 'it
,) nn Flag : A prom inent alarm flag will ap· p l .... should be:
r·"~ .
'>)."-:x''l_z'- -
-' ;· Tl1 · . ea r w 1enever
\•J e a!l'botne receiver fails O . . ·
Question: OBS Sefo~ticm 3(30°.Sho"." po~itiop ,of a/~ with respect to ground sta-
. _, . · , 1 p ower supply 1s Jost.
(l./ l l,e aircraft receives no accer)tabl VOR .
he· / h ' ·· ' e signal due to range
t, _ tion and indications on CDf and.T o/from Indicato r i~ all four sectors and on
·. l~ H. o r ecc1 11se the Jircrafl is directly o verh;ad <)r "be· . ,h 1 radials 360° an d 180°. Aircraft heading l 80Qand 360°.
~!.tliV JJ. u <tfll l e
i ui; i'he \/OR grou n d station fa ils.
When the alarm flag ·
a FROM in dication de enc
· .·bl .
;5
.
not v1s1 e_i t will be. r:ep1~ced by either a T O or
'J f'
.st,lliun and co the magdetic !rnagckon lchet da1 ~-crahft p~s1twn m relation co the VOR f
seec e mt e window.
M8gnGliC t, ~ ot
JOO' oo1oc1o<10noo1cz o•
MN
.
040'
fr
r
1 -~.. Gil1/'fll;.-,i..t1
t
VOR
r
[;
f
VOR Indications
.456
4S7
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY DIRECTION FIND\NG STATION
A VOR receiver check can be made
Reverse - It is a res~lt 0 f wrong bearmg
. selection.
a) Any where on f:le ground
To - away ·from station ' From - to the stalion b) Al designaled _;beck point on airport surface.✓
c) Any where io the air/ ground
: •••·............... ...............
··-- ····~ ....................................... _..._.. _..._.. .................:.. .. , : : ~. ..:..............~.. . .
'.......... ... ·-:·........... DVOR works on the principle of
a) Measuring Doppler frequency shift between fixed and variable si ~rin l.
b) Measuring phase difference between fixed and variable signal. J
c) Measuring ~ime difference induced by Doppler frequency shift in sin ~le sig:nal
Qu~sti.ons 9, If an 2ircraft flies along a VOR radial it will follo w a:
a) constant magnetic track b) great circ!c track c) R\wrr.~ li1 : •y 1,
. F :;~~~I: ::lceable VUR~~:::::: de,,alio:)are1:::,':::~-'' ""'

QI. Which of the followin would
indicators? g
. ·
not trigger the warning flag on VOR t ,, Q10. An omni-bearing selector (OBS) shows full de~ectio n to th e left "' her, ,.., 1~ '. 1 n _.
a) Site error becoming greater than 10

b) Standby ·station coming.online.
c) Ground monitor .failure. - : , Qll. The two signals transmitted hy a conventions! VOR gr uun d stati on rr g. " o.':
Q2: An ale is flyfng ·at'40 000 ft. VOR I
signalcan· b,e received.
RBnge = 1. 25
.
·son elev= 900 ft. Range up to which VOR
~+ L25v9'00 = 1.25 (200) + 1.25 (30) = 288 run / /

1 ~ · ·
·\ •
f
of phase on m agn r tic:
a) north b) west
Q l2. The frequ ency range of a VOR rece!ver is :
c) east
Q3. A/C is Dying at FL 40(), w r: t. VOR whi h f

f. a) 108 tol 35.9S MHz b) 108to l1 7 .95 YHz ,:\ ll~• ')ll ' o ,:,.-u-
which ~nal can be recei~ed? c s located at MSL. Find r ange up to
Q13. VOR station r ositio:i N618E0?5\ variation 13°E~ Estimated positioo o f irn
Formula= 12.5 vFt'
·t- ain:rn lt N59°E025°, variation 20°E.Wbat VOR rad'a is the efrcr'.!f1 r, r, '
1 a) 167° b) 347° c) 160'1
AndVORis at ~ .. S.L. (Elevation of Y:OR = 0) l
Q14, Which of the following statements concerning the variable, or direc tion;, .
R&'lge = 12.S"'v'400-.= 2~0 nm' . ,,
signal of a conventional VOR is correct?
Q4. What is the ~nfin1;1n;i level'th;t·an:aircraft, at 8 range of 113NM t fl i a) The receiver adds 30Hz to tbe variable signal before combining it wi h he
order to contacUlie t · · .., ·· , . , mus Y n
i69ft aboviMS~? ower-,cm,/R(f ~or a VDF bearing from an airport sited reference signal
b) The transmitter changes the frequency of the variable signal by 30Hz ,'i thr ~1!'1!' <''.
a) FL80 b) FLSO the allocated frequency each time it rotates
Q5. c) The rotation of the variable signal at a rate of 30 times per second !?,ivcs it ht'
characteristics of a _30Hz amplitude modulation
Q15. In which freq-:iency band do VOR transmitters operate.
1
a) SHF b) . EHF c'- Hf
Q6.
4S9
4S8
VEP.,Y HIGH f P.,EQUENCY DIRECTION FINDING STATION
, . U ited to about lo of accuracy. One degree at 200NM
0 ; 6. H the reference ph diffi 0 . 24 The VOR system u m
~ 'OR station will b:~e ers 30 with the variable phase the radial from the
Q • represents a wid t b ,of: · b) · 3,SNM ' C) 2 •o:...'M
'l..
a; i50" b) 030° C) 2 [ QO a) 2.5NM • oach a V'OR via the 1040 ratiial. Wbich orthe
(: t 7. i a uru1:~ co pl_ul .a bearing from a VOR station, a pilot needs to know the Q25- An aircraft is requared to appr d O the VOR/ILS deviation indicator'?
11 11,gnenc vanauon: following settings should be ma e o . -
~1 l <I t the ~alf-way point between th~ aircral:l and the station a) 2840 with the FROM flag sbow'.ng .
t: i at the aircraft location b) 1040 with the FROM flag show1.0g
c) at the VOR ) ~o with tht; TO flag showing
C
28. • 2soo(M) is on a bearing of 090°(M) from a VOR.
Q lli. A VOR is sited at position A(45u00'N 0t0o00'E) A . f . Q26. An aircraft on a heading of t"'· OMNI bearing selector to centralise the
position B(44o00'N 01000 ' . •. • n a1rcra tis located at - ou should select on 11.e
10"' \I nnd at B . . 1 :\),,., ho E~. Assu~ng that the magnetic variation at A is The bearmg Y . . . dl with a "TO" indication ill:
is :, n, t e aircraft 1s on VOR radial: VOR/ILS left/right dev,ation nee e 0
· b) 2100 · c) 090
,1) 180() b) 1g50 c) 190° a) 100° h a VORstation via t!1c 244° rad,al. ln order
<J 19. An
lh . nircraft
,. flying
, on the true track
. 0900 to war d s a VOR station
. located near 'n
'Q27. An aircraft is required to app~oac h d'"' • ti indicatouhould he set to:
., ,1untor "here the magnetic variation is 1soE Th · ti h • . to obtain correct sense indications t e ev1a ? ,
µ us1 t i(,11 is soE. The aircraft is on VOR radial: . e vana on at t e aircraft
a) 244° with the TO flag showing
a) '262° b) 285° c) 255° b) 244° with the FROM flag showing
()20. ·r 11c principle used in VOR b!!aring measurement is: c) 064° witb'the TO flag ·showing
a) envelope matching Q28. An aircraft is tOONM from a VOR facility. As,s uming no error when ~s~ng
b) beat frequency tliscrirr ination a deviation indicator where 1 dot= 2° deviation, bow many dots dev1a~ion
. from the center line of the instrument will represent the limits of the airway
l'J phase co mparison .,
bound~ry? (Assume that the airway is tONM wide.)
~ 2 1. ·1 rn nsmissions from VOR facilities may be adversely affected by:
a) 6.0 b) 1.5 c) 3.0
:J/ 1ig,l1l ;.;ffoct
L, 4uudrantal error Q29. T·he TO/FROM indicator of a VOR: _ _
a) Tells whether a track e1,-r:.~,\ to Jhe select~ bearing w:ill bring you to or away from
cJ uneven propagation over irregular ground surfaces
the,VOR.'
Q 22. If VOR bearing informat;on is. used beyond the published protection range, b) Te\\s whether you a,e now Jlying towru:.ds or fro~ the VOR.
errors could be caused by: c) Tel\s whether you shou1d turn the aircraft towards or away from the CDI indication.
U/ interference from other transmitters i Q30. An aircra[t is tracking inbound to a VOR beacon on the 105 radia\. The setting
b) noise from precipitation static exceeding the signal stren gth of the transmitter
..:, •:ky wave interference from distanl transmitters on the same frequency
v, .:.j. Au u!nvay JONM wide is to be defined by two VORs·each having a resultant
I
l,
the pilot should put on the OBS and the_~Dl indications are~ .
a) 105, TO. b) 285 , FROM. c) 285, TO.
Q31. The principle advantage ofDopp\er VOR is tbat
hl! ,_irrng accuracy of plus.or minus 5.5°. In order to ensure accurate track
gu11.iancc within the airway limits the maximum distance apart for the
I a) 3: readout of range as-well as bearing is obtained.
transmitter is approximately:
a) 105NM b) 2lONM
' ·
c) 50NM
·
t b) transmitter -frequency instabiliW is minimised.
c) site errors are considerably reduced,
460
\ 461
'PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION
Q32. When-a maximum.range and altitude Is published for a VOR?

a) The fe.rra.in will cause bends and/or scalloping on the VOR signal and make it ' ,,
Chapter
inaccurate outside standards in the airspace outside the published airspace. \ '.,:{\'
b) The reception from this VQR is guaranteed free from harmful interference from
other VO.Rs when you are within this airspace.
c) The signal from the VOR will be too weak to provideinfonnation when you are
outside this airspace.
Q33. An aircraft is over fiying a VOR at 30,000 ft, at a groun:hpeed of 300 kt. The
'
5
maximum time during which no usable signals will be received (in minutes
aod seconds)'is: ·
a) 1:40 ~? 2:25' , c) 0.56'
Q34. Durlng ,ma.lntenan_ce, malfunction or testing the identification signal of a VOR
transmJtter Is (l) by (Ii) or (JU).
a) (i) suppressedt(if)a _m~ulated tone; (iii) suppression
b) (i) suppressed; (ii) a·contin,uous tone; (iii) removed
c) {i) replaced; (ii) a continuous tone; (iii) morse letter S
Questions
Q35. For an air craft at 30,000 ft .what is the maximum radius above a VOR where
unreliable or no signals at all may be received: Find the following in questions .given below:
a) 2nrii. b) ·smn '. c} 4nm (b) To/ From
(a) CDI 'd a/ hould turn to centra lize c e 'llH .
e sensing (d) Which s1 e cs ..
((;) : a t OBS selection will make CDI center at present ~0s1titOoO~ .
An~wers n1 A/C is homing on to station on HDG 2700 ' OBc;:u selection , ' , •; ) I
.
a) Right b) Fro m c) Reverse cl) Lefl
Q: I · .2 ' 3 ' 1 4 5 6 7' 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 I

C a. b b b C C b a C b C C
~ '
Q: 2i 22 23 24 25 ~-~ 27 28 29 30 31 ;32 33 34 35
A:. a ·b C b ,a - C ' , C b· b b b
463
· - - -- - -- - -~ART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION
Jli~'ei1cttori 2250, CDI showing 2 tfot f:ly right indication 0~ 5 dot

indicator. A/C is flying toward station with 10° starboard drift and TO/
!?ROJ\11 .indicating From. Find
Ra'di~J .of ale b) HDG ofa/c
Type.of sensing d) ADF reading (if co-located with VOR)
i;t.;i,:•,'j..'>.:~rt':t;ack"
,._-•."ti,•,... -~ · ' .,. . •
if VOR is at 120 nm from ale position.
,,· 'al;,,;225°~4°=221°
~==·221°-i80°- 109=031° , '
' iFrqm, Reverse ' ''
{ - 04 i0 - 031 ° :;= 010°
4e/600=P/l20nm, 'P=8·nm
c) Re• 1erse , d) 010° e) 8nm right of track
jr
464
465
VORIRMIIADF RELATED QUESTIONS
Q2.
dots fly left incUcation on 5 dot iodi ~ 330 'ADF showing 3500, CDI showing f ·
A/C is flying towards station on Hd o • y - - -QDM ~230'-5" - 180' ~045', ADF (R) ~045" - 2-10" ~-l \)'," - :<:•"
a) Radial b) OBS I . cator. To/ From showing from. Find: .~
se ection c) Track .,.·,.,u .1o,~~•1ffl.71'- Tr ack (M) = 225° c) Reverse
b) To
d) Sensing e) which .side a/c should turn to centralize CDI? a) Left
An aircraft is on radial 120 with a magnetic heading of 300°, the tr ac\, sc\tc\or
(OBS) reads: 330. The indic~tious on the Course Deviation lno icalor tCDl) :.i e
Hfty":
a) lefl with "FROM" showing
b) · left with "TO" showing
c) right W1lh "TO" showing
Indicator (OBI) for a VOR is selected to 090° .l<'rom/To indirntor inuicale
"'I0 ' .CDl needle is deflected hnlfway to the right. 9n what radial is the
1
aircraft? c) 275
b) .095
a) 085 ·
A/C is flying towards station on Rdg 210° wl.th 10° starboard drifl. CD1
RB = 3500,
. " H = 3300 ' MBT. -- ·. , .
3500 + 3300 = 6800 0
showing 2 dots fty left indication. To/ From :;bowing from. Find
Track = 3200 Rad·. 1. , . · - 360 = 320°
, . ~~ . = 1400 OBS= 1350 (i) RBI indication (ii) OBS
a) 1400 b) Sensing- Reverse (iii) Dist "off track" if VOR is located 90 miles from a/c position.
. 1360
_ c) 3200 d) Reverse e) Righ
Q3. An aircraft ·is on a bearing of 2630 . t
091 0, the deviation indicator will h(M) from a VOR station, the OBt is set to
~
a) TO and fly left 4 dots·. s ow:
b) TO aod fly right 4 dots.
c) FROM and fly left 4 dots.
Q4. A/C is ~n true bearing of 23G~ fro .
:ar~ation 50 E, OBS= 0650. Find ~tatlon on Hdg 2400 magnetic, mean
md1cation. l,to / from~type of sensing and ADF.
(i)RB == MBT - H = 220°- 210° = 010° (ii) OBS = OW'
I (iii) 4/60 = P/90P = 6 mi.les

Q8. AJC ls flying from VORA to VOR B, on tnck 120°. Ha\t.wa-y w\11:1 C L 1
showing 2 d'lt fly right indication, pilot selects VOR B. Th P ·I\ C\ \r•rl i •.,•;111 ·
be
a) To/ From wil\ show From and CD1 2 dot fly right i.ndication.s.
466
Il
b) To/ From will show To and CD\ '2 dol t'\.y rig.hi indication.
c) Toi From will show From and CD\ 2 dot fl.y left i11dicalion.
467
VOR/RMI/ADF RELATED QUESTIONS
Q9 . riaht
In boun d on radial 0900 ·
by 100 a d
~ -.-! '
'P~ot rotates OBS 100 to the left and turns then/ct
(i) ):,eft
QDR -= 305°
(ii) Reverse · (iii) To
Q'DM =d25° QUJ = 130°
(iv) 190° (v) Radial =: 305°
QJE :: 310°
"' n notes the time WbiJe m . t . . o ,.
nociced that the CDI i · . • am ammg a constant heading it is :: Qll. A/C Is on rodiol 240', HOG 230> CDI s~owi~g two dots Hy right indication. Toi
mu ran ronclud e th a/1~: n/er~d tnd8firnrn . Co~sidel'ing nil wind, based on this . .
, . imt an oal hcadmg to station will be· From showing Froro, mean variation 5 E. f,nd .
a) ➔ 8 mm 080° ) •
b 8 mm 260° c) 16 min 280° · ·.~.,
· · (i) OBS .(ii) Type o( sc1lsing
(iii) ADF indications if VORI NDB are collocated (iv) Q UJ, QTE, QDR, QDM
Q1O. A/C is homing on to Stn on Hd O c· ·. o .
selection 2200, variation 50 E. Ffnd~S (M), with 10 starboard drift, OBS (i) OBS selection (244°) (ii) Type.of sensing (Nonna!), To/ From - ftom
(iii) QDM (0600) (iv) QDR, QUJ, QTE (240°,~065°, 245°) mean var 5°E
. CDI
(i) u Ty pe of sensmg
(") . . . To/ From
(iii)
(iv) ADF indications ·if· VOR/ N.DB are collocated
b. RBI indic!!tions i(VOR/ NDB are ccillocated{l 90°)
(v) QUJ, QTE, QDR, QD~
Left (ii) Reve~se (iii) From · Q13. ADF showin~ 170\.HDG of a/c 030·0 (M), To/From shows To, CDI showing 2
(iv) RB= MBT - H = 0550 _ 0450::: 0100 dots fly right indication~. Find · ·
(v) QDM = 0550, QDR = 2350, QTE = 2400, QUJ = 0600 (i) OBS (U) Ra~!al of a/c (.iii) QDM, Q UJ, QTE, QDR (mean var 5°E)
Q 11. ~i i;:ying
•
awa~ from station with 100 starboard drift on true heading of
s
ean variation 0 E. OBS 1550, Find:
(iv)Dist off track ffom seiected·track, !f DME· is showing 120 nm
(~) CDI (ii) Typ~ of sensing (lii) To/ From

(1v) ADF indic,atfons ifVOR/ NDB are collocated (v) QU_J, QTE, QDR, QOM
RB= MBT-H, . MBT (QDM) = 176° + 030° ""' _200°, Track (QPR) "" 200°-180° = 020°
(i) Reverse (ii) OBS 196° (iii)'Radinl = 020°
H (/VJ 300° (iv) QDR= 020°, QTE= 025° QUJ = 205° (V) 4/60 = P/120 P = 8NM
. QUJ)~= 13~~ 5° -- -295°, Tr&ck (QDR) == 305°, QDM == 1250, QTE = 300°+ 100 = 3100,
RB - MBT-H = 125°-295°::::: - 170° + 360° = 190°
469
468
•==
--
VOR/RMVADF RELATED QUES1ION:i
- - : -- - - - - - -.!.
·PA~R~T~l~ll~R!'-DIO NAVIGATION
Ql5. An RMI indicates a.lrcr~ft beading. To convert the RMI bearings of ND Bs a n d
;;.:::(R
. :.:.• ---RM:-~ -- - - VORs to true bearings the correct combination for the application of m agnetic
~ _a uio Magnet~c-Ind icator ) variation Is:
a) NOB: aircraft position, VOR: aircraft position
b) NOB: aircraft position, VOR: beacon position
RMI Presentat_ion: c) NOB: beacon position 1 VOR: aircraft position
Qt6. If you correctly timed ln a VOT situated to your east, your RMI sho uld read ...
and .. .... ... your OBS would read ........ .
a) 090; 090 with needle central and FROM indicaLed .
b) 000; 000 with needle central an TO indicated.
c) 000; 000 with needle centraland FROM indicated .
.ijt 7. An RMI slaved to a remot~·tndicating·compass bas gone unservkeable and
· is locked on to n reading of 090°. The tail of the VOR p'o inter shows 135°. The
available information from the VOR is:
a) Radial unknown, relative bearing 045°
b) Radial 135°, relative bearing unknovrn
c) Radial 315°, relative bearing unknown
RMI In.d icates QDM / MBT:
Q18. An aircraft is tracking towards VORA maintaining the 140° radial with 11° of
Coin_P,ass ~-- ·of RMri:s
, · · RQse· · . _.: slaved·
· . to·· th
· e-~ G'yro C ompass.
-.• ,. .
port drift. NDB B bears 220° relative to the aircraft.VORA and NDB B are
'}OF nee~le· sh_o"'.s QOM driven from th • .• approximately equidistant from the aircraft.
headm g and relative bearin·g r , 1 . .. e mechanical addition of magnetic
these inp u ts. . . . as a resu t of compass rose_rntating and adding a) Draw a diagram to -show the position of the aircraft the \T OR an d
NOB. . '
VOR.,n eedl,e :~~t~ }~ i1!put directly from the VOR station. b) Draw a diagram to show the ap pearance of an R..lviI on wh i h bo n
VOR and ADF b earing information is shown.
Inform atio~ available o'n a RMI is:
(i) Magnetic heading
(ii) Relative b~aring .
(~ii) (lDM I' QD~ _~H_ead / Tail)
(iv.)~· ~ dial position
(v)' ;fi~ ,· ··
Ql 4. Tli+;it:~lrig:read,on.a stand_ardilMI-1s:
a) The True heading.
b) The relative- heading.
c) The magnetic heading.
470 471
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGAr ION VOP.IRMI/ADF RELATED QUEST,lONS
QI IJ. A/C is on hdg 180° T, Var 7° E. ADF bears 200° R.NDB and VOR ar: O _ nro from a VOR.tA/C is on magnetic bearing of
located. What are RMI Jndications? e co- Q21. An ale hdg Is 041 (M).Atl 7 ,s O v·oR-and NDB,are c'O-located.Flnd:
21s Crom VOR. OBS selection 212 •
0 ... co·i, ..: ... ,
( ii) To/ From (111) . mwca.,ons
(i) RB und RMJ indications
0
Hdg(M)= 173°M R=20O0 RB = MBT - H ='035° _;_ 041-0'= - 6° + 360. , = ~5'~~-•
MBT (QDM) = RB + H = 173° + 2000 RMI indications (MBT/QDM= 035°), '
== 373° - 360° = 013° To/ From - from
CDI indications - Left LS dot · ' ·
QlU. ..AJC is homing on to station on ·hdg 3150. T Var 50w. ~,,
nil.f l s hows ·0900. Fmd
Q22. RMI showing 170°, ale hd~'(M) ~ 03~•. Find ADF·reading..
•
(1) QDM, QDR ,QUJ,QTE

QDM = 170° QDR =350°
(ii) ADF reading if VOJ3. and NDB are collocated
170° = 030° + RB 1400 =ADf
Q23. AJC is flying to station with>15° S ,drift, RMJ.showing 090°, OBS selection 260°,
Variation =-15° w. Find VOR(CDI,TO/FROM) indications and QDM/QTE.
Hdg (M) = 3200 (M) ·

QOM = 090° H +RB:;,, MB-i:(QDM) QDM =09QO; QDR = 02'70°
320° +RB= 090° . - Rl3 ::.'.090°,-}29° =J30°JR) ,. a) From b) Left .c) Reverse d) Right
(i) QDM = 090° QDR = 270° QUJ= 085° QTE= 265° e). QDM = 0908, QDR: = 270°, QTE =255°, QUJ = 075°
(ii) ADF reading ifVOR and NOB are collocated. =l 30°(R) QDM ➔ QUJ and QDR ➔ QTE Use Var 15° Wat VOR station
:.f72 47.3
. -- ------~~;:_:,;:""1:..::..;/~O~F:....R=-E.L=-A:....:tc~O_Q:::..U=-ES~T.;..10;;..N:....S::.._ _ _ __ ___ _ . .
PAIU' AADtO'NAVkiATlO
C OR tuned toa ~
~
4.
bto rtta.
beeoma ceoured
c h Utt st.a,.,._ 04-,-
01I. Wllen
._ and To/From is sel
indicates To ... ted o. nndlal
OBS, tbed a not much.
uun 1a: •.n..ucn!t d . evia b) proportional t stnc! l)e.3.drog times the signal rre-ngth.
) WI'/ 9' (M) an hudi"Jl
b 04'11rn.Cfl (M) c) 04 JU'!' (T) c) n ,:na...--uroum
,in,ralt is ft)'lng • const nt beod\ng with
right drift and I m•\uo g o
,,..ck pa.-.11•1 lo the c,ntu line ol ID air ••Y
but 5 ••' o{l to th• \e{t of t ,
, nter Un•· Tb• M)F ,oading ol . DB on the ,1,w, . «ntor \In• '1 n , • eo d
of the alrcrnft · : b) 0\ · o Re\:Hivc

a O\' R.e \ tie
Q19· n lr<r>ft is fl ying on• beading ol 210 { . h•, otl OB lsolso setto 1 "
"lib tbd•ll 1,n d•ft«tlon ond FRO t ft g dlspl• ca. \n wbith ,ctor I, th
alrcraft from the ,·ott gro1md statlon7
a) rt b S~ ) N
Q)0. II the Mll' p oint« indl<> 100 deg,•" , h n tb RM\ ro I· stu"l< ol 090
M gr , b tis t e re1:11he earing of tbe b nco\\7
!) 2 , .. - .~ ) \ dcgre ' ) \~()deirc ..
HOLDING, RADIAL INTERCEPT, BEARING TO PLOT
Chapter __ .- HOLDING
-·-- S·PE·EDS- ,1/
I/ -·
\~~
•,r
~
:: §. . '2~ ( 240 Kts - .· . 265 Kts - f 0.83 M -
6 :ntry Procedur~i;i~e~:ected~~ :~~e:· a:~l:~:g pat::::::~,;g

:: -:' i '.'"to the aircraft's heading in relation to the three sectors shpwn in Figure , reco~mzmg
,..' · ·a·zone of flexibility of five degrees on either side of the sector bound~n~s. For
0
~ holding on VOR intersections or VOR/DME(fACAN fixes, entries are lnmted to

•the radials or DME arcs forming the fix as appropriate.
;:. Parallel Entry; Figure d~picts th; hold entry ~rocedures. A sector 1 ~ntry
.t is kn ow n as a 'parallel ' eqtry and ,in".'._Q;lyes flyJng,.Qu,tbound alo.ng t 1~ pu_ .. ~ ed
inbound track of the hold fur one minute (adjusting for head/tail wind component)
before turning left (in a right hand hold) or ri 6ht (in a left har:i,d hold) back to t~e
/;✓---·----... HOLDING PATTERNS beacon. . -·
./S tandardJfold: Offset/feardrop Entry: A sector 2 entry is known as 'tezrdrop' entry and a
· involves flying a magnetic track 30- degre~s off of the ;ecip rocal of the published
1
f ·-
~ r-~-----------------~- inbou nd track for one minm~ (correcting for -~i11d) before turning back to rhe
beacon.
'. __ _,.. ~ I min }.. ~ • All turn s to right rate l (3°/sec) v
:
.
··
~
) •
Tune is l min
Inbound leg=270°
Direct Entry: A ~ e.ntr..y is known as a 'direct' entry and in this case the
holdi ng pattern is immediately enter.ed .on crossing the beacon.
+ +
Inbound track=210•
l i, )·• _ _ ____,._
•
Hc!ding leg ~ 270° ,
Inbound radial = 270°
Holding radial = 090°
Outbound leg =090°
Non Standard Hold: It is ; mirror reflection of standard hold. Turns are
~!
to_ 1c ~eft._There may not be a standard timing. Other things are sa me as per-
standard hold. , - ·· -,-- - - ~ , , - -
• Outbound hdg = 090° .

Non Standard Pattern 'Standard Pattern
Turninjl lcf't ut tbc fllclllty Turning rtebt at tlte radUty
Sector 2 Sector 2
TIME Offset Sector 2
Procedur;:
Procedure
[- 1·r;~t;~il11_~m~in~u~l;es~uJ~)~to;-1j;-;IL11i:i4if'.0~_:7~;.:-;-;--:----:-- ------
\
Holding
l/ ln1
To tal 6 minute above FL 14()
70' side
i
2m
I! Im □
Sedor3
Sector 1 Direct
Pnrullcl
Im I_~ ( ______ J lm
_ __ Im -------1.__~~
2111 _j ........................................................................................... . . ...........................................................................................
476
477
HOLDING, p.AOIAL INTERCEPT, SEARING TO PLO\ _ _ __
,. PART Ill RADIO NAViGATION : jic1, homing o ~-~ ~ - ' 1 :ill~ ''!'.10•_s_ Mi" n, is , ,,. ,·,I
v--_:--
;;£' A/C-approachJ
rta ng to station on R 140- • • .12"/ to Mld on radial 305° (STD Hold). Entry? ._ · - ·
fl .,. ry S· nclard hold, what will be the e-ntry?lt is told to hold on radial 3250 I
'( sec\= 305° - 70° =235° to \25°
'--'1/ ee 1 a 255" lo 145' Sec 2 = 1450 to. 4350 - 3600 = 0750 or s,c1 " 125' to 305'+ \ \ O' " 4 \ 5' - 360" " 05 S" s,c3 " 05 S" to 13 S'
Aircraft radial = 300° + 010° - 180° = 130°
25!11
~ -\ ),e,, ·p / EntrY is parallel, sec \
145' _A
~-D--- 315' .~ - - 1 . 3 - s " _ _- - >
"\ ,~ ~ ,,_ifyJ,u 0
·o,s-
I -
p / 305'
-- ~ Entry (1400) - ~ 2 Offset En

. ·----
. \ \ \~ ., 1 , S - 0 - D~
~
try '/ 0 /
ls homing to to -:c.- -:;- :·-~-- ; ,. oss"
Ale I
Q2., boldln ' 00 Lbdg 150' with 10' · · ·
S«: I : °!'
_o_f~ O'.Jn std bold. Entry? S drift 1t is asked to bold on
· , . .,,., 15~ - 700 = 0800 to 3300 - -- - -
Sec 3 = 2600 to vNJ_ ·
1
Sec 2 = 330° to 15•' . + 11 ll = 2600 QS. An aero planes RMl sbows an NOB indication of a10•, w/v co\m. "Ihc Orro
O8 plane is to join a Tight hand holding pattern at tbc NOB, tbe inbound I,~ o'
:MBT = H + D = 1500+100= 1600 Radial= 16O0+1 8oo= 3400 which is 330° . Tbe aero plane should!
Sec l Parallel Entry a) fly to the NDB and join the pattern . . . . / ,
r ll8G'
b) fly to lb, NDB lhen fly a tear rop wllh ,n outbound 1t,adin& of I 20" lo< I m•n•"·
and a ra.l.e one tum to join in bound.

• l
_.J ..,-4...
• ,;}(
I c) fly to tb< NDB lhen fly oulhound on \SO' for\ minute, th••""" \tf\. to poi ,
J3o'
~-D-- . J\ 150"
directly at the NDB joining the -patter.ioverbead. - - - -·-
0 I
Q6. A/C is homing to stn on Hdg 3:;o• with 15' Port drift. Asked to hnld n n , ; ;,\
~
. 160'
I r,, (,;' ~ (' .' ~

' 325° for non std hold . Entry'? , - ·--· \
./ Sec \ "32S' + i0°" 39S' - 360' " 03S' lo 145" 1. '.., • ,• '
AIC is homi
QJ./ /.i·adial
~
065•. ng on toStd
Entry with 100 p d rift on Hdg 0600. It is asked to bold o
stnbold?
J:Jf'3t 2 =\4S" to 31S' - ll0' " 215' Sec 3 =1 lS' to 03S" 'i, j ., .
I) 2 065' - 70" " • 5' + 360' -- 355° to 2450
Sec I
s . n Ale radial = 330° - \5° - 180° == \35° 1 ) ,, o... ~ r-:,_
'// ec =_ 2450 to 065o+l 100= 1750
1/ MB"( - H-D =060'· 1O' 91S0' S ·. , 3 = 3S5' lo 17S' ~ec l ParaUe\ Entry ---------==i
Sec 2 Offset Entry Radial = 2300 Ho\dmg Patterns: Or\ft and J\me Correct\ons:
Correction for drift!
/4l ~,
35~ (i) On out bound -+ 1'HRICE of drift
p / (ii) On 1n bound-+ A.ctua\ drift.
There is no change mthe rate of tum but rather the clrift is ap?hed th n r e 0 11 1 \ w
245° - - : - 0 - D ~
0 / o.1tbound leg to make correction.
/ 175" Time Correcliom Only on outbound. Increase/ decrease I second fo, eve" l<no o!
HWffW.
479
478
- - _________P._~_R_T_II_I_
RAD __
IO__
NAV
_ I_G_A_Tf_O_N_ _ __
HOLDING, RADW. 1NT£RCEl'J', SEARING TO l'l.01

Q7. Hul~~ •dlal_090' •id hold, winds l ~ 5kt TA = 210 k11. Find
a) Hdg 01; inhound and outbound
;:::=- -- .
h) Time on outbound .
l>) 0 '• .
<)N . Holdrn g I g 210• 1,•n li,uul hul 1• "ind 270'/J0kt,. T • 180 k«, Find
l.•iJ .tidg on outbouud and inbound
(h) T in1e on outbound
Drift"-"' ' 0 Son 08 .
ln bound heoding = ..,J Ode + 8 dl'g .18 dog, D,ff
MBT • 0 Roundtrl to f..fJ
Ou1 bouud beading - 030 - , 3 • 006 deg 21o•ua 2
loter ept an le • 2 <>° • -~V M Tum right tbro.ugb,•
Gt ' = I93kts 7 '•600 I V
Hdg lo int pt oe tr . inal MB'! -H • 07Cf'-13-QO
Time = 60 t!C - rail wind - 0 - I :e 47 sl!c OJ 0/B ADF reading at th1, tim of inter cp1 RB) • (f J 300'
O
'. l) 006n nnd _ I b) 47 Sl.!c. 0
QlO. A/C is approacMna ln on ra<lJ I 090' and told to appro:acb on radlal 08:2' ·
RADIAL INTERCEPTS 1
Three sl.andard intero:pt unglc.s ure 30°, 60° aod 90°. .
I -----~
- -27
rf - - = +::;::::=-- 1
• Use lnter ept Angle five n in qu tion, othtirwise calculate standard.
Intercept Angle == 2x (!vfBT -· Final MBT), rounded to next 30\ 60° and 90°.
~ = 22
Final MlH • 262° lnte-rcept ,. JOO
• Headiug to lmercept Final Track => Final MBT ± Intercept Angle. MBT = 2100 o Tum bv =2920 -
Ne .., Hdg "" 262°+ 30° =-292 - r.t1
Jf MBT is Jes than Fin I MBT then use-. If MBT is more than MBT tlrnn use+. C111
" Frnal fBT = RB + ew Hdg. (i) ..300 . and 22°
(ii) Right 292 0 iv
• 3 v-
QH . A/C is approachlog to tn on ra di • I 150"/ 3308 in nU WlD keel to
approach on radial 300 •
I. Fi.n d out MBT and FinaJ MDT from the question. MBT = 1500 Final MBT = 120'
2. Apply formuJIJe given above.
Intercept= 300 x 2 = 600 tw Hcciwug
~A :- ... l2C 6fJ' = '
Find in followiug questions:
(i) Intercept
(ii) Which side: ale should tum and through how many degrees.
(iii) New hdg to intercep,
(iv) ADF •eading at inten-ept
480
----
PART Ill RAOro NAVlGAilON _ _ ___:H~O~L:::D~IN~G;::..:.,RA.::..:;:D:...!AL:...::...-IN_T_E_R_C_EP_T_.B_EA_R_
IN_G_TO_P_LO_
l _ _ __ _ _ _ .
Diif= 311' -- _ NC 1, approaching to ,tn on Hdg 185' with ID' S drift. lt is told lo ln terc•P
.
I Intercept = 6Qll (~) Tum 1200 + 600 = 1800 - I500 = 300right 14
~- . · radial 340° inbound.
(iii , I80" (w) FinalMBT H - 12 turn
QU. A/C i.s a . - c:- O"- 1800 = - 600 + 3600"" 3
ppToacbmg to stn on radfal 2300 it ;.,
.,, t 0 Id •,o app on R 2700. O{)'>
MBT= 185°+ 10° = 195° Final MBT = 160°

Intercept= 900 New Heading= 160° + 90° = 250°
Tum= starboard, 1600 + 90° = 250° - I 85° = 65°
MBT = OSQ!l Pinal MBT = 0900 DifI. = 400 ADF =1600 - 250° =-90° + 360° = 270° 1
New Rdg ""' 0900 - 090° =:- 0000 Intercept =900 Q15, A/C ls approaching to stn on radial 300° wlth 10°S c!rlft it Is asked ton p n · r
on rsdi&l 270°. After reaching stn ale Is to hold on radia, 110° ron ~tu h ol<:0 .
(i) Intercept == 9(1! Ci) Left
(iv) ADP reads 0900 - 0000 = 09~ by 500 0000 - 0500 (iii) New Hdg = 0000
Entry?
Ql3. Inbound.
A/C Is approaching to stn on Hdg 3301) and a/c Is told to Intercept radial 1750
MBT -= 33~ Pinal MB.T = 3550
Final MBT = 090°

MBT= 120°
Heading = 120° - 10° = 110°
(i) Diff. 30° lntercept =60° New Hdg =090° ... 60° ..,, l 50"
(ii) Intercept= 60° (iii) Turn right by 40° ( I sou- 110° - 4'l' \
1
(iv)New Hdg = 150° (v) ADF reads = 300 ·
000'
Diff. = 25°
o\ 110'
i lotercept = 60° (ii) Turn left by 35° (355° - 60° 295°) Q-o
(iii New Hdg =295° (iv)ADF reads = 355°- 295° 060° p \ )80 1
Aircraft Radial 270°,hence entry will be parallel cntry{~,:c I l.
482 483
HOLDING, AADIAL INTERCEP"T, BEARING TO PL01
--- o has an AD.F reading o.f 060o Relative, ls to
6. C hdg 1700 M. ADF reading 3450 R l . - - -- QJS. An aircraft beading 040 (M) . NDB at 500 • The relative bearing
~ utbou nd . Hdg to intercep t wiU be e ative. Make 450 Jntcrcept of 3550l'rk intercept the 1200 (M) track inbound to ~n .
lilt rctpl will be_ _ _ _ _ . - - - - -- and AOF at the time of of the NOB that conlirmi. track interception as:
\ 1BT= 345r,-t- 17QO:e 5150_ 3600 = 155n a) 080 Relative.
Uut Bow1d Radial to tntercept = 33 50 Final MBT = o b) 060 Relative.
(lJ Intercept= 450 .. 175
r ·) (u) New Hdg = 1750 45 0 1 c) 050
•
Relative. o M) with 130 Right drift intercepts the 082° (M) track
.Jll Tum lt:ft by= 1700 .. 1300 = 0400 (' - = 300
iv) ADP reads= J750 _ 13oo = 0450 Q19, An aircraft bearllng 135 ( . . 0 f the NDB that confirms track
outbound from an NDB. The relative bearing
interceptio~ is:
a) 132° Relative.
b) 137° Relative.
c) 127° Relative.
Q20, An aircraft heading 20&0 (M) has an ADF reading of 160° Relative. T he O • •
· beading to steer to intercept the 150° track outbound from the NDB at 30 is .
a) 130° (M) • ' b) 120° (M) c) 140° (M) •
a) 301°/ !75°
Q f 7 A/C l'l
b) 040° I 135° c) 1300;0450 130010900
BTP (Bearing To Plot)
· app roaching to stn 00 hdg 225 0 wi 'l
r11di11l 0750, and after r eaching st a/ . th 10 S drift. It Is told to approach on Plotting VOR / ADF Bearings.
h(Jld). Fin d : n c rs to hold on radial 235° (non standar d • Bearings are always plotted from the station . Only true bear ings (QTE)
are plotted. ·
(iJ H d g to intercep t • In order to obtain a bearing to plot from a VOR station to the aircraft
uJ 2150
MB b) 1950 c) 275° d) 26So using an OBI simply _ro~ te the OBS until the needle is vertical with the
, T = ~250 + 100 = 2350 Final MBT = 255J Intercept = 600 FROM flag showing. The reading in the window can now be plotted
'ew Hdg = 255°- 600 = 1950 after applying variation and convergency as given below.
b) -~i1) How many degret! !-j turn . Ans-. turn left by 300. • In case of ADF, calculate QTE. from RB and Magneti.c H eading. If
required, apply Quadrantal Correction to Loop Scale Readine,·
·.ad at th e hme
. 1 What wi ll ADP r~'
r111 · of mtercept.
· Ans.-+ 0600
• RMI can be used for getting QD~forboth VORandADF. App\y · ari.alio n
( ij Type of entry ate should foll ow. Ans. -+ off set
to convert QDR to QTE. Variation at the station/aircraft is applied for
VOR/ADF ancl the resultant bearing plotted from th e meridian p assing
through the station.
-. It is not necessary to apply convergency when plotting VOR/ADF bearing
on a Lambert or Polar Stereographic chart. It is however necessary to
oss•
apply a correction for conversion angle when plotting VOR bearings on
~ ~er~ator chart, if-the change oflongitude between air craft and station
1s significant. ·
484 48S
• ~ ':5£¥ill7C2%7' 521
ILS (INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM)
l. ·Fina out QTE. . , \\l QZ7, VOR RMI =120° ln SH, Var at ale position= 5° E, variation at gr ou nd ~tati on
QDM·:t: Var ::J: tso• == DTP ~ -D = 10°E, CA= 7°, BTP on Mercator?
LSR ::J: QC ::J: bdg (T) ::J: 180• = DTP QDM = 120° QUJ = 120° +100 = 130°
2. On Lamberts chart QTE = DTP QTE = 1300 + 1800 BTP = 3100 + 7° = 31 '7°
3 • On Mercator chart, a ly • Q28. A/C magnetic brg to the stn (VOR) ... 310°,AJC position 3O°S 45° 45 ' E, grou nd
PP Conversion Angle to
,._ TE. QTE :t: CA BTP. station 19° 20' S, 30° 30' E, Variation at stn = +7°, at ale position = + 14°, me.no
• When using ADF us . . var +10°. Find BTP on Mercator.
• When using any oth:rvarlation !tt the ale position QDM= 310° QUJ = 310° +7° = 31 7°
(G/S) variation. grou nd beacon ·apply Ground Station QTE = 31'7°- 180° = 137°
L• To find mean hdg to fl
y, use mean variation.
CA=½ x15° 15' x sin (24° 40') (mean lat)
CA= 4° BTP = 133°
,Q29. LSR = 198°, QC= +2°, Hug (T) = 2100, CA= SO, in Southern Hemisphere. Find
~ "' t
BTP on Mercator.
0 --,. , Qll. AIC position 41° N s10 w. QDM •
:::> Var at G/S == 3°E Var at ~ I= ,1730 from a G/S (VOR) at 59• N 840 W While adding hdg and RB if you excer.d 360° subtract 360° from it.
2 Lambert,. ......_: c pos tfon = 60 E, mean var= 50 E. Find BTP o~ RB= 198° + 2° = 200°
""' QDM== 173° , MBT = RB+ Hdg = 200° +2100= 410° = 410° - 360° =050°
~ QUJ == QDM::tVar == 1-7;;30 = 176; QTE , QTE = 230° BTP = 230°+5° = 235°
\~ I - == 176°+ 1800==3560
Mercator Charts. Q3O. LSR =301° in SH, QC= -1 8, Hdg (T) =120° CA=10°. Ftnd BPT on Mercator.
RB= 301° - 1° = 300°
- Q22 • AJC tru~ brg. from stn Is osoo in NH _
MBT = 300° +120° = 420° - 360° = 0600
( QTE == osoo d - · CA- 50 Find BTP on Mercator.
I __ . _ -BTP= oso + 50 =05so
0 - QTE = 240° BTP = 240°+ 100 = 250°
Q23. QTE =2400 in NH CA°= '100 .fi •. -
' - -, nd BTP on Mercator.
BTP==230° ' · '
Ql4. QTE = 3200 in S~ CA =-80,find DTP on Mercator.

BTP=328° · , Answers
Q25. ADF RMI.,. 2400 J NH Vi .
n . , ar= 100 W. C.A=•So FJnd BTP M
QDM = 2400 ' ' on ercator. Q: 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
QDR = 2400- 1800 =-0600 QTE = 0600 - 100 == 0500 A: - c Ih
BTP=OSS 0
Q26. RMI= 0550 lo NH, Var 50 E, CA= 100, find DTP on Mercator. Q: 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30
QDM - 055° '
- QUJ,.; 055° + 5~ ~ 060°
QTE = 0600+ 1800 = 2400 BTP = 2~00 A: -
487
-. . . . . _""-•..:..-·-..--.
........
ILS INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM ~
Chapter
7 -~~~e!!..--1,,\liilll!!~:::::
Glide Slope _
MM
~ ·::::;;;~~
OM
.1 Local~zer
OUffll
IIARl<E/1
•
300m
. .
iocalizer (azimuth informacon): The localizer signal provides azimuth, or

Jatiral, information to guid~ the ai=-craft to the centerline of the runway. It is
~ihJl~r to 'a VOR signal except that it provides rad\al information for only a single
course; the runway heading. ~-Localizer information is displayed on the same
_- ·dicator as your VOR infoi1matiori. Some localizers are designed to sine a back
~eilill in the area ·behi~~ the:Iopcalizer. ·
. . · When tracking,i~ lo~alizer the pilot turns towards the. needle in the same
LQcaliser Antenna
· :,· manner as with VOR navig~tion. ·
In addition to the VOR ther . h .
known as the instrument la~dinge is anot(t· radio (approach and landing) aid
V HF frequencies between 108 00 MsyBstem dLS). Localiser of ILS operates on
·Av · ·
receive r which controls che VOR
z an
I fi 1I 1.95 MHz · h
. usmg t e sa me VHF-
f LS facility. 'on Y ew are equ ipped with the additk nal
Whe~1 you fly the ILS, you're .real] fi 1J . • ~ -

lateral guidance (VHF); and a rd ·I y o o~mg t~o signals: a localiser for
tune your Nav receiver to a loc~11· es ; .p e for -vertical guidance (UHF). When you
receiver, is au tomatically t d .. iz_er requency a second receiver, the glide-slope Tracking inbound on the Localizer to runway 05, from left to right, the
Tt . une to Its proper frequen Tl · · ·
ien:: is more to an ILS th' h 1 · 1· . cy. 1e pairang is automatic. aircraft is ldeg Right ofi;ourse, lJIO d.ots (turn leXt to return)! on ~ourse, and
. an l e oca izer and glide slope signals.
Gmdan ce In£ · · I degree left of course(turn right to return).
onnat:ion: the localizer and glide slope. . -../ /
9 Range Information· c.h ·
beaco ns or a low po~er ~MouE~er 1ml ark~r ('?M) a_nd the middle marker (MM)
✓ Frequency: 108-112 ~Hz (o~dd fir.sr decimals i.e. 110.3, 119.9, 110.1) )v~_
co ocated with Glide Path Band = VHF:band ✓' -
Visual Information: approach Ii h , . ._.., . .
runway lights. J g ts, tot:chdown and centerline ltghts and Principle = Bearing by lobe comparison or DOM (difference in depth modulation)
- , • - - - - - -- - • -,.•-•--...------..•r-•
488 . Vertical Coverage = -1 °to +7°

~ '489
mcug;
!LS INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM
PART UI RADIO NAVIGATION i,,strument landing ,yst,m ,eference point, A po;nt that;, on the tented; c
of; ,unway setved by an !LS and that ;, designated as the optimum oint of
., tact fot the landin aitetafL A point at a specified heig t ncatet ett.ca\\,
rJbo"'
0 t e int~~ i!'.n. of the ,un way centet Hne _and tfie tli mhO o·amlth '°''.g I ,
~h;~wnw! td ~~tended sttaight po•·tion of the tl.S gUde path passes.
. Marker beacons ate used to ale« the pilot that an action e.g .. altitude chec ·
Elev11don Coverage Aztmuth Co;erage_ Radiation Pattern ,,,, is needed. This information is presented to the pilot by audio and ,isual cues
The ILS may contain thtee mark<' beaconso inner, middle and outer. 11« inne<
_Glide .slope (Elevation Info , . .. ,-1,tarker is used only for Categocy 11 operations. The ma,ker beacons ar located
vertlca] guidance to th .
slope path Is 30 downh~I
and your altitude will b o
~'7:1'~
). The Gbde Slope is th .
dmirig the !LS approaci:' ;ral that provltles • .
approach-end of the . . e standard glide- •
,is specified· intervals along the !LS approach and are identified by discrete audio
✓
of the runway e premely CQrrect when you run~ay. and visual characteristics .
. . reac theFollow It falthfuily • •
touchdown zone : ·' All marker beacons operate on a fre~':1ency f 7 5 MHz.
,, _ The OM / 3.5 to 6 NM from the runway thresho , normally indicales wh .,,
. Thmk o~ the glide slope as a loca .
up mto th~ atr, and you'll have it just :b~:~~.;"~f
- . .
on Its-side, squirting a signal 30 :atl' aircraft intercepts the glide path when at the published altitude . The Md.
'!"' "1f<"
~ ~
i 5 0 C l _ ~ ~ ~ a ,.threshold, is, IJ,e D_ecision He!llht oint fo, a nor';;;al
Tracking the glide sl . .- , . _!LS approach. On glide path at the MM an aircraft Will be appiOXimately 200· t-==
needle ·
needle ~;:~i:s::7
.- .
;;mope is identical to t k ·
e~gme s pow~r. Don't point th
·
.
' ·
c~nt;i-tip or dowti~.:::!u:!':"~~e'.. If ~•:glide-slope
a!rcra towards the
- . e aircrafts nose up or down.
, above the runway. The IM 1000 feet from the runway threshold is the dee\ ,,..,
height appx. 50' point for a Cat II approach. _
J
', -: ,---::==--------------------- ~
___/
c:::::::i Outer marker
Middle marker
Inner marker 400 HiAM
1300t-lz.AM
3000t-lz.AM
BLUE \
Inbound tdriJl"11y05, ;rom letttorfpt, die ldm"a .
\
&IJde path aruf ~ ' I f. Jlfde p:: 1 above ii.Ide p1tll, on
TyPical (but not
lixed)mo~f
Frequency= 329.3 - _335 MHZ Band = UHF Principle = DDM distances from
the threshold
3.5 - 6 mn---------'
Coverage bl Elev1tton
491
490
--- - -------._;__.::_-
PART II/ RADIO NAVIGATION
ILS(IN ST""'MENT·~N.DING
. "'" - SYSTEM)
! outer
Aural:
/ . fa rke r Low pitch (400 Hz) dashes
I VISual : -
A blue light flashing in synchronisation with the ·
~ e audible dashes at the rate of two per second
Aural :
Afarl-.er
Visual: Medium pitch ( 1300 Hz) alternate dots and dashes-
An amber light flashing in synchronization with the
audible dots and dashes at the rate of three :
characters per second
Inner Aural:
Marker Visual: High pitch (3000 Hz) dots }
A white light flashing in synchronization with the

audible dots at-the rate of six per second
Frequency Pairing GP. The GP frequepcy is paired with localiser as per the
/is, publish ed by ICAO. Pai,ing facilitates one switch activation ofboth ceceivec,,
1/, e pro b:1 hility of enor is eliminated and only one identifier is needed . Identifier . SE GLIDE SLOPE:
u; u:dly stan .s with Jetrer l in morse code with a tone of ~ z . It goes off if INDICATIONS OFFAL .. • .' .. . . .
c,1uipment fails. However for localiser approaches it may be kepf on and pilots
G.w cionerl about the non availability of GP. · ,. C) High rate of descend ·. :, '-'. ,: - ·:u be more than pubhshe_d.
t . hei ht over otiter-mar,.~~~ ~ -1
(ii) Altitude/ 1_,- ~ - 1 • fl g m·ay· come on.
DME pa.iring with ILS. A low power DME frequency paired with ILS is
.
(iii) Locahzer fat·1ure warrung a. .· . .. .
,vi deJy used to supplement or replace markers/locators. The DME ranges are zero . C.omP.,.onents
r·efe r-enced to runway threshold. Operationa
. l Status: ILS w~th ,,. Inoperative
.
ILS FALSE GLIDE SLOPE Localizer
11 is ;-i p oint above RWY 8Urface in li?e with ILS lhr~s?old, through which ,/ ,/ X
c: x1en ded centerline pass height propagat10n of characterist1cs, due lobe pattern ,f - v.-
uf glide slope gets repeated one above. X NPNMDA
"i·\ $ ':,\,; '.f'·
1:.oc_"only
Since the lower (150 Hz) lobe lies aqjacent to the surface ground-re~~cted ,f
waves result, giving sicle Jobes (Figure). These side lobes may p r°?uce a?d1t1ona! X ../ INOPERATIVE
equisignals and consequently false glide paths. Fortunately, these false glide paths
will be situated above the main glide path and cannot therefore res~lt m an i_ ,:
iJircraft flying dangerously low during the approach, should the false glide path
be inad vert ently followed. - , Min. VIS/RVR
>; ~Om .(20Q'), 800m/550m

II ·som to <60m -/300m
IIIA oto <30m
B -/50in
C 0 0
492
493
IL.S (INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM)
RilVRot:on
P The distali~~e
centre ne. upto which runway centre line markin,. 11ighis are visibile t--:-a
6' • Every 10kt derrense In groundspeed, one 36ILS glide path , will req ui re an
Holding Positions· For cat II & Ill . . · approximate: .
keep aircraft clear o.fl 1· . • operations holdmg positions are marked to a) increase in the aircraft's rate of descent of 50ft/mm
oca 1zer sens1t.1ve areas.
b) increase in the aircraft's rate of descent of I00fVmin
c) decrease in the aircraft's rate of descent of 50ft/min
Q7. The principle of operation of an JLS Localiser transmitter is based oo two
................................................. -.........................-............... . . ............................................................................................ overlapping lobes that are transmitted on (i) ...... frequencJes and carry
different (11) ......
a) (i) different (ii) modulation frequencies
b) (i) different (ii) phases
c) (i) the same (ii)'modulation frequencies /./ -
Questions Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) GlldeTuths provide azimuth co vcni i!e
(i) ......o each side of the localiser center line to a distance of (ii)...... M froll! the
Qt. In fu7 ystem· whfch marker is optional? · threshold.
p>r~ -
Q2. RVRfs .
b) Mi~dle
.
. c) Outer
a) (i) 35 (ii) 25
b) (i) 8 (ii) 10
a) Horizontal visibility along RWY-centre line. c) (i) 25 (ii) 17
(b) Slant visibility along-RWY app. lights Q9. The rate of descent required to maintain a 3.25° glide slope at a gro und~peed
(c) Horizontal visibility !!longRWY PAP( Iights of 140kt is approximately
Q3. On an ILS 'ROD !s function_or a) 850ft/mi.n b) 800ft/min c) 670 ft/min
El
a) LAS b) BAS Ql0. An aircraft carrying out a 3° glide path ILS approach experiences a reducti on
in Ground speed from 150kt at the outer marker to 120kt over the thres hol_d.
Q4. When can an ILS b!lck beam be received : The effect of this change in groundspeed on the aircraft's rate of descen t w,U
a) N_ever. be a decrease of approximately:
b) When flying in' the area bC:~d the ·localiser aeriaJ. A a) 150ft/min b) 50ft/min c) 100.ft/min
forward
I
c) When flying 'in the area the localiser aerial · Qll. Which oftbe following is an ILS localiser frequency?
to
QS. Where, J~ ~latfon ~t,ie r:unway, is the ILS localiser transmitting aerial a) 109.15MHz •-
normally-situated? · b) 11 i~l 0MHz
a) · At the non~apP.roil.f~ ~nd_af!9u( 1_50m to one side of the runway and 300m along c) 110.20MHz
tbe\extended centerli,ne
• Q12. ILS is subject to false glide paths resulting from:
b) On the·non~approach end of the runway about'300m from the runway on the a) ground returns ahead of the antennas
extended centerline
.,;., ,,. .,.,
· ~
b) back-scattering of antennas
c) At the approach end about 150m to_one side:of the runway and 300m from
touchdown · ~ ultiple lobes of radiation patterns in the vertical plane
494
-495
l~LS~INST~~RU~M~EN~T!__1:LAN~
. ~D!!:IN~G~S~;!.::S~T~EM~-------- - .
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION lour of an outer marker (OM) is~

Utude modulatiQll and the cp . .
l.) I 3. Wh at is the colour sequence when passing over an Outer, Middle and Inner Qlt, 'fhe amp
Marker beacon'? · a) 4OOHz, amber
a) Blue - amber - white b) 13OO1-lz, blue
c) 4O0Hz, blue (]LS) ground installatiol} p-:ovides
o) amber - white - green t Landlng Sy1tent ,
Hlue - green• white Qll, ~ Category I Instr~men cove;ag~ limit down to:
accurate guidance ro01 - hold
' hat approxim.ately rate of descent is required in orde1· to maintain a 3° glide
ath at a groundspeed of 90kt? . ·
a) 200ft above~~ ~way tbres . 0 •
:1) 700ft/min b) 450ft/min c) 400ft/mih b) runway surface . ~~

c) 50ft above ILS reference pomt_ f Uable nav.igatlon information
Q l 5. Assum ing a five dot display, what docs each of the dots on either·side of the . . ula cove ge o .r,e
lLS loca.lizcr cockpit display represent: 3 What is the approxiroate ang · tance of tONM? , .
Q 2 • f •. 301LS glide path out to a dis h 'de of the localiser centerline
a) 0.5 degrees b) 2.5 degrees · , c) 2.0 degrees or a . . 'd ath and 2.5° eac S1 .
. ) o above and below the gh e P, . tal and t o each·side of the
Q l 6. in which frequency band does an ILS glide slove transmit? a 0 ·7 . t :z50 above the honzoOJ
5 ,
b) 1.350 above the ~onzonta1 o . .
J VHfo b) EHF ' c) UHF .
localiser centerline . and'l.<f each side of the localiser cen~rhne
he. outer marker of an lLS with a 3° glide slope is located 4.6NM from the c) 30 above and•below the glide path f· ,
ueshold. Asllumlng a glide slope height of 50ft above the threshold, the , .. ' isMili and has an aural frequency o •
approximate height of an aircraft passing the outer marker is: ·Q24 'Inner roarker transmits on ) 3OO0Hz
. . - b) 4OOHz c
a) 1350ft b) 1300ft c) 1450ft · a) 2000Hz . the 90 .H z modulation than the 150
Ql8. T he OUTER MARKER of an InstrumentLan'dlng System (ILS) facility . Q25, On an ,ILS approach yo~ receJV~ ·: ,o r~o:ake is:
tra nsmits on a frequency of:
. Hz modulation. The action you s ou
a) 75MHz and is modulated by morse at two dashes per second a) Fly 1eft and up.
b1 300MHz and is modulated by morse at two dashes per second b) Fly right and up.
c: J 200,.,,U-fz and is modulated by alternate dot/dash in morse c) fly right and down. . •
Q26. The inner mark.er of an ILS installation idenjilies itself with:
Q19. The MIDDLE MARKER ofan Instrument Lanciing System (ILS) facility is
identified audibly and visually by a series of: a) continuous dots with~ white light. _
a) dols and a white light fla,hing b) Dots and ciaslies with.alternating an ~ber light.
b J two dashes per second and a blue light flashing cj altemap.ng dots and ·'<'dashes\vith
. ·, ,
a white ~~ght. ·.
. d ILS d' l y represented b)' one dot
c) alternate dots and dashes and an amber light flashing Q27. The horizontal deviation on the expande . asp a
Q20. An aircraft tracking to intercept the Instrument Landing Syste~ (ILS) is approximately: ' ·
localiser inbound on the approach side, outside the published ILS coverage a) 10 .. : b)'J 0!5o c) ,20
angle:
Q28. In an _ll,.~,syst~~,. t~~)l~~n~iftc~tio'!i~- _. , . . . ·.
a) may receive false course indications 1
a) ls -transmitted'by thtnccalizer anci th.e glide path tran~mttt.ers.
b) will notno1mally receive signals b) Is·transmittecfin til.orsb'by.the localizer'transmitter with a tone of 1020 Hz.
L') will receive signals without identification coding
c) Is transmitted with a ton.e of 1450 Hz.
497·
· ◄9,6
- PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION
Q.?9. The glide-path signals . .
) o • must· be•recefved t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _I_LS_,_(I_N.c..ST'-R_U_M_E_N_T_LA_N_D.;_lc..N:..:G.;_S.;_Y.::ST..:.E::.:.M..:i)~----- - - - -
a 8 wide centered on the localiz . o a range'of 1o·nm over a Sector·
b) 100 wide centered o .er center line. •
Q38. The visual indication of passing the outer marker is a ... light with a series of ...
c) go each side f n th~ localizer center line.
. . o the localizer center line
at 400 Hz:
Q30. _Atypical ILS g1~d .. , . a) blue; dots
I e path frequenc . . Jl,fl:r .
a) 329.30 Y, ln'n ,~ Z,'·ls: ·. . b) blue; dashes
G The rate of descent . fi
a) 586 1pm
. .
,
'b
b) 110.30 · ' .
m eet per minute
. ) 666 fpm
Q32 • For a 2.7 dcgree ·glid • tJit . · _., .- . .
ts is.
.
·
. , .
an approach groundspeed of 110 k , _appropriate to a 3.2n !LS glid
. )
,
c) 75.00 ·
.
c 563 fpm
.
.. .
.
.h
e pat at
c) white; dashes
Q39. The sensitive area of an ILS is.the area aircraft may not enter when :
a) category II/III ILS operations are in progress.
b) category I ILS operations are in progress.
e pa on a Cate'g · ·1 ,I t · -
a) 1.22°. 4.13 0
. . .
• b). , ~-.~11 .
. 1.35 - 5.25°
~ tlie·v~rticaf:'covenge is:
. ) .. . . .
c) ILS operations are in progress.
Q40. The reason why pre take-off holding areas are sometimes further from the
Q~J. The minimum angle at whi~h·a . .. . c:- ~.05~ - 5_550 ·.
. active runway when iLS Category II and III landing procedures ?.rr in
3° glide path is: · '· · falst: glide path is Jik
....ely .to be encou· ot d
. . . .. . . . ere on a progre.,s than during good weather operations is:
a) 6°
a) To increase aircraft separation in very reduced visibility conditions
Q34• At a d1stance·of20
· . . ·• · b) 5·350 · ·C) I 75°
NM fl · · ·. · . b) aircraft maneuvering near the runway may disturb guidance signals
th l 1· . ~ .. - . . . rom the localizer tran 'tt
e oca 1zcr co~erage is: . , : ~, ·. s~ .er,,.the horizontal extent of c) to increase distance from the runway during offset approach operations
a) +/- 10 NM wide. '
Q41. A Cat III ILS glide path transmitter provides reliable guidance information
b) +!-. J(jOfiom'tpe ruilway ;~it~ndecfcent~iline, ' down to:
c) +/- 2,5° . .,: .- a) a maximum height of 200 ft above the runway
Q35. The.ILS glide pat" oper~tes,between: b) a maximum height of50 ft above the runway
a) 108 to 112. MHz in the VHF band. /... c) the surface of the runway
b) 329.3 to 335 Mlfz) n:t!Je .y.HF band. j Q42. fwbat approximate distance from the threshold would an aircraft intercep l
the glide path if the aircraft height ls 2500 feet, and the ILS glide pat , . ;r r 1~
c) 329.3 to 335 MHz,in,the Oij'Rban,ct" ···· 30?
~ 'The upper limit'of the vertf~~ls_oyerage of~be localizer mpst be:
r
a) 7.0 run. b) 7.8 run . c) 13.0 n.m.
a) ·not less th~ 7° above the bo~ 1~£:l(~wn.from th~J~caliz~). Q43. Convert 70 meters/ second into knots?
b) Not less than 300 m above.the.'highest point on the approach. a) 35 kts.
c) not Jess than 600 m.ab~ve the hori~o~~1: i ,,
b) 55 kts.
QJ7. Category II ILS provides•accurate guidaQce,';o: . ) 136kts. .
a) I 50 ft' above the horizontal plane conta.µIing the threshold .. n aircraft flying down a 3° ILS glide slope is at 25 nm DME uom the
b) 125 ft above the 'hori.!f>ntalpl~~ conta~; g.~h; th.r~;hold~, , · ,_
~
breshotd: Using the·1 in 60 rule aiid approximating 1 nm to 6000 ft, calculate
the aircraft height above the runway threshold, assuming thnt the ILS glirle
c) I 00 ft above the h6rizo~i.'1~1~; ~9; ta~g~e:~ho!d/ .. path crosses the threshold at height of 50 ft?
a) 6450 ft. b) 74S5 ft. c) 7550 ft.
498
499
_filM&¾ .Ali!!!!~ '?.1)5]◄4 ' · ,t *

c.
--- - -~ ------P:.::~~R~T..'.:11'.'....I~
RAD~l~O~N~A~';'/~IG~A~Tr_l:IO~N~-------
ILS (INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM)
Q 5 . 1f there is a l S knot increase in bead . ---
descent be changed I d . wt_Dd by what amount must the rate of . I headwind by what amount must the rate of
-, nor er to mamta.m a 30 glide slope? QS3. H there is a 12 knot mcrease n . tain a 30 glide slope?
'- I ft mu st be decreased by 79 ft/ min. descent be changed in order to main
bJ It must be increased by '1 9 ft/ min . a) It must be increased by 35 ft/ min.
CJ lt must be increased by 35 fU min. b) It must be decreased by 35-ftl min, '
4 c) It mustbe decreased by 61 ft/ m~- -
Q 6. n aircraft at FL370 is r · "d ·
~e~~!
, • nd eq_ uir - to commence descent when 100 NM from
~a~Hty to cross the station at FLI20. If the mean GS during the , QS4. 850 FT/MIN ·equals? c) 4.3 m/sec.
96 a
\
\,
, s kt, the mininum rate of descent requir~d is approximately?·
a) ,
5 2 ml
sec.
. b) 4.6 rn/sec.
. . , , - . . . e Oi ht at gtoundspeed ·o f 350 knots, at
c:.J I 650 FT/MfN. b) 2400 FT/MJN c) 1000 FT/MIN.
47 0422 Q55. At 043Q;ali alrcr~ft is,Jn !~~et~!'~i~ - ~-·{to d~cend ·a t.a mean rate of
Q · At an aircraft at FL370, GS 320kt, is on the direct track to VOR 'X' 185 FL370, 165 n~.'~om ~-V~~ lt ~s?~~~,t~·c VOR What is the latest time to ·
NM distant. The ain:raft is required to cross VOR 'X' at FL80. For a mean 1800 feet/ min_, to be at~ 80.o~~rll~-:""' · : d , the' descent ts to·be 200 -knots?
rat~ of descent of 1800 FT/MIN at a mean GS of 232 kt, the Jatest time at comrn~nce descent, ifttie·m:ean-ground spec 1n 0449
w hich to commence descent is? a) 0456. b) 0439. c) .
a) 0451. b) 0454. c) 0445.
Q4fi • Ass uming zero wind, what distance is covered by an aircraft descending 15000
FT with a TAS of 320 kt and maintaining a rate of descent of 3000 FT/MIN?
1
a) 16.0NM. b) 26.7NM. c) 19.2NM.
• Q49 . \Vii at will be the rate of descent when flying down a 7% glide slope, at a Answers
1 groundspeed of2S0 k~ots?
\- , ,.) 1575 ft/min . b) 1737 ft/min . c) 1773 ft/min .
Q: 4 6 8 9 10 11 12 U\ 14 15 16 17 18 19
I ~ SU. Ai.-craf( height 2500 FT, IL
. S GP angle 3°. At what approximate distance fr.om
i TH !l can you expect to capture the GP? A: a a C b C C b b .a a •.,C. a b a C
(- __ ~l ._ _ _ b) 7.0 NM. c) 13.J NM.
QS J. CJiven: TAS =: 197 Kt, Tr~ course= 240°, WN >= 180/ 30 kt Descent is initiatl'd
I at .FL 220 and completed at FL 40. Distan~e to be covered during descent is 39 Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26_, 27 28 ¥,9 g::, 31 sA ~~ s4 35 36 37 38 39
;I NM. What is the approximaii rate of descent?
A: C b a b h .c.. a a, a a b C a C b
a) 800 FT/MTN.
bJ 950 FT/MIN.
/
c) l4CJ FTM.IN.
Q: 41 42 43 44 15 46 47 48 ' 49 !;iO 51 52 5~ 54 55
\ Q52. A n airc raft is on an ILS 3 degree gJide slope, which passes over the r unway
A: C b C a a- C· b c, -a- C- a - C C C -
threshold at a height of 50 feet. T,he DfyfE range is 18 nm from the threshold.
What is the heJght above the runway threshold elevation? (Use the ! in 60 rule
and the apprc~i mation 6080 feet= 1 nautical mflc1
a) 5522teet. 0) 51l0feet. c) 6550feet.
- 'SOI
·Sift .g • -~
RADAR
Chapter 8.75 to 8.85 GHz

13.25 to 13.4 GHz
8
DME 960 to 1213 MHz 27 c. ns
Meteorological Radar
Weather Detection Radar 3000 MHz 10 cm
9-10 GHz 3-3 .3 crn
RADAR ·. ~~ · Primary Radar. With primary radars EM waves are beamed fr om lhc
transmitter, via the aerial, into the atmosphere. In the event that Lhcv: pulses
strike a target, a small proportion of the transmitted en ergy will h opeful\ v be
reflected back to the aerial and fed into the receiver. The direction in whi ch th e
aer ial is pointing at this time deno_tes the bearing of the tar el, while the Lim e
RADAR between transmission and reception of each m ividual ulse is u sed to d etermine
(RADIQ DETEcnoN AND RANGING) target range from t e radar ea • .
I EM waves may be transmitter in pulse~ (pulse radar) or co ntinu ously
Primary Radar l (continuou s wave radar). In p ulse radar single antenna is used for transm ission
+I Secondary Radar and reception. Pulses are regulated for optimum range as explained bel ow.
Pluse radar .l
Co 111UJuous wave radar
PULSE: (P ~ raftr)
1
l
(CW)
l PRP/T/1
Ra.age
Principle: Ee o
Azim-uf.h
search light
Pluse radar
WV -
Radar Types, Wavelengths and Frequencies
it------'-___.__-----'--~--L
'fyp
Frequency Wave Jength ulse width/Pulse Length/Pulse Duration: time interv::il eltlpsrrl in mi cr11
T Radars second from start of a pulse to end of a pulse .
/
Su rveillan e Rada r v l>RP/ T/1: It is time interval elapsed from start of o n e pulse to sta rt of th e
600/1 300/3000 MHz 50/23/10 cm next pulse.
ry surveiJI n ee Radar 1090/1030 MHz 27 ems • RF/ PRR: Number of pulses/ second
!1 Approach Rada r 9-10 GHz 3-3.3 ems l
Airborne .Radars PRF = PRJ
Radar 9.375 GHz 3.2-cm . C CxPRl
r 4 .2 to 4.4 GHz 7cm
ax1 mum Radar Range:
2 XPRfr - -
2
-
S02
503
- - - - - - - -..!P~AA~T~lll~RAo~10 NANIGATION
Secondary Radar S RADAR
e te . ystems. Secondar d ----
,. c- rr~~1:~cfe~lse arriving back at ch::a~: :::;ot. ret on reflections of interrogation. This position is commonly used -after ~n~e start-up
c, tt..tlize the incerr o~ transponder is situated at the ta vi.a l e target. Instead and prior to take-off, when operating in a colltrolled Cll"CUlt, and after
•t q i s the og~l.lon pulse for the return . rge~ and this is·used t'0 landing. • · . .
. co -operauon of h Journey. Obvious! h
a~~~a! rged s~ortly, namely ~s;
~~eto;;: ~xamp~es of seconda;/~da~
es w en compared wi th prim ary .d econ ary rada:r · has the followi n e
~i~~e; - In the ON position the transponder will re~ly to _i1:1terrogauo~ ~ut wall
send Mode A information only. Thus in t_his p9~1t1on, the 4-digit code
-, .__/ s· . ra ar ; u,g will be sent but altitude information~ not be .se~t.
v rnce only enough ener n When ALT is selected, the transpo1;1de~ i~ on _and wil~ repl_y to
~e req uired transm itter g~w~e~ be transmitted fo r one-wa ·our a inte~rogation. Both Mode A and Mode C 'altttude mformauon will ~e
/ lighter and less bul ky. ✓p r is lower and consequently the e~~ipm:~~ sent: This is the function normally used when ~r?°rne (o~er than m
Pulse seque nces may be coded th . the,circuit .of a ,to~trQ!led l;lero,dro,m_e)._W,hen Jh1s mode ts se~ radar
fo r exam ple mo de C (p ressur~ a1::bJ con veying a~ditional intelligence controller is able' to see your altitude in hundreds offeet as well as,your
S ECONDARY
-
u e readout) with SSR.
SURVEILLANCE RADAR: (SSR)
.' position. . . _·
The TEST position is a transponder tesf function.,
J
~ransponder: Whe n ushg the trans
cod in the transponder win dow Th' ponder yo~ have to select a foor-fi Occasionally the radar controller· will · in~tr? ct you . 'squawk 'id~i;it'. This
for
'. ~t-
lass of aircraft (e.g. VFR li. h t ~r~ode can b~ ~1ther ~ p re-determined
::i
co11 Lroller for certain situaci!ns rafr) or a discreet code issued to you b
~:J; means you must press the transponder IDEN'F·button (just once). -This caus_es
your aircraft symbol on the radar screen to flash s9 that the co~n:oller can readily
"~r~p cc:_s:. T ~is co~e is known as Moct·f . : track_you through some comrolleJ identify your aircraft. You must not push the IDENT button ull mstructed.
r<1d ar w1 tli each interrogation . e J ormation and t ~he Principle: Mode and code pulse:
Mus t iransponders can also transmit th . . . FREQ: Interrogator (1030 MHZ) ~D Transponder (1090 ,MHZ) .
T J1i known as Mode C in for:nation. eIT altitude with the inter rogatio n.
BAND : UHF band .
f:0tAAOCl.4JlOM
WORKING:
]
PREN TO
IOl!IIT ~~~ SSR and DME interrogators and transpo11ders work on different frequencies .
0 mmill m Modopohe Tranapoa.dc r This is done to avoid 'self triggering', which means that the transmitted wave
may be reflected by clouds/abstacles/gro::c- and received by the interrogator giving
S_!l~ •U.T 0 0 0 O Code plilit wron g indication.
O••u•Ti:ST 12
a.oa•-";1' (i ) Ground interrogator, interrogates on, 1030 MHZ in mode pulses:
TX RX &! loterrog.aur C- 3><1 0'm1,
CCIO& LIDTl0oj
CCAmlaUI
(ii) N C transponder replies for mode ·puls'es in code<,½ pulses on 1090 MHZ.
Airborne SSR Control Panel and Working Mode A · The interrogator transmits two pulses 8 microseconds apart.
Achieves positive identification of primary radar re,t ums, using the four-figure
ange == V == (C x T) + 2 • T (C= 3XI s -
p O ' T - ti + t2, Tp = Processing Ti me) coding. A maximum of 4096 codes can be selected.
o t tran spond ers ha
OFF
Ji • .
ve ur,ct;or, .switch witIi the following positio11s: Mode B - The interrogator transmits· two pulses 17 microseconds apart.
- . SBY (stand-by) - On - ALT (altitude) - TST (test) Serves the same purpose as mode A, but.is not pres~ntly used.
• ~'\' hen seL to On~ the u·ansp onder is off. Mode C • T he interrogator ti, msmits two pulses 21 micros~conds apart.
W 11en se t to SBY tJ . Achieves height (pr essure·altitude) readout, using the three-figure co-iing.
' 1e tra nsponder is ~witched on but will not repl y to
Mode D · The interrogator tr ansmits two pulses 25 microseconds apart.
S04
505
+ M'ffif
~ART Ill RADIO NAVIGATION RADAR
Rresendy used to research fut . ---._

_ ure possible applications ofSSR. There arc generally two types of DME selector, those which use tli e V I l 1--.
NOTE: Altuude·£-nfo passed is with . NAV set combined with a detached DME read-out window and thoseth <1t havf' a
(PAf,FLJ. Irrespective of sub scale
-I 00 . - -
seu7:t;~'°m::~;\af/.~":~..5etting_ f ! ~13 .25 hPa
0
a ' uae in., ormation steps of
ts in
~ME recei~er and display fitted as an individual unit.
In the first-mentioned caRe, the equipment has a selector knob on or uear th e
iadfdition
MODE'S'- lt performs all the fo~cti
it can be used as data t . t
. . ' ',
d . ons of mode C transpqnder a nd .
display window which is used to 'slave' the bME to a selected VOR. In m an caq ~
· this selectio n of frequency and data display is on the separate unit.
. ransp on er throug~ NC FMS. in
It transmits altitude informati : .. . -· .. In cases this selector all9ws slaving to the no. I VOR or to no .2 OR , ln th l':
selected. . on is steps of2 5 '• M~re than 40tl6 codes can be , ., second case, selection of frequency and data display is on the separat uni L
ifthan Mode 'C' or mode 'S 'of SSR' · ' "'
±300'. f
· , .
'ls ~ot to be us_e d when indication•differs rnore
Purpose: It gives slant range with respect to a ground station
Principle: Random PRF
Codes with Specifu: Meaning: Frequency: 962 MHZ - 1213 MHZ
7~00- Unla~fu:l Interferen~e (~}jack), ~
Ba~d: JJHV
7600- Co~unicatio9 _Fa·ilure ~ v - :. _ . .
77 00- 'Emerg~ncy•on Board J
When a/c eqpt. is tuned on a particular frequency, the interrogator ~ta.rt
2000 ~ No Co.de-Allotted !'Exiting FIR J transmitting in pair of pulses at a PRF of 150 Pulses/ sec wh1r:h i~ r ;i l\ prl
Xl 0000- Tra~~on_der Failure} ✓/ ►

search or scannin g mode.
Ground station replies to each pair of pulse at a nxed delay , ,I 50 µ •w r
. :13en a~ a/c is flyin~ withi~ coverage area of more than one'SSR it may cause .. with a frequency of63 MHZ removed from it to a-,oid sr'f tri ~geru1J!.
~nl.;ereeretnPcRFem o~de. stanon .while replying to other. This is reduced by allotting ► During lock on mode interrogator transmits at changing PRF of 24 to 3!.l
n to a ~acel)t SSR. pulses/ se:c with an average of 27 PPS.
G~LIN~: When r <>:·
mQ..re' a/c are ·operating close to each other, the ► If no response is received during scanning mode, the interrogator
~ay ca_u se !nterference by givmg ovetlapp_ing response. This is removed by
killer circmt. ., , . ; ·
usin; changes over to sfand by mode and transmits i\t 60 PPS (stand b ;) .
► A ground stn. Can reply to maximum of 2700 PPS, 100 aic ca n u. e o ne
stn . at a given time.
,"· Summary:
Range (V) = (C x T) + 2 - Tp ( Tp = Processing Time)

Search mo<le = 150 PPS
Locked on = 27 PPS
Stand -by.·= ,60 PPS
Close to each·ottufi':;(Dfitlinc:e less than 1.7 nm.)
Distance Measuring Equipment (I>'ME): ·, · . · Functions of the DME.in an approach:
When installed with the ILS and specified in the approach procedure . D, 1E
. •DME~Uows you:to determine yout, discimce•:fo;nautital 'miJes from a DME maybe used:
ground station: The 1DME facility' operates in the ultra high frequency (UHF)
band close to 1,000 MHz. • In lieu of the OM,
S07
0
.-\s a back cour se (BC) final approach fix (FAF), and R d oME co-located . · . · ,. · ·
~ .. V0~ -· di~tance or range·eleroent of T~CAN.
/ " 10 c: :tablis!i other fix
lI ·. G1v1·1 ale can use on1y ~ E . ..1 is lost range display remains . fr oz.en rior
J
-
. 'ut,: W/i,;,11 asked how man ;, , . . . ·
bu t m Loe), on ·mode ·c . . JOOY a c c,i.n use ll, a:nswer is 126 (in search rrwde/S/BY mode)
I
1.
C'
Memory ircu1 .: .
't ff the OM s1gn.u •
t enters search mode again. .
ir,hr.\ j.1/.n., ·e. ..../ L tJ ale 'J
·· more thn,n JOO ~, t t h . l I
we ry o ac ieve .oc, - nn , swamping i tO seconds before equipmer. . , . ILS . r de slope eqpt and shows zero for ILS
j DME (ILS):-lt is·collocated.w1th.· ~ l t •and reliable in approach direction
( . . f ILS/ oME 1s correc ,
Swamping: It is a proce -- fb k. h threshold . Indication .q , , rea upto appx. 6000 .
furth est NC . ss o rea ·mgr. e lock oflow powered/ older version/ . ·th it' loc"lizer coverage a ,
on ly. 1.e. wi : ... . . ' · . ·. ns are that range errors indicated
, . CY O:F DME· ICAO spec1 cauo 6 .
SI - Sla ne Range Error: Di.ffierence b etween ground distan . ce 2nd slant ran· ge ACCURA · : (DME) should not exceed:
0 ~~1~ ran ge e~-rors are negligible when ale is·at height less tha1: 1000' per n/m. A by Distance Measur~ng Equipment . ·
• never s ows ze ro. Over a sen it sho-ws heigh t of a/cin nm. . ± 0.25 NM plus 1.25% of the dist~nce measured
. H VOR: VOR .arid DME can be frequency
~ .Ground . Speed·. · By mo 111·con1:g
· t h e rate of· change of r ange, the ai rbon:t;
·
FREQUENCY PAIRING WITd l se.rving rame stn. They ca~ still be
0 ." fE equ ipme nt .1s able to d e termme the aircra ft's groundsp eed. A read-out of b h ollocated an t :iey are · " '
pa~red ?n ly if .ot . _are~ ., . . 1 ·nin ~f 1:/ach other and are serving same stn. 1n
1'. .1)_' . "~'?~~d .cl ~nve d by DM ~ will be reasonably accurate o nly if the aircraft is
1 7
· p aired if they are lo~ated w1th1~ . . :·' .-1· ·-t~r ,'Z' at the end.
u,icl- 111 1:, d. , tc. l} toward s, o r d:rectly a way fro m, the lrauspond er. such case identification code will have et . . . .
· th ·, ,·aerit ' :ire 'associated and are Withm 2000
A DME and VOR to ha-1e e salllC ·l '
feet of each other. ' ·
.... ............·--·...............:•·.................... ,...................................
· ............. , ............................................... ,; ..........:•·····•.··,•."··:•~
Gruun d/ True Range (nms) =v'(Slant/Indlcated Rang~ in nms) 2 -(Height In nms)2

Questio_.s
H ax,mum Range: DME o perates in th e U HF band an d is therefore limited
w JinL· o f sig hL range. Maximum theoretical range may be de termined for an
ai rcraJt a t a given atutude using the by now fam i liar fo rmula: Ql. When an altimeter is U:sed:for. SSR.1it,is·always referenced to:
MaximumRa1,ge (11m) = 1.25 (vilix + vilii) /

a) 1013.25 hPa ·· ,. b) : QFE
kc) Tne-pressure setting in use ·· ·
. . .. .,;. -'' I .
Identity: The DM E transmits its identifier once ever y 30 seconds and the VOR Q2. Mode 'C' or mode •:;• of SSR is not to be used when indication differ more than
c n ·c t:V t' l'}' JO seconds. The third VOR identifier is supp ressed, and is replaced by a) ± 100' b) ±200' c) None of the above
1 it: lJ JV J E ic!entifier. In this even t the two identifier are heard at different tones, to
Q3. NDME receiver .does'not lock,on:to i;.s o.wnJransm_itter because of:
·;,·,a f,/e Ili c pilot to distinguish one from the other.
a) It works on tlfo,princi~le of,random PRF
Ta~tica: :h:. navigation (TACAN): It is a military na vigation aid which gives'
ho tJ1 :mrn wh ancl r,~ :: gc information to a suitable equipped a/c and is similar to b) DME is ~:.-ce frrim ground clutter.
c) Transmitter and receiver are working at different frequency.
509 ·
PART'III RADIO NAVIGATION
RADAR
Q,I. No. of a/c required to saturate DME b ---.....,'.
a) 100 . eacon are
·,. QJ,3. A DME in tracking mode subsequently experiences a reduction in si~nlll
Q.S~ M . b) . 126 . . . c) 127. '•i • strength will switch the equipment In the ftnt Instance to:
ax no of~c that can use.a DME tn
a) 100 • -b)126 s xare . ~{ a) standby mode b) memory mode c) signal contro lled much
°z
'·
Q6. · A a1, · c) ·127 ·Q14. Of what use, If any, is a mllltary TACAN stntion to civil aviation?
. a) c is flying at a helg~t of 20;000 ff over.a DME stn it will show. I-,· a) It is of no use to civil aviation /
ero b) 2.000' · - .
b) It can provide DME distance ✓
I
Q7 G dS ,· ·· ,,. , -
. roun peed indications when usi'
8
. . ·, . . ..c) Appx6kin
.. , :' · c) It can provide~ magnetic bearing
ale is flying ; __ ng DME-will hP._r~liable/ accurate when
a) towards/ away from ground-~tn · · · · . ' . Ql 5. A DME that has difficulty obtaining a ''lock-on":
b) ale ~s ft~ng 900 to ground sii:1 (max e~;) .. (NOTE: PRF::; pulse recurrence frequency, PPS = pnlse per second;
c) ale ts flymg at height less than 1000'..per ii.In ;\,·;: ,'. •l :;;; ~':,~,;ode but ,educes PRF to max, 60PPS aftcr 1500 pu Le pai,s ha.c
QB. An a/cDME shows so · -,, ·. . ,
) 0 .. . n,:n, accuracy of indicated distance ,v:iU be ': ", "','' b) stays in scasch mode but without a reduction in PRF
a .15 run :t0.5 nni b) 0.625·, ~ _:t0.25nm c) 0.5 nm ± c) stays in search mode but reduces PRF to max . 60P1lS after I 00 seco1,d~
Q~. A letter Z ~~ the end_o_fidentificationi.code means: .. ..'.: ., , ' - · Ql 6. A VOR and DME are co-located. You want to identify the DME by listeni ng ''
a) DME and VOR are not co-locat~d b~t ~rvfug same stn and at a dist of more than •~:_· '_}, the Call slgn, Having heard the same call sign 4 time, in 30 se<onds the,
7 run .
_:: -''. ·. a) VOR and DME call signs were the same and broadcast with the same pitch
DME and VOR are co-located·and,are·serving same stn b) DME call sign was not transmitted, the distance information is suffi cient pro"f ,,
D . correct operation
ME and VOR are not co-located, arc sening same stn. are within 7 nm from each
oth er. c) DME call sign is the one with the higher pitch that was broadcast only once
QlO. !n w_hicb situation will speed indications on a airborne Distance Measuring Q17. T he aircraft DME receiver cannot lock on to interrogation signals r efl ected
qmpment (DME) most closely represent the grounrlspeed of an aircraft flying from the ground because:
at FL400? a) DME pulse recurrent rates are varied
a) Wben·overhead the station, with no change o( heading at transit b) aircraft transmitter and DME ground station are translnitted on different frequ,~ .( c~
b) When tracking directly towards':the station·ata range of I00NM or more c) reflections are subject to Doppler frequency shift
/,\ c) When passing abeam the,station and within 5NM ofit Q18. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) operates in the:
· QH. The time taken:for.the transmission·of:an interrogation pulse by a Distance ~{ UHF band and is a secondary radar system
, M..easurf.ng Equipment (DME) to travel.to the ground transponder and return b) SHF band and uses frequency modulation techniques
· to the airborne receiver was 2000micro-second. The slant range from the c) UHF band and is a primary radar system
ground transponder was: . ,. . ·
Q19. The DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) operates "i thi.n the following
a) 186NM · b) 296NM c) 165NM
frequencies: /
Q1Z. What u the ~aximum dis~nce between-VORand DME/TACAN ground j?
V
a) 329 to 335MHz 962 to l213MRz c) %2 to l213k1-l z
lnltlllallons if they are to have,ame,morse codeid~
a) 2000m b) 300m
510 SIi
'°2 · On .i DME d" RADAR
. ' IS·play counters rotatin t - - - ·•'' h~ : :.~.---------------~.;;;;;_-'----------------
~) aubome e-quipmenl c.a1'lure g hro_ughout their range i11d1'cates,• ,,... ir ~
-
0
•lie airbome · ". . · . ·,_·>~.- -~,'."·"''28. A'.n aircraft DMF~ receiver rejects pulses meant for- other a craa'-be.causc:
I:)th • airborne rec . . ts conducti ng a· frequency search
equipment ..:. . t~ . : a) the random PRF is unique to each aircraft. '
f")2 1 A DME · eiver is conducting a range search ,,~ '_:,.-. b) the transmission and reply frequencies are 63 MHz apart
~ · ·l ::; , '' I a .s tation
f is located lO0Oft a b ove MSL A · . c) the pulses are'wuqlie to each aircraft.·
21
w ay rom the DMF, statio n, w1. have a nDME
- · l -i M
1
•n
rcraft ·
flyingof·at FL370'
reading -! . · au_to_ma_tic stand_by "".tll ac_tivate the DME in_t~rrogator when:
QZ9. The DME
t.)22. A.DME is located ,i\"S b) _I6NM c) ISNM · _.,( I a) therearetoomanyaircraftintheareaforittoservice. d
• at ,Ya L. An aircraft . b) a VORfiequency that has .a frequency paire.~ DME is selecte ·
wll ob tain a Di\,JE range of ap proximately:
DJ NM
• .passing vertically the station at FL360 . :!i . c) the DME ident signal is received.
6
23 b) 8NM ·1· Q30. Airborne DME equipment is ·able to discriminate between pulses intenrled for
Q · fDuriug a flight at FL 2JO , a p ii ot does not rece· D 7NM
c) ., ··. · it self and pulses hi.tended fo.r other aircraft because:
rom a DME station located approx.Im t I ive any ME distance indication '"':-,!tf. · a) • aircraft w,ill only acc~pJ,~ique ~iri:pulses.
thar th e: , a .e y 220NM away. The reason "or tl11·s . i-t I
., • b) aircraft reject pulses not synchronised ~th its own random pu se recurrence rate.
~; Aero plane !s circling around the station . j '· c) each aircraft has its.own frequency alloqation. • ·
Aero plane
d is below the. "line of sight" altitude J- Q31. An air~~aft flying at ftjghtlevel 250 wishes _to interrogate a DME beacon
Q CJ Alti tu e is too high _;{ situated 400 ft above meail-sea·lev.el •.What is•t~e muimum range likely to be
For l l conventional nm facility "B '-1~ achieved?
numhcr of simultaneous ,·nterrogati eaco.n Saturation" wiU occur whenever the ) 210 b,\ 198 ) 222
u)
60 _ ons exceeds: a nm. 1, , nm_. ,,,. .c ., nm.
25 b) 200 c) 100 Q32. What is the slant range error f~r an aircraft-flying at 9000.feet absolute
0 - W hich of the following w'll • . altitude above a DME located-at elevation 2000 ft, wb~n the slant range is 12
l{l"Ound speed? I give the most accurate calculation of aircraft NM? .
.i J A DtvlE station sired on the flight route a) 1.42 NM. b) 0:31 NM. ~) 0.09 NM.
b) A '✓ OR station sited on the flight route Q33. The range indicated by DME is considered to be accurate t~ withiu: ·
1
c) DME station siled across the flight route a) 0.2 run. , . b) 3% oirnnge. ~) 1.25 % of 1~nge ± 025nm.
0
(; 2(, \11 ifrcraft wHJ t Q34. An aircraft receives a reply pulse from a DME 1iot1 µ sec after transmissiou of
• rom •tJie ·ground,:cc::cs?:h:~pJies from its own transmissions th at are reflected the interrogation pulse. The .DME has ll fixed delay of SO microsec) 1'he
,1 ) t 1i c a,rcrnfl:'s
· registration is embedded onto the signal. range of the aircraft fr90,. the DME station ls:
bJ r u! ·e11 are <nu,smitted in pairs. · a) 4 5 run b) 75 rim c) 93 nm
cj IIllerrogation and reply frequencies are 63 Mhz apart. QJS. DME arid VOR are fr~tiency paired be~ause: '
'Yi. 7. I ! a n i<J ent •igoaJ 1 . J • a) cockpitworkloadisreduce<l · ·
nd
D 1E, then;· s receivec once m JO seco s on a frequency paJr~d YORI b) both ground trapsmitter aerials can be placed on the_same site ifrequired.
aj che VOR only is operational. c) the same receiver can be used for both aids.
b) th e TACAN signal is degraded.
e) lhc DME only is operational.
512
' PART Ill RADIO''NAX!GATION
Q36. A DME_feteiver.is ·abl~to·dfstingulsh between.replies to lts 'oWDtlnterrogatfon GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS)
p~ies and those Intended for other,,alrcraft us.ng tbe:same ~antiponder
because: , ,... ~ , ..·, , , Q42. .A VOR/DME. share th e same. first two letters of their respective identifiers: the
n that·
last identifying letter of the DME is ,• z. This mea 5 •
a) DME is a secondary radar and eacli aircraft transmits and receives on a different
frequency, , C '< 0 ' , ', ,
a) they are a maximum distance of30m apart .
b) ·wheri DME'is in tfie
~ge s'ea~chhioci~ it ~ll'accept only pillsesseparated by + · b) they are more than 600m apart but ,serve the same locat10~.
or ~ 63 MHz fro~ tlte'tffiteriogation frequency. · .·: ~ ' ; · ·. c) they are widely separated and do not serve the sa~ e location.
c) each a.4'cr:aft transmiis piils~ · afaran'dom.:rnfe"(iittefingfaiid will-Onty·accept'replies , .k ·· b ons to provide range to the
that match tbis randomtsation. :, -~ , . : 'Q43. When a DME ls used instead of mar he:re ~:: DME frequency is paired with
nd
, threshold on an ILS a~proach a w t b d at altitudes great er than :
Q37. Ref~mngto .DME durin'g,the initial-ist,a ge o'£.the;search:gattern before lock-on: the ILS, the DME indications should no e ':1se
. .. ·a).. ' 25.000ft
-·, . ·· · , b) 6000
, ft
· c) 3 000ft.
. a) the airborne transmitter'tnmsmits l':50,pulses'each sec'i>hd. ' ·~ 1
b) ' 'the..aircrafrtransmits 24 pulses per's~cdrla'and 'tlfe,r~ceivertchecks-a maxirnutifof , Q44: 1f;~( VOR station and~ DME .stati~.n, a ng · e locations, are selected to
1 . . . ·. , . , . , , h . vi dirt: rent
150 puls.es,~r-:second.:.-. ... · " ,,.. , ,H., .? ,•; ;. 1, 'provld~1a, Ox: , · . _ ·
c) the ground receiver maintains,the.grotind•transmitter pulse trahsmlssi01t rate at,no 7~) .fill·l;answers;below:are correct. ·.
~ ~ore than ,l~O·per, s~wt ' , ,; ' ,,~ : I ' ' '{ ..·b), ~odiffereiit-ifls'"\Vill,liave to,be'ch~cked. .
Q38. ; DME ·1~.~ fo ;ad~r;o~~~attn1;i~:ttie (il}'baitd and·tr~ nsmits (iii). · : ':,, · c) two sets, with separate frequency control; are required in the aircraft. .
. a) (i) secondary; '(ii)' UHF;·(iii). p~-lsc pairs ·:Q 45. The airborne DME eq~!pment will transmit pulse pairs at a comparatively
b) (i)·secondaty;:(ii) SHF; (iii) 2400-pulse'paitii ·pef second liighPRF: ·
c) ·(i),primary; (ii)'SHF;.(iil) GW,pulses .. ···. · a) At all times, except when the panel control LO is _operated.
Q39/ Th.e ilcht~ii~y 'ofi DNIE: · ~. <i:t, · b) When first switched on and after a ch~el selection. .
c) Whenever a stable signal is being received from the selected ground station.
a) is app~oxiinatl:lfy +- i'riin;
b) is approx~at; l/ +- < fS'nrrt
c) decFe~i¥ith''in~&ef%~of~g~:•· ,, .
Q40~ 'Fh~;O;) ·ff~~·J~ai~c~a~ k~
i 1~.:~fi;~g~ ~i~~lays indicate:
Answers
a) "any ~f the be'fo~; B o(G;;·,, ,.., , _. . Q: 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 l ~· \9 2()

bf the DME is,d.ff. · .·, ' - · ,,.. '
A: a C C a b C a b C b b b a b l,
. c) DME is tu~~Jo ~e:wrong freq~e~CY;.·•
Q4t. Ground~peed measu,:e~~nt usJ~~}?~ ~9~ip~e,,a,,t ls,~ost , ccur~te flying:
a) towards.the station_:at s~9rt,range.
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 38 39
b) past.the sJatjop;af ~hQJ1 range.
.~ ="l,:.'...,.. ·
, , ·i ,; ,..' r,,1. :.,_t '-'-:r-;'4
c) from ,the station at long range. ,. , A: b a b a C C a b b C C C C a
,, .
Q: 41 42 1.43 44 _I 45 j
A: C b b a Ib j
· 514 '
SIS
,GLOBAL NAVIGAI IUl't ~'"'' ---·. - -
► SatelliteJ1,broadcas.t their, positions to GPS ~sers.. '

4
► ModeLof Earth used for . GPS is WGSB .
Chapter
>~: ·_"'i'
i. •.
~- ··
:, GPS Receiver (User Segment)
► GPS ·
. ·. . .
' d tifiie·s a gi'ven satellite by matchmg the (umque) code
receiver 1 _en . ,
9
. _j _ ·\.: .
from that satellite.
, '!' :· · ,
: ·,:i-::i .~,-: · ► · d 00.- the ·code·givessatellite po·sition (ephemeTis) and
·:.,{ '"'·· 0 ata superimpose · . .
}'{, -i:. ·.. GPS system time at which ~the signal was emitte~- ' . . .
·: ,':_.· _r(<•·-:
,,.,;i~ • •
► .
.
R · , ·h . 1 ,. andjt·cakulates ,how;much ume 1t took the signal to
ece1ver. a~ -a .c 9c.... . , . . 1 . . ..
:?h-'· • travelft oni the satellite to receive~- · . '' .
:~:- _':,"· Gl.OBAL NAVIGATION
'-?-'" ·
►,
· •
~:,r-4 ·,:r., The .spe;d of light-is 3x10 8 m/second; and "the distance from.satellite to
: receiver is computed. ·: ',, >· · _.- ... '· '.:~ · ' . .
►
]t§ JlT~L~JJE SY~Tl;t\llS, (§NS,S) : - ►
Gorrectiohs are made clue to sl~wirig dowri'?rsigrial thrm,1gh atmosp~e1·e.
U~ing 4
the ~o~~uted j'di~,t:a,,I)Cei 'to' -~~t~Wf~s;,t ~~ ~~~eiver ' c?.m p 1~es its
3-dimensiohal' position by matliemaucal trtangulatton.
. Two sa telli te Assisted Nav Systems (SATNA . . .
Glc,ba l Posltioning Sys.tern (GPS)
Sattelite System (GLONASS)
db V) are cun en~y- operating, 1e,
O\dvnbe c Y USA ari:d Glo?al Orb1tmg Navigation
. PJ:inc~ple: 'Th; .~e~eiv~~
g~J;S ~OU:r!A p_osip,o n: ~y ·~easuring simultaneous
owne Y LOrmer Soviet Urnon . distance ranges ·from satelhtes. .
Frequency: The satellite transmit Pseudo rari?om n~ise ; t ode ?f l milli sec
' duration on frequencies in VHF ~and . Each satellite has its own wuque code.
LI frequency-(1575.42 ·Mllz\ ·t ~ansmit; co{lrse acq~isition code repeated
every millisecond. The precision c9de is ll)odulated with frequency ofl0.23 MHz
and is repeated ev.ery. 7 9-ays·. ·
L2 frequency_ (12217 .6 MHz): Trans~its-P code. The 'P code may be encrypted
to prevent unauthor ised use. In such case ,iJ is ! .e ferred as Y code.
To give good c~verage to ~9~-~ r~cei_vers anywhere -~m. ~arth, there ar e always
at least 24 satellites (or Space Vehicles, SV 1s; as they are often referred to) in orbit.
The GPS Satellite Constellation: Of these, three ·are spares; ,Four- SV,'s1.tr-avel· in ·each·•of six orbits;,each inclined
at 55° to the equator: so that -four. :or imore ·of the SV's \are at all ti.mes visible
► 24 Satellites in nearl y circular orbits around Earth. from any point on th,e sµrf~ce _of.the earth. In addition to the atomic clocks and1
► 6 orbital planes. the communications equipment each ~at~Uite also contains fuel for its s;na\
► 4_satellit~s in each orbital plane 20,200 km altitudes (abou t Ear th radii). maneuvering engines, givin~ it a limited capability of orbit adjustment.
CPS orbJts 1200 kms above g1owass
Orbita l periods a re 11 hours 58 minutes. WORKING: '
~ach satel~i te ~arries 4 atomic clocks, one op erational and three spares. (1} 21 - Operational Satellites
Constellat10n 1s design ed so tha t at least 4 or 5 satellites are i'n view from ,3 - Spare Satellites·
an y where on Earth . · 24 -Total number-of satellites''
5!6
PART Ill RADIO NAVIGATolON .
--------------- GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS)
-~~
~RBIT a~ a heigh~ of20,200 km in 6 orbits mutually inclined at 550_ traveled (shown by the arrows), since each signal travels at the speed of~ghr ,
(2) The infor~auon ~ontained in P, ,R, N codes is following: 3x10s m /second. You can then draw a sphere centered a.t each clock with a
a) Satellite position radius equal to the distance traveled from that dock.
b) Clock time.
' -. The intersection of the two spheres is a circle. You r position is somewhere on
c) Clock error.
this circle.
d) Inforrnatio,n on ionosphe~c -condition. -. We need a third satellite, to resolve the ambiguity in position along the cfrde .
. e) Supplementary_inf6rmation. : · . _
• Adding the simultaneous reception of signals from a third satellite C , .i nrl •
(3) The angles· as received at •th • , .
called Pseudo r·a· . . . ,· e_,receiver are not accurate and therefore another sphere centered at C.
nges: . , , ,
· Pseudo Ranges: The rec ·
time, howeve; the accurac -~;:r h ' . ·. · ·
as an accurate_,~rystal oscillator to provide
'··Ii:''" ~ The. intersection of'the circle (shown in dark) with the sphere centered at
;;, ' gives our probable position as two points, shown as P1 and P2.
computation of ran ~ f i.
dock therefore will'.' alwa s, _s not :~o~p~r~ with . the accuracy ~f satellite
~ an, error;m tJ~~-m~asurement· and ,hence in the -. Finally, the simultaneous reception of a fourth satellite (not shown~ ~ es
error by sma'II fact~~ ~o ~~~~ :orethtbe recei,~er dock is deliberately . kept in
another sphere, which resolves the ambiguity in position between pomts Pl
direction. re at e ~qrrec9,o n pr~ces~ ca~ qnly go in one and P2.
l Satellite - Position in space.
If the receiver clock is perma tl 1 'Ui f; ·
be out by 162 Th . £ · .~en Y . mi sec ast the.receiver accuracy will 2 Satellite -Ambiguous position on earth surface.
nm. ere ore rec~1ver _must correct for.error in pseudo ranges.
3 Satellite - Ambiguous position in space
D~termin.ing User Position:
4 Satellite - Fix in space
5 Satellite - RAIM (Remote Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
Max number of satellites can be seen at a time is 5.
RAIM ( Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring):

► GPS receivers for critical applications, such as IFR flight , have RAJ}.1
algorithms that check integrity of GPS d~ta.
► Integrity -- The ability of a system to provide timely warnin g to u ·er
when the system should not be used for navigation.
Consfder two satelllte docki, fa be led A and B, that are located at > To perform the RAIM function, at least one extra satellite , in addition to
kriown'posftlons and are.synchronized. the ones used for navigation, must be tracked by the receiver
• Assume that you (the ·use·rj are located s~mewhere between docks A and B ► RAIM algorithms need a minimum of 5 satellites, 4 for position
and that you· ha~e a clock ih:~t is synthrqnizeiwith clocks A and B ' determination plus one extra
• Assume tha~ you simultaneously receiv~ radi~ ~i~als fro~ clocks A and B, ·► Alternative R:AIM scheme: 4 satellites p lus baro-aiding prov1d ed b .
and th~se signals tell you the . time at which the signals left clocks A and B, barometer -- the. altimeter setting must be entered manua\\)'
respectively. > Some receivers are capable of isolating which satellite signal is corrup t
• Usjn~ the known time of arrival of the signals at your ·position,- and the time and can remove it from the position solution . These r eceive rs need 6
the stgnals. left each clock, you can figure . out the distance that each signal satellites, or 5 satellites plus baro-aidi.ng.
S19
GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE S"t'STEMS ~N-

. . ·ch
civilians, -FM. and -other civilian o~nizati9ns.
\ · ·rt.bout RA.IM. ca pa bT
1 uy, the pilot has no assurance of accuracy of GPS position
Available ~o,all users, .su ~ - ·. . • f , ·ii'on' 95 % of the time 300
as
l 00 meters honzonta post '
ER...9t.OR'liOFGPS: Positi~ning Acc~cy:
99
o/o of the time , r , . .. • · , •
9
meters horizontal position, · 9 . . CA an·d· p:code (Precise Code, or
1) Ephemeris Error: Th
The position of sateffe error is · ca~sed due to incorrect . satellite position.
· · s 1cc usmg · ,
PPS - ?recise P<;>siti9~mg_ erv .t ··u · S~ tiep~e~t qf Defense and other
moon and ~Ia Th1te may be shifted by the gravitational effect of sun 0 1
Yacode (encryp~ed)). Only a~a•~abl~ "··, ;_, .~ • , , • • •
. r nets. e maximum error permissible is 2.5 m. '
Authorized Users .. :. , ho;~~ta\ position·, 98 % of the time. ·
2) Satelhte
nano secClock
Th Error· I s~te11'tte· h as 4 .atom1c'clocks
Ir . Each . . accuracy of one· ..
with Positioning Accura~-y:: ·16 ~eters . , .· . , . , ';, . . · . ·
satellite~ incfu:::~ i :;eo~~~:J~:~ktf e~~~y
12
hrs. _a1:bd .~y er~o.r past 2
. . axun~m1,perm1ss1 le 1s 1.5 m. '~ .A d~antages/ Di~~~va,n t9:~es
~ ~
3) l~n~spher1 c Propag~tioo Error / Ion9§pheric Grou Dela : Tl;iis is mos
• ;. > .' • <.,"'- • t { .I _' • , ! ' •
significant error of any sate~l_ite ·n,a~igation syJ~~fu. ldift~~.:nt f1:equende!

a_re used to find and redµce 1on:o~pheric group ·delay. Maximum error for A"dvant~ges: , . ' ... 1~ ·a . at all ·opera~ng sp~eds and altitudes
smgle frequency operation is 5m. · . l) Capable of use wor .. w1 e . .
2) Highly.accurate · , · . · .,:' · /', · · · ' ·: · ·
4) Troposphere Group Delay: Maximum permissible is 0.3 rn .
3) Avai.l able throµgh0.,ut the 21,ho~~s ~ith no d~~uon of ac~uracy
5) Mui~ Path Receptioµ: ~eflection from ground and parts of NC result in · · 'd h .Jun·ensional pos1uomng,on a contmuous basis
rnulti~ath reception. This can be minimised by carefully selecting a position 4) Prov1 est ree-u _ . ·. . , , · _,
ofaenal. · 5) Unrestricted range
ti) GD~P: <?eometric Dilution of Position: Caus~d due to poo r cuts between 6) Entirely space-based· . . 1
._ _ .
1
pos:uon Imes. GDOP occurs when satellites are doser to each other. 7) coupled with inertial navigat~on, ~J~tems/ 'c an make, terrestnal-based aids
7) Vertical Position: _The altitude ~bove the WGS-84 ellipsoid can be different such as NDBs, VORs, DMEs,~etc.; redundant ·-- ,·. ,
from_ the MS~ altitude on the aircraft altjmete1: by hundreds of feet. This is 8) When GPS/GLONASS ,development.- is1complete·~d all satellites available,
. a serious cons1deratioh during instrument approaches. Use your altimeter! the accuracy of GNSS will, ~n~p}e ._aµ:c_ratt s~.R~tion~ to Q~ red:uced
Ty pically, GI S vert;caJ position is less accurate than GPS horizontal position. 9) GNSS when perfected will'be able to supplant MLS and I~ as a pr:ecision
OGP_S (Differential GPS): This basic idea q,f .differential GPS is use.cl in r approach '.1id .. . __ . _ .
WAAS(W1de area augmentation system) and 1AAS(Local area augmentation -vi}' l 0) For light aircraft, there are lightweight,, re\ativ-~ly ine~pensive and portable
system), and ail other augmentation schemes. WAAS provides en route navigation models available. "· ...1 • •• • ,
plus Category 1-typ~ approacl,es for most airpor~"'.' b

LAAS provides navigation capability in areas where WAAS is not available Di.sadilantages :
1) to use;
:•Basically it, is ,a:.militai;yr;systenC which civil .· airer.aft: are allowed
plus Category II/Ill approaches and landings at selected locations .
cur~,eppy-th~ l.l~.~i~g~~~ f tsu~:ro:v~t\i!1.~,:Yp~ ~o civil users free of . charge
The aircraft receives the · GPS signals as v.:ell as the broadcast corrections and simi~ar)y Jhe ~IS'h prp:vidi~g 'G_LQNASS.free.
from the GPS receiver station, improving-availability and integrity of the stand- 2) As a m1l\tary sy,s!~xi); thie?gsti~g'. c;;~s~ lll~Y ·c on~eivably be interrupted if a
alone CPS system position . . serious' ~ilita.ry 'iieed 'cfe\ielops'.'"'';; ',, · . · . · · ,' · ·
The a~cu:acy of C?PS is impr9ved by comparing the true position and position 3) The ·syste~. althbu'gh 'it!.'. h.as <;evolved · rapidly, sti\l technically under is
shown ?YGPS. The difference would be same in the given area. This difference is
developmel}t
transmmed to user to improve accuracy.
4) Not as accurate in the.dvµ \mode as~it:isin the .milita~y mode (by deliberate
Services: The 2 services prnvided by GPS are policy) •• · \ , · '
SPS - Standard Positioning Service using CA (Course Acquisition) code. 5) Prest?~t. ~Y,~t~m ~a.nn~tJ~'1~1a~~e~_' .t he ,_pilot .wi~h i~m~diate \ndication of
520
GLOBAL NAVIGAT\ON SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS)
PART 111 •1\ADlO NAV\GATION The G\>S transmission {reque~ can be. use.d by civil aircraft\, :
QS ,
a) 157S.42MHzinthelrb~
satellite malfunction or GNSS degradation; this makes it cur.r ently unsuitable
as an approach ~d fyr high cat~gory landit:i,gs., b) 2227 .5 MHz in the S-band
c) 1227 .6.SMHz in the L-band.
Latest developments - Q . The US DoD de.grades GPS accuracy:
'There 1s ah inter~a:tional <iisagreement on the use of MLS and nans 6
fut l d. 'd E · · , . . r as a a) to protect US national security
ure an mg at . · uropc ~vb nhhe continu·ed use ofMLS' until DGPS has the
same CAT3 performance ability. America wishes to phase out MLS and concentrate b) to protect the DoD copyright . t d r mi il a ,
on the develop~ent of DGP.~ t<>!the •Same··GAT3 ~capabilities ·and integrity. This c) to prevent l00¾ reHance on n system which may have to be mterrul)
they hope to achieve sooner than Europ~ deem possible (2015)1 purposes at a moment's notice. . .
U~doubte~ly DGPS ·~~~~ide tlye final answer. Meanwhile ICAO is'"il · 'fhe accurac.y of range measurement of sate\\ite to GPS recei-vc, ,s:
approvmg both systems and a multi-mode receiver (MMR) for their receptio~. a) seriously red\1ced during periods of sunspot activity . .
b) serio-us\y eroded during periods of anomalous propagatio~ in an,mver~\on .
.. ,., ............... ..... , .........................-.- ...· ...·...• .. - ............

_ . . ......... . . ............ ................ ... ......:... .................:..................
_ , , : :
c) derived. from accurate ti.mepieces in the satellite and the aircraft s GP~ recc\Ver .
Satellites used in GNSS, orbit tbe earth:

:·
1
·Qu'estions a) once in twelve hours
b) once in eight hours
c) once in 24 hours .
Ql. Position fi$g by s_a~~lll~e ls bY. means of:
Satellite geometry error is greatestwben!
a) simultaneous b~gs fro~ a number o.h at~llites
a) sate\\ites are closest together
b) range and,bearing..from,each kno~·sa~ellite's position
b) satellites are spaced well apart
C) simultaneous 'riuiges' from' a-nuniber'of'satellites.
c) satellites are nearest the horizon.
.Q2. TheDGPS is: ', Q10. It may be claimed tbat GNSS has tbe advantage over other air navigation
a) ie time__~ifference ~~en t!i,e ~nsmission of the satellite's 'coded signal and the
t1me·thafit is received 'at:tlie aircraft.,. . . . . systems \n tbat it:
a) i.s basically a military-based system made available to civil users wi..th so\a -
b)" the time difference betw~en the satellite and the aircraft GPS unit transmitting the powered satellites which have an infinite \i.fe
same code point on the signal
b) has no possible i.n\')ut by the pi\ot
c) · the'correction.applied to the 'raw' OPS position. to obtain a more precise position.
c) is entirely space-based.
Q3. The reason that tlie s_a~llltes of GPS and GLONASS do not collide is:
Q11. NAVSTAR/GPS operates in tbe ........ band and the receiver determines
a) the OPS ?rbitis at ?5° to the equator~hile the·OLONASS is at 60°
position h'y•.....•......
b)' the,GP~"s~tellite o~bits km higb.er'than the OLONASS orbits ~'tioo a) UHF, range position line
c) 01.,0NA~Si~ o~y,~e.o~bita!;PJlllles i11ne pPS has s\x orbital planes.
b) UHF, secondary radar principles
Q4. The GPS can: c) SHF, secondary radar principles
'a) -,pr_
ovidetw<Hiimension 'ahd'tht:ee~merision positions·
b) ~nly pro~de position in latitude and longitude
c) •indicate f-wo!.dimensio~ positions or position lines in the horizontal plane.
51l
·,s22
--------------...;;;...~~...;...;.,;_.;.._~----------~-
PART HI RADIO NAVIGATION .·: ,.
Q12, The orbital height and inclination-of the NAVSTAR/GPS 'constellation are: . < ; ,. '
a) 20180 km, 65° b) 20180 km, 55° c) 19099 km, 65°
-..· ·,, •, . , ...
Ql3. The model of the earth used fo.r NAVSTAR/GPS is: >
a) WGS90 b) PZ90 c) WGS84

~ 14. The minimum number of satellites required for a 3D fix is: ·
a) 3 b) 4 c) 5
.A
Ql5. The NAVSTAR/GPS operational constellation comprises ......... satelJi~es ,.-j .
a) 12 b) 21 c) 24
(.
·1
. . nswers
Q: 1 ,.
()
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14· 15 '.'.~,: ) :.:=
A: C C b a a a C a a C a b C b
....,
C
·:, ·:"
\: .. J.:··
;, ,'•
. '' .'
Gyro rigiditf increases with?

..;.... ass close to the center.
a) Increasing RPM, and concentraw•g m .
b) Increasing RPM and concentrating mass at the penpbery.
c) Decreasing RPM and radius.
At what approximate date is the earth closest to the sun (pe~ih_elion)?
Q2. 1
b) 21 September. c) Begrn"'ing of Januaf)
a) 21 March . _
Q3. Convergence is:
a) the angle of inclination ·of meridians towards each other. _
b) the angle at which a meridian cuts the equator.
c) the angle of inclination of one parallel of latitude with -another.
Q4 The initial great circle track from A (S 27° 30' E 017° 45') to B (S 27° 30· E
029° 15') ls:
a) 092.65° b) 088.34° c) 091 .61 °
~s_J Consider t_he following statements o:n sunrise and sunset.
a) in May sunrise occurs later at 4500N than,at 4500S.
b) in November sunset occurs earlier at 4500S than at 4500N.
c) at equator sunrise and sunset occur_at quite regular times throughout the year.
,,. Q6. When approaching the in~ernaµonal date line _from the east, y ou:
'
_,
a) should increase your date by an extra date at the first midnight you experience.
b) should be prepared to decrease your date by l .
c) should be prepared to increase your date by l .
531
PART IV SAMPLE PAPER.S ·- SAMPLE PAPER I . -
Q7~ When ,dagncdc direction is 2700 ·· d.. ·wtten't6e ltMl ro1e·u·1tuck at 075
a) 5 o \V, ao d true direction fs 265°, the variation is Ql 8. Ir the ADF pointer Indicates l7_0 egree, ·.
eSl b) 5° Enst degrees, what ts the relative bearing of th e beacon? ·
c) 5° West in N.Hcmisphere.
Q8. Zer'l variation occurs only at a) 290 degrees, b) 110 degrees. C.) 195 degrees.
I h diJlg In the southern hemisphere, the
aJ Eyuator b) p 0 1 QJ9. When an aircraft lands on a suutber Y . ea
. es c) could occur anywhere
DRMC wlll lndlcatc? .
Q9 . T he atrcraft radio equipm t hi .
· en w ch emits on a frequency of 4400MHz is the: a) 180 degree tum to the west.
a) wea ther radar b) .
pnmnry rndnr c) radio altimeter b) 180 degree turn to,~e east ,
Q 10. The rhumb-Une dist 81 b
. · . We etween points A (60°00'N002°30'E) and B c) No·apparent tum. .
(60°00'N007°30'W)'is: . ·
QZO. Which one of the follo~lng, concerning gre,a t circle on a direct Mercator chart,
a) 600nm
. b) 450nm c) 300nm
is correct?
Qll . ; ~
4
~;~~~O~~~~he following rhumb line tracks and distance from position a) With the exception of meridians and the equator, they are curves concave to the
1
W: 700 NM South, then 700 NM East. Then 700 NM North equator.
the11 700 M West. The final position of the aircraft is? '
b) Their center cannot be that of the Earth.
a) 04° OO 'N 030° 30'W. b) 03° 58'N 030° 02 ' W. c) 04° 00 '1'1' 029° 55'W. c) They are represented by straight lines.
Q 12. An airci:afl at position 60° N 005° W tracks 090° (T) for 350 km. ~n . Q21. Which one onhe following statements .I, c~rrect c.o.nceming the app~ance
completwn of the flight the longitude will be? of great circle, with the excepdon of"meridJans, on a polar stereogr_r.phic chart
a) 002° IO'W. b) ooou IS'E. c) 001° I9 'E. whose tangency•is,at the poJe? ·
Ql3. The circumference of tte Earth is approximately? a) The ~gher the latitude.the closer they a_pproxiniate to a straight line.
a) 5,600 Km. b) 13,200 Km. c) 40,000 Km. b) The lower the latitude the closer they approximate to a straight line.
v14. Au ain:ruft is over positio., PONTA ( 55° 30'N 060° IS ' W), whe.rc PBN VOR c) Th~y ore all rcpresentP.d by straight lines.
.SJ " JU'N 060° IS ' W) c.10 :>e received. The magnetic variution is 31 ° Wat Q22 Distance 'Q' to 'R' 1970 NM, Groundspeed 'out' 436 kt, Groundspeed 'back'
Pl NTA and 2d 0 \V at PBN. What is the radial from PBN ? 485 kt. Safe endurance 9 HR. The distance from 'Q' to the Pofat of Safe .
:1) OJ Jll b)332°. c)O28°. Return (PSR) betwee~ 'Q' and 'R' is?
a) 1964 MIN. b) 2079 MIN. c) 2066 MIN.
(JJ 5. Distance 'Q' to 'R' 1960 NM, Groundspeed ' out' 380 kt, Groundspecd ' back'
470 kt, Safe ·endurance 7 HR. The distance from ' Q' to the Point of Safe Q23. True course frQ~-~ to B =:= 090°, TAS 460 kts, WN = 360/100 kt, Avenge
Return (PSR) between ' Q' and ' R' is? · variation= 10°E, Deviation = -2°. Calculate the compass heading and GS?
a) 1471 NM. b) 1442 NM. c) 1538 NM, a) 069°-448kt. b) 067°-446kt ·c) 069°-458\ct.
Q 16. What is the strength of the .H component oflbe ·earth's magnetic field (in Q24. What is theJr~t: alptude of an aircraft if its altimeter indicated 16000 ft when
micrn teslas) at the magnetic North pole? the ambient temperature was -30_° C?
a) 0. b) 10. c) 16. a) 15200 ,_ft. b) 16200 ft. c) 16400ft.
QJ 7. A direct reading magnetic compass will be affected by? Q25. If pressure altitude is 30000 ft, indicated TAT is. -10, macb number is 0.8~
1. Adjacent electrical equ!pment 2.' Ferrous metals. wh~t ,is t~e densi,ty altitude?
3. Non-ferrous metals. a) 31000ft. b) 30472ft. c) 30674ft.
a) J, 2. b) 1, J;· c) 1, 4.- Q26. When descending through an isothermal layer at constant CAS'?
a) TAS increases. b) TAS decreases. c) TAS remains constant.
532 533
PART rv ·SAMPLE PAPERS .
·QfQ. A~udi:onJnatnpeechfaircra .. . • - . . ~ SAMPLE PAPER I
lddicate: • .; . . ti wOI cause an air driven·artificial h'-, :· · . -
- : . . . onzon to Q47. If an aircraft is equipped with one altimeter which is compensated for position
a) a climbing tum to the-right' . -
b) . a pitch lip' . · - error and another altimeter which is not, and all other factors being equ al?
a) At high speed the non-compensated altimeter will indicate a lower altitude.
c) a descending tum to the left .. :· ~
'. . ,. ..;: ~ ) ' ~ b) At high speed, the non-compensated altimeter will indicate a higher altitude.
Q41. While ·<:3rrylng 'out a ·turn at m·a e . -: -. - - . : _· - . ,. . , c) ATC will get an erroneous altitude report SSR.
~a) no ~ing dror , ~· . gn ti~-equ:tor witti ~RC, there-will be:
· Q48. After an aircraft has passed through a volcanic cloud which has blocked th e
b) a tenden~y to over reid the tum
. thr gh
" .• - ~ , . , -" - total pressure probe inlet ofthe airspeed indicator, the pilot begins a stabiUzcd
ou North & d · · · ·
c) a ten~e~cy to under read all :dt . - . .. ~ er repd the tum through South
' -u r n s descent and finds that the indicated airspeed?
. •·· .
Q42. Du11ng:a.o I.~ fllght,TA~ and tune a u~ to hqu1d swirl ·
a) Increases steadily. b) Decreases abruptly towards zero.
fffght plaq. The,m~nimu"'io deviation ppear to de~i~~ from the data in the c) Decrec1ses steadily
to conform to PANS-RAC, are: ' s, ~b~t sbou~d be ~eported to ATC in order
Q49. What happens to mach meter indication in a constant RAS climb?
a) TAS 10kt and tifu~ 2 m~utes
a) Decreases b) Increases.
b) TAS 5% and time,3 niin~tes - c) Increases then ~emains constant
c) TAS 3% and time 3 minutes
QSO. The hysteresis error of an altimeter varies substantially with the?
Q43. Magnetic head.i~g 3lJ~o, Drift angle.ioo·iett, Relative beari f ND
-_ a) Time passed at a given altitude.
What f · th · · · · , ~- , • ng o B 270°
s e magnetic bearing :Of the:NDB b) Mach number of the aircraft
a) 221 o measured.from the aircraft?
, . ; ,. , ' b) ?08
O
,. C) 2110 c) Aircraft altitude.
Q44. Which white EFis ·symbol below represenn t.h e ai~cr~ft? Q51. When flying from a sector of warm air into one of colder air, the altim eter
a)~ . ·:
Q4s. What 1s the effect on the M h' · b
b)6 .
c)Q
will?
a) Over read _ b) Be just as correct as before.
wJth constant CAS? . ac num er and TAS fn an aircraft that is cllmbJng c) Show the actual height above ground.
Q52. What ls QNH?
a) Mach number decreases; TAS decreases
,a) Ambient pressure at msl.
b) Mach number increases; TAS remains constant
b) The pressure to be set on the altimeter subscale to obtain an indication of zero on
c) Mach number'increases; TAS:increases- the runway.
Q46~ In case .of accldenta! ~losing of'a,i•i.trcraft's left static pressure port c) The pressure to be set on the altimeter subsca\e to obtain a reading of the pressure
(rain, birds), the altinietei? · · · altitude of the nmway.
a) ?ver rea~ the ~ltitude in case of a side-slip to the right and displays the correct Q53. During the approach, a crew reads on the radio altimeter the value of 650 ft.
infonnahon dunng ~ymmetric flight. _ this is an indication of the true.
b) Keeps on providing reliable reading in all situations. a) Height of the lowest wheels with regard to the ground at any time.
c) ?ver rea~ the ~1titude in case ofa sideslip to the left and displays the correct b) Height of the aircraft with regard to the ground at any time.
informa11on dunng symmetric flight. c) -Height of the aircraft with regard to the runway.
536
537
PART IV SAMPLE PAPERS SAMPLE PAPER I
Q 54 . .\-1.o c.iern low altitude radio · . d t the sea level, the calibrated airspeed (CAS)
ba nd ? altimeters em.tt waycs in the following frequency Q62. In a standard atmosphere an a
is?
ct ) Hf (High Frequency). b) UHF (Ultra tt ·gh fr a) Lower than the true airspeed (TAS).
1 equency).
I SHF (Super High Frequency).
b) Equal to the true airspeed (TAS).
QSS Th · c) Independent of the true airspeed (TAS).
. operation of the radio altimeter of a modern aircraft is based on?
i:
a) Pu l~e modulation of the canicr wave. ·
,; Q63. VLO is the maxim.um? . afet
b; ~ combination of frequency modulation and pulse modulation, a) Speed at which the landing gear can be operated with full s y.
CJ rrequency modulati on of the carrier wave. b) Flight speed with landing gear down . . ·.
V 56. ff the pitot pipe becomes p a rtly blocked? c) Speed with flaps extencled in a given position.
a) 'In.e VSI indication will be too low when climbing. Q64. Mach meter indications?
b) The VSI will be too low when descending. a) Vary with airspeed and temperature
~> The VSl will not be affected. b) Vary only with airspe~.
Q S7. If th e s tatic pi pe becomes partly blocked? c) Vary only with temperature. .
aJ The VSI indication will be too high with descending. Q6S. How will roach meter indication respond if an aircraft passes through a cold
b) The VSI indication wiU be too high when accelerating at constant descending. front when flying at constant CAS and altitude?
c) The VSI indication wi ll be too low when descending. a) increase b)
Decrease. c) Remain constant
()SH. What does a n AS indicate? Q66. The building principle of a gyroscope, the best efficiency is obtained through
a) MMO. b) VNE. c) Temperature and VMO. the concentration Qf the mass? _
59. Wh at speed is YNO ? . a) Close to the axis and with a'low rotation speed.
b) On the periphery and with a high rotation speed.
a) Tha t which may only be exceeded with caution and in still air.
c) Close to the axis and with a high rotation speed.
b) Thai which may never br. exceeded
c) That which may be exceeded only in emergencies Q67. A Standby_-horizon or emergency atti~ude'lhdiciltor?
Q60. What wiU be the effect on the ASI ff the pl tot tube of an unpressurised aircraft
a) Only works of there is a complete electrical failure.
is fractu red and the pltot drain is blocked. b) Contains its own separate gyro.
a) I: will over read. c) Is automatically connected to the primary vertical gyro if the alternator fails.
b) Jr will under read. Q68. A turn indicator is built around a gyroscope with?
c:) It wil l give a constant reading. a) 1 degree of freedom. b) 3 degre~ of freedom. c) 2 degree of freedom .
0 6 l · Conuiderlng th e maxJmum operationaJ Mach number (MMO) and the Q69. The indication on a directional gyroscope or gyrocompass are subject to
ma~l mu~ operational speed (VMO), the captain of a pressurized aircraft errors, due to:
begin~ his descent from a high flight leveL In order to meet bis scheduled time t Rotation of Earth. 2. aero plane _motion on Earth.
of arrival, he decides to use the maximum ground speed at any time of the
d scent He will be limited? 3. Lateral and transversal aero plane bank angles. 4. North change.
<l) Ry Lhe MMO. b) By the VMO in still air. 5. Mechanlcal defects.
cJ lni11al/y by the MMO, the.n by the VMO below a certain fl ight level.
Choose the combination with true statements only?
a) 2, 3, 5. b) 1, 2, 3, 5. c) 3, 4, 5.
538
539
PART rv SAMPLE PAPERS
_ ___ _ _ _ ___ _;S~AM~P~L§_E~PA~P~E~R~I-~~~-=-==~: - - -
- , b d fined by two YO R'I each having a rcsul. it
M "de 's to e e
Q70, When turning through 270° at constant AOB a nd pitch attltude what will 8 Q77 , An airway 10 N w1 • minus s.so.
clns ic artificial horizon Indicate? · ' bearin g accuracy of plus or 'd within the ai rway Limits the
te track gu1 ance \
a) Too roach nose up and too little bank angle. In or der to' ensure accura h transmitter Is approximate 'Y:
b) Too much nose up and too much bank angle. maximum distance apart for t e c) LOS NM
b) 165 NM . .
c) Too little nose up and too little bank angle. a) 50 NM . I ces a redu ction Ill s,gna\
de subsequently exper en
Q71. An artificial horizon has? Q78. A DME In tracking mo . ment in the first lnstance to :
strength will switch the eq uip
a) Two degree of freedom and a vertical spin ax.is
b) Two degrees of freedom and a longitudinal spin axis.
t a) standby mode
b) signal controlled search
c) Two degrees of freedom and a lateral spin ax.is.
c) memory mode , b rne Distance Mca uri ng
Q72. A turn indJcator used In conjunction with an attitude indicator will show? d lndicatlons on nn atr o . r I In
Q79. I n which sl.t uatlon will spee t the groundspced of an aircra t y
1. Turn direction. Equipment (DME) most closely rcpresen
2. Rate of turn.
at FL400? . . a from the st.ation at a range of lO NM
3. Angular velocity about the true vertical axis. a) When tracking directly aw y . f \ 00 NM or more
4. Angular velocity about the aircraft vertical axis. b) When tracking direct\y towards the stal~o~ al a range ~
5. Angu lar velocity about the longitu dinal axis. c) When passing abeam the station and within 5 'NM of I\
a) J·, 2. b) 1, 3. c) 1, 2, 4. Q80 Which of the following is an ILS localiser frequency. l I 0.20 Mrh
Q73. ROT ind ications are? . a) 109.15MHz b) 108.25MHz ' c)
a) Proportional to TAS. ' he principle of:
b) Proportional to CAS. c) Proportional to mass. Q81. A P rimary radar opera t es on t .
Q74. For a rate one tu r n at 150 K ts the AOB m ust be? a) phase comparison
a) 22°. b) 33°. c) 44°. b) continuous wave transmission
Q7S. F oUowlng a left engine failure t he pilot of a multi-engine aircr aft uses r udder pulse technique
c) .. .
rormnncc and rc\\ab.lin
to arrest the yaw, whtlst side slJpplng down track with the wings held level by Q82. Factors liable to affect most NDB/ADF system per -
the ailerons. What wJU th~ turn an,d sllp,lndlcator show in this condi tion. include: . ,
a) Both needle and ball central. - a) static interference - night effecl - absence of.failure wa.rnmg system
b) Both needle and ball right. b) static interference - station interference - \a~1tudc error
c) Both needle and ball left. c) height error - st.ation interference • mount.am effect . . .
Q76. In a ateUltc~Asslsted Navigation System (GNSS/GPS), a ftx is obtained by: i f transmitting and rcce1v1t1g m
Q83 . The reason for using dlfferent frequenc es or
a) the ai rcraft's receiver measuring the phase angle of signals received from a number the DME system: . . . t b the transmitter
of satellites in k.nowp positions a) ls to prevent self-triggering of the rece1V1ng equ1proen . y , fl.
b) measuring the time taken for an aircraft's transmissions to travel to a number of b) ls to avoid the reception in the aircraft of signals refernn g to other a\rcra .
satellites, In known positions, and return to the aircraft's receiver c) ls to prevent overload of the system.
c) measuring the time taken for a minimum number of satellites' transmissions, in
known positions, to reach the aircraft's receiver
541
540
SAMPLE PAPER I
PART IV SAMPLE PAPERS
Q95. VMO is calculated based on? c) CAS,
QB4. :shat is !he ~a.limum distance between VOR and DMEffACAN ground b) EAS.
tallations tf they are to have the same Morse code identifier? a) TAS. ral static pressure ports are
· ft, if one or seve ti lly
a) 600 m b) 2000 m c) 300 m Q96. In a non-pressurize d aircra means for restoring a prac ca
.. damaged, there is an ultimate? emergency
QSS. The ~in_im~m number of satellites required for receiver autonomous integrity
mon1tormg 1s: correct static pressure intake. . d
- b . di tor glass wm ow. .
a) 3 b) 4 . a) Breaking the rate~of ~hm w ca . - th ~bient pressure in the cabin.
c) 5
b) - Slightly ~pening la window t~ res.tore d e . fl at ~-pressur~ as close to 10 f3 .25 h as
Q86. What is the first returning sky wave called? c) Descending as much as possible w or er to y . .
a) The critical ray. . b) The sky ray c) The space wave. -possible. • ed b ddi ?
.. d detector may be mcreas - y a ng a.
Q87. The CP is exactly halfway when: Q97. The respons_e time of a vertical spee . . .
a) O=H. b) in nil wind condi.tions ,c) in beam.)Vind conditio.ns . a) Corr,ection based on,an. accel~i:on;i.ete~ seru:or. -
Q88. When tracking a VOR radial inbound the aircraft would 'fly? b)' Bi~metallic,strip. . · c) . Return spr,mg, •
' · · · - · · n by a gyro at?
:1) a constant heading. b) a rhwnb line track. c) a great circle track. Q98. Heading information given:by a gyro· platform., 1s g.1ve .
Qo9. A VOT i:.: a) 2 degrees-of-freedom in the vertical _a1s.
a) a test VOR. b) a tracking VOR c) a terminal VOR. b) 1 d~gree-of-freedom;in the.horizontal'axis.
Q90 . . \n aircraft is on a heading of 100 degrees (m) from a VOR. To make the c)'" . 2 degrees-of.:freedorn in' the"l!ori.io'ntal axis: .
VO.RJ1LS deviation indicator needle centralise with the TO flag showing, the Q99. ·In Iow •altitude radio alti~etersr the heiglit·measurement (above the ground) is
following bearing should be selected on the OBS: ·· based upon: ·
a) l JO degrees. b) 290 degrees. _ c) 280 degrees .. a) a frequency rnodulation•wave,-for, which·the·frequency·vari~ti.o~ betw~n the
1 Q91. Compass Heading 090°, Deviation 2"W, variation 12°E, TAS 160 kt: Whilst
transmitted wav'e and
the received wavefafter·ground refl~tlon ts measured
maintaining a radial 070° from a VOR station, the aircraft flies a ground b) a pulse transmission, for whi~hJin{e ·b;t,Y{eel) .tr:a~rcissi,;m and reception is
distanee of 14 NM in 6 MTN. what is the WN °(T)? · measured on a cim1l~ scanning:scre~ - -. -
~ a) 160°/50 kt. b) 150°/50 kt. c) 160°/60 kt. c) a·wave transmission, for wh1.ch the frequenqy shift by DOPPLER effect after
grqund:refle_ction'is me~ur:eq"'· . ·• · · - - -
Q92. In a banked turn a barometric altimeter using a single static source? ·, . J " j ('
a) Will over indicate. Ql00.What heading is tbe ,aj.rcraft:c,~rently-ftying _in-diagram below!

' I j, ,, •
b) Will under indicate.

c) Might over or under indicate, depending on the position of the static source.
Q93. Conversion angle is:

a) Difference between G/C being measured at either meridian
b) Difference between G/C and R/L Bearings
cj Difference between Grid nr>rth and True North. C ti
Q94. A mach meter is made up of?
a) Ao altimeter with a density capsule.
b An AS1 with an altitude capsule.
cJ A VS l with a modified scale.
S42 543
b) 030°. c) 037°.
Answers
- Q: T J I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5 I6 I 7 I 8
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30· 31
Ac • c • a b .b a b c b 32· 33· ~4 35 36 37 38 39 40
c a a b a c a b a c
Qt. Al what approximate date ls the earth furthest from thesun (aphelion) 1
a) Beginning ofluly. b) End of September. c) Begion1og of Janc ac,
Q : 41 42 43 44 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Q2. 1f pressure attitude is 22800 1, at an elevation of 22000 [, what i Q~ H1
A: C b a a b C b a a C C C C b \ a) 9S5 hP• b) 976 hP• c) '.Ol4 hP>.
Q3. Direction is measured b) anti clockwise from north

a) clockwise from North
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 7.0 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 8 1 c) clockwise or anticlockwise from the parallel oflatitude.
b b a b b a C a a a C b a Q4. The highest value of longitude is found;

b a
a) close to the poles. b) along equator.
I I c) at greenwich anti. meridian

I Q: s1 Ts2/ s3l s4• ssls6l s1lssls9Tgof91l92l93•94 95 96 97 98 99 100 QS. A great circle track joins position A (57° S l 40°W) and B (63" S 1 so•W). Wha
- is the difference between the great circle track at A and B?
I A: 1c I a Ia . a 1c I
j ab I cla1cla/c/b b b /a a Ic a C I a) It increases by 9°. b) It decreases by 9°. c) It increases by 6"
Q6. Gisin position 3500N 03445W. For a particular date sunrise at 3500 is in
air almanac listed as 0715.what is the time ol sunrise at G, given in I T <:1
a) 0715 (UTC) b) 0504 (U"fC) c) 0934 (UTC)
Q7. Nautical mile is defined as a unit of measurement of distnnce
a) fixed by statute as 5280 ft.

b) equal to the average length of one minute of latitude
c) equal to 1/!0000th part olthc meridian between equator aod the pole
545
G
. PART IV SAMPLE PAPERS
.'\n ftgl.oic Un< is a li SAMPtE'PAPEPS l
"' .. n e that connects·
. tt.100s that hav e th • . •
,..,.., . e . ame vanation
F"ints of eq ua.l m . , ·_- Ql 7. A perfectly straight line on·a La~be~·c~~~~ i~? c·) .. . ,. ..,., .
c f)OSitions that h agn.,et1c ~-o~izontal field strength :' . a) A parallei of latitude. ·b) A rhumb hne. A mendian.oflongttude.
ave O vanation
Q9. Posit-ion A 450 ?• • . -. ; :..,, . Ql8. How do ,rhumb lines, (other th_e n m.e ~dlanu, appear o,n polar ~tereographlc
' • E, Position B 450 N 450 ,.~
1
~ chart? .·
)' \t , 8 ls to the East of A What .
a) 3 7" 00 'E. '
' 15'E. Distance A-B =350
is the longitude of position A?
.\ ~. • a) As straight tines. ~' ?)~··~s
li~~~,~o~~ve ~ -~ .e n~~rpole.
b) 48° 00'E c) As lines convex to the nearer pole. . . • .
Q l O. Tbe 'departure• b tw · c) 51° 15'E.
i h e cen position 60•N loo• Q19. What is the time to the point of safe en~ur~nce if an alrc~af~ has a TAS of 300
t e Jongttude of 'X'? E and 60° N 'X' is 1200 NM Wh knots and a safe endurance of 4 hours, if the wind component on the outbound
a) J 40"E . • at
· b) 140°w · leg is 20 knots headwind?
QU . Two aircraft are fl I
1 y ng eastwards around th
. c) 175•w. l·,: a) 2.1 hours. b) 2,6'hours. · c) 2.9 hours.
· ong the SON pan,Uel of Jatit d , • e earth. Aircraft A is flying •·1··~ . Q 20. Maxlniwn allowable tailwlnd·cc>n;ipo,~ent for landing 10 k~_. P~anned runway
Jf aircraft A Is flying at a ,,rou:d: and aircraft Bis flying along the equator · . ~. · • OS (047° magn~tic). '.f~e ~r:e~t!on1of.tbe.sµqa,,c~,W:iJl~irepor~~d ~y ATIS
gro und speed of aircraft Bb th ~eed of 340 knots, what would be the . :, · 210°. Variation is 17.0 E. calculate the maximum allow.a~le yvmd speed .that can
j oun1ey tune? o aircraft fly once round the Earth in the same be accepted without exceeding the ~ail~~~ -µmlt? ~~
a) 529 knots. a) 11 kt. . b) 18 kt. . ~) 14 kt
b) 540-koots. c) 480 knots.
QI Z. When landJng on runw.,y 36 in N rth . Q21. If QN His 999 hPa, what is the pre~,\Q'~ alti.t ud~ atan-.e levatiqn-of l .5000 ft?
mJtgnetic compass indicates? o ern hemisphere, a direct reading a) 25400 ft. b) 25~00 •ft. ' c) 253001\ · ,
a) A westerly turn.
b) An easterly turn. c) No tum. Q22. If pressure altitude is 22800 ft, at.an elevation•of 22000 -ft, •what ls QNH?
t J . Magn etic ~eadhlg can ~e ~alc~lated from true beading using? a) 985 hPa) b) 1034 hPa) · ~::: • c) - 1026 hPa)
) A u,.1pa,~s a;id a map md1cattng isogonal lines. Q23. If pressure remains constant as temperature increases?
l>1 compass And a cali bration card. a) Density will increase, causing the CAS: TAS ratio•to increase.
c) A compa · and a deviation card. b) Density will decrease, causing the CAS: TAS ratio-to decrease.
Ql4. E rror In direct r eading magnetic compasses can be caused by? c) Density will decrease, causing the CAs·: TA:S ratidto'.ihcrease. ·
a) Tums th.rougl1 90 degrees East and 270 degrees We!. t. Q24. If an aircraft is climbed with a constant mach meter indication ln the. ISA, how
b Accelerntion on east/west beadings. should the ASI indication respond?
(: 1 Cro ·swinds wben on east/west headings. a) Increase. b) · Decrease. , , c) Decrease then remain constant.
1
Qrs. In ao aircrilft taking ff

.
.
-o on runway 27 m the northern hemisphere, what wiU
Q25. How will mach meter indication respond if an aircraft passes through a cold
1 DR JC Indlcate? front 'Yhen Hying at constant CAS arid altitude? ·- . · .
aJ outh'""IY tum b) N rtb I . . a) Increase. ·· b) Decnfase. c) Remain constant.
· o . er y tum. c) Osclllatrnns about west.
Q26. An aircraft was ov~r 'A' 'a t 1435 hours't\yrng direct to''B'. Dlatance 1'A to 'B'
.roll out mu~t
QJ6. 1'.hr
. b e perIiorme at. ....... when turning from NW to NE in the
d
outhern hem,spbere? 2900 NM, True airspeed 470 kt; Mean.wlnd.com:poneilt: 1·out' +55 kt,Mean
a) Or degrees. wind component 'back' -75 kt, :1'be'ETA·ror reaching the Potnt·ofEqua\'Tlme
b) 045 degrees. c) 055 degrees. (PET) betwi~n 'A' aml 'B' ls?
a) 17:44. b) 16:57. c) 17:21.
546
SAMPLE P~PEI\S l
PARTilV SAMPLE PAPERS
Q33. Th• tak-« ,.,., of •• ..... plan• I• 141000 kg. Total fuel"oo board Is 63000
Q27. Distance 'A'to 'B'l700'NM G . kg Including 14000 kg re1tTVe fuel and 1000 kg of unusable tuel. Tb• traffic
. .;-15 kt. _T he thp.e from , A' to 'tb:~::::;ed 'out' 465 kt-, Groundspeed 'back'
.B' is? . E9ual Time (PET) between 'A' and load ls 11800 kg. The zero fuel mass is:
a) 65200 kg. b) 79000 kg c) 78000 kg
a) 183 MIN. · b)
· ,·165
. MIN,· .
Q34. The basic empty ,..,, of an aircraft Is 30 000 kg. The masm ol the following
Q28.,Jftben ls a,l2 knot. c · c) 177 MIN.
d . , ,-» rease tn· headwind by h '
. escent be changed in order to maintai I Ow. at am~_u nt ~ust the rate of items are:
catering: 300 kg, safety and rescue material: nil
a) _It must be increased by 35 ft/ min.- n_a 3 .ghde slope? .
ft:y awa)' kit oil, crew (inclusive crew baggal?,e): 365kg
b) It ~ust be decreased by 3'5·ft/ mi~. fuel at take-o£f: 3 000 kg, unusable fuel: 120 kg
c) It must be decreased by 6 l fti .
mm.
passengers, baggage, cargo: 8 .000 kg
Ql9. 850 FT/MIN equals? The-Dry ~perating Mass is: c) _38 300 kg
· a) 5~ m/sec) ' · b) 4.6 m/sec 1 a) 30 785 kg b) 30 300 kg
QJ0. A revenue fligb is-t ti'· . .. . · .,, ) . ,J ·.,c). 4.~m/sec)
'
~• · 0 e made by a jetltra·' . .. . Q35. Maximum structural take-off mass: 72 000 kg
P a,ie's structural' limits: . . · nsport. The following a're the aero
I Maximum structural \anding mass: 56 000 kg
Maximum Ramp
M ' Mass: ·69·90'·o k g,. . .. . ' Maximum zero [uel mass: 48 000 kg,
axlmum Take Off Mass: 69 300 k
'M xJ . . g Taxi fuel: 800 kg
a mum Landing Mass:-58 900ik
Maxi r_num ·z·ero Fuel Mass: 52 740 g,
kg .
Trip fuel: 18 000 kg,
Contingency fuel: 900 kg
T11ke- Off and
. Landin g ·mass- are not performance limited. Alternate fuel: 700 kg; -Fina\ reserve fue\: 2 000 k%
D ry Operating Mass·. 34 930 k g,·· Trip
·· Fuel:,11 500 k
Determine the actual take-off mass:
TaxJ Fuel:-250 kg, · g c) 69 600 kg
• •t b) 72000kg
a) 74 000 kg
Contingency .&f.ftnal ires~r;ve f~~i:.,14S0 kg ,_
Q36. Why are "stepped cruise" used on long distance flights'?
Alternate Fu~l.:-.1'! 350 kg· .. ; · , - · -·- · :
The maximum'tr. m·· I · · · . · .. " ,.,-· ·
- ,a c oad_thai ,can b~,.carried ts:
c) 2l_170 kg
b) To respect ATC flight \eve\.constramts
--
a) To fly as c\ose as,possib\e to the optimum altitude as aero plane roass red\ice5
· a) 20 420 kg ,., ,.: _ b) 17 810 kg . c) Step climbs do not have any special pUI1)ose for 3et aero p\anes~they are u ed f
Q31. The term 'Maximum - Zero Fuel Mass'
' · consist
,' · of • piston engme aero planes only
.·a) '.Fhe
aQdmaximum mass autho~
operational<items . ed tior,a,certamaero
. . . . plane
• not including the fuel load Q37. What \s the effect of ta\lw\nd on the time to cUmb to a given altitude'?
b) The maximwn m ti ,. ' ' ' ·:,,. ·- · · • a) The time to climb decreases
c) Th; maximum ass_ or soll)e.aero p~es_i.ncl~ding the.fnet"_t,iad and the traffic load
b) The time to c\imb does not change
. ~ penmsSible mass 0 ! a!H ~f9 plane with no usable fuel. c) The effect on time to c\i.mb wi\\ depend on tbe aero p\aL,e cype
QJZ. 18
The000 kg .an·dmass
fake~ff fuel of
~f..~~~~r:oo: 1~Wp.~ ~sr~~
• ·
7~_00_0 ~g, c_ompr:ising aJrafflc load of Q38. The optimum long-range cruise a\t\tude ior a turbojet aero t>\ane:
· · ' ' , . g• .. hatis ·the dry operating mass?
000 kg .
a
) 71 b)·_ -99 000
. '.
kg ,_'\ · ·•
·c) 53 000 kg a) is always equal to the powerplant ceilmg
b) increases when the aero plane mass decreases
c) is indepenedent of the aero l)lane mass
S-49
548
Q ..l9~ You have ti) d . . PAR_T IV SAMPtE
· PAPERS
to d . e a flight Plan for an ,
SAMPLE PAPEP.S ·1 ,'
•Parture. Ar,., how long d I •ncontrone<1 ftlght and ••ffer • delay pr;.,
Q
40. W hJ
a) 30 rnins
. c_h is
b)
a e ay mu 5t You restate your OBT?
40 rnins
• the highest latitude listed .
c) 60 nuns
Q48. What will happen to th: ,
lndlca ted altitude U an aircraft lo·level ftlgbt passes
into a warmer air mass. . d' le c) Not change.
horizon
j ()IS O and set •very day?
,J below•• Which the ••n will rise •hove the a) Over indicate. b) Under m tea ·
b defined as a?
Co 660
Q 4 I. Tru e track ISoo, Drift 8oR b) . c) 620 Q49. A radio altimeter can e . height of the aircraft.
.d d to measure the true
a) Ground radio ai use alt'tude of the aircraft.
th e v a r iation. ' mpass headu1g 1950, Deviation -20. Calculate . . d tO easure the true i . ft
a)2 1°w b) Ground radio aid use m
.
_ th true height of the aucra •
4 ,, . b d aid used to measure e •
Q 2. A..n aircraft at FL370 is re •b) 25°W c) sow c) Self-contamedon- oar , . . , t (above ground) as based
QSO. In low altitude radio llltimeters height .measuremen
it~~~ t~tt~mmence descent at 120 NM•from a VOR
, , .
a,1d to cross the facility at
minimum rate of descent required is: e mean GS for the descent is 288 kt, the upon? . d od lation wave, fior wm • •ch modulation phase shift between
a) A triangular amplttu . e m u after ound reflecti,on is measured.
43 1a) 960 FT!MJN b) 890 FT/MIN e) 860 FTfMIN . transmitted and rece1ved"waves ~ ·rr ncy variation between the
. foi which the eque ed
Q • n An A ir Data Cotnputer (AOC), ae,o plane altitude is calculated from? b) A frequency modulatiQn ¥/ave: · ft ground reflection is measw· ·
. d the received wave a er . .
, ! Measurement of absolute bammett;c pressu,-e from a slajjc source on the fuselage. transmitted wave an : ._ ,, 'transmission and reception is
c) A pulse transmissfon, for wh1_c h time between .
b) Measurement of outside air temperature (OAT).
measured on a circular scanning screen. , ,
- ' -
e) and
Measurement
back. of elapsed time for a radio s;gn,I ITansm;tted to the ground surface
QSI. VSI lag is redu~e.d bY.? ~ . . . . .' '. .' -
Q44. The pressure altitude is the altitude corresponding? a) 1\vo dashpots r~ p9ndin~.!O ~~~l_e~at1911:.
b) } 'wo re~urn ~pr~gt
a) In standard atmosphere, to the reference pressure Ps. • l
c) Bi-metallic strips.
b) 1n am bient atmosphere, to the press ure Ps prevailing at this point.
" Q52. If the choke in the VSI,becomes ~artly bloc~ed_?
CJ ln Mandard atmosphere, to the press ure Ps p revailing at this point.
a) _The VSl indication will be too high wh_en clunbm~.
At seauot
Q45. must !eve~ on a typical servo altimeter, the tolerance in feet from indicated
exceed? b) The VSI indication will be too:low when-de~ce~ng. .
c) The VSI indicat¼)~ will be too high·when chmbmg or descendmg.
a) +/-60 feet. b) +/-75feet. c) +/-30feet.
QS3 ., If the pitot pipe b~co.m_es partly blocked?_ . .
Q46. The altitude lndicated on hoard an alrcraft flying fo an abnosphere where au
the atmosphere layers below the aircraft are coJd is? a) The VSI indicatio~ will:oyer re.ad when descending.
a) Equal to rhe standard altitude. b) The VSl' will be unaffected.
b) Lower th an the rea l altitude. c} .The VSI wil11 over undenead,.at'all-times.
cJ Higher than the real altitude. Q54. Compressibility is most signift~ntat
a) low air speed range. b) TAS is excess of 300 K. c) TAS of300 K.
J 7. W ha r is the true altitude of an aircraft if its altimeter lndicated 16000 ft when
the ambient temperature was -30° C?
!f
Q55. What will be the effect the drain ho~e an d _p1
· •to t tap ping in
· a probe.are
•J l 5200 ft. bJ 15400 ft. cJ 16200 ft. blocked, whilst t:he static source·remams open'? ·
a) ·The ASI\villrespohd to changes in: pressure altitude only.
b) The ASI will not respond - . . .
550 c) The ASI will under read at all speeds
551,
PAR,T IV SAMPLE PAPERS roeot of rate-of-turn actually co.n:-. ists in
Q65. At a low bnnk angle, the mc11sure
QS6. With a constant weight, irrespective of the airfield altitude, an aircraft always measuring the?
tllkes off at the same? · n) Angular velocity of the aircraft.
a) Calibrated airspeed. b) Ground speed. c) True airspeed.
b) Yaw rate of the aircraft.
Q57. The calibrated airspeed (CAS) is obtained by applying to ·tbe indicated
c) Pitch rate of the aircraft. • ·th degrees of freedom and
airspeed (IAS)? lpped with a gyro W 1 2
a) A compressibility and density cprrection. Q66. An airborne in~tru~e? t, equ
a horizontal spm axas 187 . d. c) A directional gyTo .
b) An instrument and positi(?ojpre;ssur~ ~r.ror corre~tion. ,, ..~"! ~ .. . b) A turn Ill 1cator.
a) An artificial honzon. th
c) An !'Jltenna and compr~sibility correction; , , . _ d ball indicator is on the left and the ba 11 on .
di
Q58. VNO is the maximum speed? Q67. When, in flight, the nee e an .
right, the aircraft is?
a) Which must never be-exceeded. .,
a) 1\trning left with not enough bank
b) At which the •flight controls can be··fully·deftected. · •
b) Turning right ,with not enough bank
c) Not to be exceeded,except in still arr 'and with~cauti'on. •
c) Turning right with too much bank .
Q59. For a constant ·c alibr.i ted Airspee~ (CAS) and ,a level flight, a fall in ambient ,
Q68. How many degrees of freedom an w a is
d h t · the spin axis of an attitude
temperature wllhesuftin a? · · ,.r ' · ' · ·· ·
a) Lower True Airspeed (TAS) due to"'; decrease in ,ir'oensity. '. indicator'?
a) ·Local-earth vertical tWo degrees ·o f freedom .
b) Lower True Airspeed (TAS) due to ·an increase in ak cii nsity. .
b) Aire.raft lateral axis two degrees of freedom.
c) Hfgher True Airspeed (TAS) due'to a ciecreas'e•in·air density.
c) Aircraft horizontal axis one degree of freedom.
Q6~. W~en_a climbing at a constant Mach number below 'the tropopiluse, in ISA
conditions, the Calilfra~d Airspeed·(CAS) will? Q69. A direct reading magnetic compass will be affected by?
a) Decrease. b)- Increase at a lineafrate. c) Remain constant. a) Soft iron. b) Hard iron.
Q61. How will mach meter indi~atioin·espond:if an aircraft is ·flying at constant c) Soft iron effect hard iron, and hard iron.
CAS at FL 270 wh·en ft 'e-iperiefrces~a•reductionin OAT? Q70. A turn indicator has?
a) No change. ' , • ' b) Increase, '~ ,i c) Decrease. 1. A horizontal spin axis. 2. A vertical spin axis.
Q62. How will the mach meter respond Jn :a constant CAS climb if the static source 3. One degree of freedom. 4. Two degrees of free'\om.
becomes blocked? 5. A spin axis tied to the yawing plane of the aircraft.
a) increase b) Decrease. c) Remain constant 6. A gravity erecting unit.
Q63. How will .the ma~h meter respoild,in a constant TAS climb If the static source a) l , 3. b) l , 5. c 3, 5.
becomes blocked? Q71. When both the needle and ball of a turn and slip indicator are displaced t o
a) Increase. b)_.p~rease c) Remain constant. right the aircraft is?
Q64. ~he basis.properties of a_gyro,~~ope_~re? . a) Turning right with insufficient bank.
1. The gyro's weight. · ~- - Th_e,,tjgidity in .spa·ce. b) Turning right with too much bank.
3. The inertia 4. Th~ 1hlgh .RPM. . 5. ,The precession c) Turning left with too much bank.
The combination of correct statements is?
a) 3, 4. b) 2, 5. c) ,2, 3, 5.
552 5S3
SAMPLE PAPERS 2
PAJIT IV SAMPLE PAPERS
:-;- . in a prima:rv d . Q81. VOR wanleogtb ls? c) 2 .46m.
- ra ar unng pulse technique, pwu recurnoce Crequenc (PRF)/ . b) 24.6Cm.
pu recurrence !'ate (PRR:, detennioes: a) 2.46 Cm. .
. DlltfE equlpmen1. u moin ....--te
_. a.,_.. .. • · ft"'""n•
,.._.
'"
1
range b) beam width c) maximum theoretical range
Q82. Groundspeed meuu~ement unng
a) towards the station at short range,
· . \'hkh one of the fo.lJe"ing disturbances is most llk.ely to cause the gre11test
Ul uracy iJl ADF bearings? b) past the station at.short range.
:a ) Cu effec1 b) Quadrantal error c) from the station at long range.
I thunderstoJIIll activi ty Q83. Real wander of the gyroscope can be caused by
Q 4. \ . nat is the maximum number of nsable Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) a) earth's rotation beneath the gyroscope.
..ns ponder
1r- codes? b) asymmetric mction at the spin axis.
3J 7 b) 4096 c) 3600 c) instrument being a tied as opposed to space gyro.
d f radio aid that uses a f:requency of
Q - . Ao aircraft is 100 NM from a OR facility. Assuming no error when using Q84. What is the wavelength and wav eb an ° a
a d viation indicator where 1 dot= 2° deviation. bow many dots deviation 19 Cm.
from cbe center line of the ir.strument will represent the limits of the airway a) 1.579 GHz. - UHF.
boua.da~,? (Assume that the airway is 10 NM wide) .· VLF.
b) 15.79 Khz.
;;. 6.0 b) 1.5 c) 3.0
c) 1.579 tvfHz .VHF_
Q76. Th.c ODDLE 1ARKER of an Instrument Landing System (ILS) facility is
Q85. In an ASI the static pressure enters:
id.end:fil"'.d audibly and visu ally by a series of:
a) Both the capsule & the case b) the case only.
:J, ao rs and a white !ighr flashing
c) the capsule only.
b) dashes and an amber light fl ?.shing
cJ alternate dots and dashes and an amber Hght flashing Q86. The wavelength of a 1~1.95 MHz signalis? .
a) 24.6 Cm. b) 2.46 m. c) 24.6 m_
Q77. n aircraft is flying on a heading of270°(M). The VOR OBS is also set to 270°
with the full left deflection and FROM flag displayed. Q87. What is skip distance?
1n which sector is the aircraft from the VOR ground station? · a) The distance between a receiver ~d the-first and second fundamentals..
a) SE b) NE c) NW b) The distance between the transmitter and the first r ~ sky wave.
Q78. I CAO specifications are that range errors indicated by Distance Measuring c) The distance between the receiver and the fust returning fundameotal.
Equ.lpment (DME) should not exceed: Q88. The skip distance is increased by- - the·wave\ength and ---the
a) + or - 0.5 NM or 3% of the distance measured whichever is the greater frequency?
b) -t- or - J.25 NM plus 0.25% of the distance measured a) Decreasing. Decreasing. b) Decreasing. Increasing. c) lna-easin&,. ln.creas-ing.-
cJ or - 0.25 NM plus 1.25% of the distance measured Q89. If an aircraft has two altimeters, only one of'which is con-ected for position
Q19. What lb the metric distance o ( an NDB wavelength? error?
a) Metric b) Centimetric and metric a) ATC transponder replies will be inaccurate.
J Metric and Kilometric b) At high altitude and high speed the non~nected altimeter will over mdi.ca♦-e.
(./SO. W hich radio frequency employs the refraction properties of the ionosphere? c) At high altitude and high speed t!ie non~nected altimeter will undet uu\'icate.
a) EH.F. b) HF c) VHF.
554 sss
PART IV SAMPLE'PAPERS
'
... Q90. Barometric altimeter readings can become erratic during landing because?
SAMPLE PAPERS l
. se Iectcd on the Navigation Display (EHSI) In diagram hclo w'!

a) Static ports can become bl~ked _by debris. Which ~ode ts
b) Static pressure is changed by gf9,und effect. .
c) The air is warmer close to th~ groupd so dynamic pressur~·changes.
If the static source becomes blocked the mach meter wUl ......... as an aircraft
Q91. climbs?
a) Over indicate. b) U~~er i_ndicate. . c) Not i_ndic~te.

Q92. If temperature decreases when flying at c~nstant-CAS at FL 200, the mach
meter indication will .•••..•• and the true mach· nurnber- wili...... ?
I • •
a) Increase increase. b) Decrease decrease. _~) Not change increase.
, . ~ ' --
Q93. The. correct indications when ta-xifng in a turn to the left are?
a) Needle right, ball right. ' ·b) Ne~-dle right, ball ce~ter:· ~) Ne~dle left, ball right.
Q94. A slaved direcdonal gyro derives it's directional signal from? a) Map mode, b) Center Map mode. c) Plan mode.
a) A direct reading magnetic compass. b) The flight director. c) The flux valve.
Q95. The gyro in a vertical reference data generator has? Answers
One degree of freedom., Two degrees of freedom., Vertical axis., Horizontal axis.
a) 1,3. b) 1,4. c) 2,3. Q: I 2 3 4 5·6 7 8 9 to 11 12 13 14 15 IG 17 IP l'..l \10
Q96. DG errors are caused by? A: h

a a a C a C b C a a a C a b b C C a a
1. Mechanical Imperfections, 2. Eatth·rate, 3.Transport wander,
4. Banking when pitch.lng 5. Annual migration of the poles.
Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 I 33 34 35 36 37 I 38 .39 I 40
a) All of the above. b) ( 2,3.4. c) 2, 3, 4, 5.
Q91. An aero plane Is on an IFR flight. The ·111ght is to be changed from IFR to VFR. A: a a b b C b a C C b C C b a C a b b C C
l I
ls it possible?
a) No, only ATC can order you to do this
Q: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 5s 159 150 I
b) No, you have to remain JFR in accordance to the filed flight plan
c) Yes, tbe pilot in command must infonn ATC using the phrase "Canceling my lFR A: b a a C C C a b C b a C b b a a b C l b Ia J
I
flight"
Q98. Course required= 085° ('I), Forecast W(V 030/lQ0kt, TAS = 470 kt, Distance=
265nm. Calculate the true HDG and flight tfme? ·
Q: 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 I 76 I I
nl 78 79! 801
a) 075°, 39 min. b) 075°, 42 min. c) 073°, 42 min. A: a b b b b C a a C C b C C b b C C 1c ,c Ib-J
Q99. When climbing through an Isothermal layer at constant CAS?
a) TAS increases. b) TAS remains constant. c) Mach number decreases. Q: 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 I
1oj
A:. C C b a a b b b C b I b C C C C I hI C a a I l
l I
556 557
iJlo a stanclard tlme ·1low 011 UTC:
The coun tries h.v • ·
a) will often have an earlier standard date ~an the UTCdale.
b) will generally be located at eastern longi~udes.
c) will generally be located at western longitudes.
lsogooic lines connect p~sitioos that have:
a) the same elevation
- - f
b) the same vl!J'iation
. ... . , , t SA MpLE PAPER 3 :· -· Q8.

c) 0° variation
Compass ·deviation is defined as the angle ~etwun:
a)' True north and' compas~ north . I
b) magnetic n<;>rth and compass north .

c) the horizontal and the total intensity of the earth's magnetic field
Q J. T he a ngle between the plane f th . . Q9. What is the final position after the following rhumb_line track! and d3stance
approx:imateJy ? o e ecliptic and the plane of equr.tor is have been followed from position 60° OO'N 030° OO'W? South for 360 NM, East
a) 66.5°.
for 360 NM, North For 360 NM, West for 360 NM?
b) 90.0°. c) 23.5°. a) 59° OO'N 090° OO'W b) 600 00 'N 031° 48'',,
n ·c)· 6"°
v·. 00'N 031° 48'E
Q2_ A Rhumb line is:
QlO. In order to Oy froin position A (10° OO'N, 030° OO'W) to position B (30° OCJ'N,
aJ a line on the surface of the earth cutting all meridians at the same an,,le 050° OO' W), maintaining a'constant'true course, it is necessary to ftyZ
b) any straight line on a laI!)bert project.ion ° a) The great-circle route.
c) a Jin conyex to the nearest pole on a Mercator projection b) A straight line plotted on a Lambert chart.
)J. If you W1h, t t o foilow a constant true track value: c) A rhumb line track.
a, you must fly a great circle. Q ll. An aircraft departs from position A (09° 10' S 178° 22'W) and flies northward
<1 • yvu mus t fly a rhumb line. following the meridian for 2750 NM. It tnen files westward along ~he parallel
CJ you, in most cases, will also ny the shortest possible track. of latitude for 400' NM to position -B )' the coordinates of-position B are?
4 a) 53° 20'N 172° 38'E. b) 36° 40'N 173° 19'E. c) 36° 20'N 1690 22' W. ·
• ~ bicb of the following differences in latitude will p.-od uce the gr~atest
differ ence between the initial great circle track and the mean great circle Q12. Position A 45° N, ?0 E, Position B 45° N, 458 15'E Distance A-B =100 NM, B b
tr a ck, between two point, which are separated by 15° change of longitude? to the East of A, What is the longitude of position A?
a) 3oos and 25°S. b) 30°S and 30'1N. c) 60°N and 55°N. a) 51° 20'E. b)'48° 33'E. c) 40° 32' E.
QS.
~ositior, ~ is 58°N 030"W and position Bis 51°N 020°W. What is the rhumb Q13. Two aircraft a re·ftying e astwards'around the earth. Aircraft-A is tlyini
/;: ,, ~;nng from A to B, if the great circle track from A to B, measured at A, js along-the 45°N parall~l oflatitU:de·and aircra(t"B is flying along, the equator.
If aircraft A is flying at a groundspeed of 300 knots, what would be the
aJ IIO"r. b) 284'7. groundspeed ·o,r aircraft .,B ,b oth·aircraft fly once round the Earth in•the same
c) 1040'f.
journey time?
a) 420 knots. ;b) 41Aknots. ,. c) -480 knots.
558
559
PART IV SAMPLE PAPERS SAMPLE PAPERS 3
· Ql4. When correcting RAS of 150 Ka TAS of> 150 K ls obtained. - le crouwind component Is 20 kt. Runw•)' 06, RWY, QDM
Q22. Maximum aJlowddalb tt 1oos(M) calc1Jlate the maximum allowable wl.n d
a) density of air must be greater than lSA mean.Sea level air density. 063 (M). Win
8 rec on
b) no allowance has been made for compressibility ,peed?
c) 26 kt.
c) error must have been made in calculations. 0)3 l kt b) 36 kt.
Distance 'Q' to 'R' 2160 NM, Groundspeed ' out' 535 kt, Groutndsprese~;ba.ck'
Q15. The purpose of a compass swing ls to? Q23 · · f 'Q' toth.ePonto aue
585 kt. Safe endurance 6 HR . The distance rom
a) Align the lubber lines with true north.
Return (PSR) between 'Q' and 'R' ls7
b) Confirm the accuracy of the schuler tuning. c) 1776 NM.
a) 1767 NM. b) 1677 NM.
f) ~gn compass north with magnetic north. o A• B-=315NMTAS-450kLWN =
Q24 True course A to B = 250 Distance ..o ,
Ql6. A nmway.fo the nortbern •hemlsphere is,on an agontc Une ,and heading 045 . 200°/60kt. ETD A= 0650 UTC What is the ETA at B?
degrees. Iran alrcraft,wlth zero compass deviation takes oflin still ak what a) 0736 UTC) b) 0659 UTC) c) 0732 UT
will the northerly turning errors be? ' '
a) The compass will remain on 045 . QlS. As pressure altitude increases?
b) The compass will move t~ less than 045 . a) Temperature decreases.
c) ~e compass will mo"'.e to mqre·thari '04'5. · b) Temperature decreases then remains constant.
~ \ . . ' .
c) Temperature increases then remains constanL
Q17. In order to convert true beading into magnetic beading a compass card
and ........... are required? .. Q26. True altitude is obtained from ..............on boaTd an aircraft'?
; • !. ~
a) ,Deviation card. b) Error ~card. c) Map with isogonal lines. a) Density altitude.
Q18. The roll o.u t must be.perfor~ed ~t..••....when turning fro~ NW to SE in the b) Temperature altitude.
southern hemisphere? c) Pressure altitude.
a) ll5 degrees. : b) 145 d~grees. c) 125 degrees. Q27. During a straight and uniform c\\mb, the pilot maintaim a constant car bratcd
Q19. AJ>proximately bow many nauticai miles correspond to 12 cm on-a map with a airspeed (CAS)'? ·
scale of 1 : 2 000 000 ? a) Toe Mach number increases and the true airspeed (TAS) in~cs.
a) 130 ~ ·: l?) 130.crµ. . . , , _ c) ·200 run. b) The Mach number is constant and the true airspeed (TAS) i"- cmistant
Q20. A strai.ght:line on· a Lambert conformal projection chart for normal flJght c) The Mach-number is constant and.the true airspeed (TAS) decreases.
planning p,u rp_o s~? . Q28. For a constant Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) and a lnel flight, a fall in ambie.nt
. a) Is approximatelY. a great~cl~.
I ' ( ~ . - ~ 1.' ' .. •• ~ I
temperature will result in a'?
b) Is a foxodromic line. a) Lower True Airspeed (TAS) due to a decrease in air density.
c) Is a Rhumb line,_ b) Lower True Airspeed (TAS) due to an increase in air density.
· Q21. On a i:ambert c~ai:t (~~-, ,~,~~ par!lllel~ ~~ N ,a.~d 65!,N),,with respect to the c) Higher True Airspeed (TAS) due to a decrease in air density.
stralght,U_rie:drawn on (.b~ 0ma1q1etjve~n,,r\ (N49° W030°} and B (N48° W040°}, Q29. If ambient temperature is -10° C, what is the macb number wben 'TAS i 594
the? -'. , . .. Kts?
. a) · Great'. circle,alicirhwnb,line.are Jo~the' south ofrthe;parallel·of origin. a) O.SM. b) 0.7SM. c) 0.94M.
b) Great c~cle and rhumb line are to the north the p~lel of origin.' Q30. What is true mach number at 25000 ft ISA \f the iAS is S00 Ku'?
·C) Great circle is fo•the.north, .the rh'1m.b'1lirie kto',the south . a) 0.75M b) 0.83M. c) ').93M .
56() '· S61

.
.
;;::::~M~ ~ ~ ~-._•··, ._~
Q.Jl . An airer ft
~ a
.
was O\' er
·A to ' B' 2900 ..ivu
,..,
'A' 14
True
RT IV SAMPLE PAPERs
'
at• 3S hours flying d 1rect
' to 'B' G'
- •
,
k t, /\•lean Wind ' airspeed 470 kt Me . . 1V.e11 : l>istance ii.,
.. component 'h ' an wind comp :i
c:usran e froll'l 'A' ack' -75 kt, Sai d oneot 'out' +ss , ·. Q37. The empty niass or an aJ o piane; as given 1.0 't~e w~ig~k ~~bed~~~·- ~iioo
to tbe Poi t f . e en urance 9 HR 30 Mn., f.
a) 2k44 NM
.
n
b)
°
Safe Return (PSR) . ?
IS .
".u1 "· The ~
J.
kg. The operational items (lncludfng crew) ts given as a m~s ofl300 kg. Hthe
take-off mass is 132000 kg (including a useable fuel quantity of'43800 kg) the
Q3? A . 2141 NM }"
- · ' Qn aircraft was over ' Q' at 1S45 h . c) 1759 NM. .1 useful load is
' to ' R ' 3016 NM . ours Hying direct ' ' . i a) 70700 kg , . b) 29600 kg , c) 68400 kg
M ea n v,i d 'True airspeed 525 kt. M . . to R . _Gaven Distance ..\·
" component 'back' +7 ean wmd component 'out' f Q38. DOM 33 S00·kg, Pay toad 7600 kg, MTOW 66 200 kg, Tui Fuel 200 kg,
from ' Q ' to the point of Safe R 5 kt, Safe endurance 10;00 HR
Th _-90~t, t
aJ 25 10 NM eturn (PSR) 'Q' is? · e distance . ], Tank :Capacity 16100 kg
. b ) 2522 NM Find fuel on board. ·
() 33. Dista nce ' A' to 'B ' 2450 · c) 2570 NM.
J85 kt, Tl . NM, Groundspeed ' t' 3 a) 15 900 kg b) t7 TOO kg c) 17300 kg
' B' . ,,, ie ume from 'A' to the Point ofE ou . 50 kt, Groundspecd 'back'
is . qual Time (PET) between 'A' and Q39. The center of.gravity location of the aero plane is normally comp'uted along
u) 220 MrN. the: ·.
QJ b) 195 MIN. c) 182 MrN a) vertical ax.is .b) , longitudinal axis · ·c) · horizontal axis
4. At 0430 an aircraft is in level c . .
FL370, 165 om from a VOR Ir~•se ftigbt at groundspeeiflof3SO knots at Q40. 'While ·using ;·vsI~ pilot can _ _ . -
1800 feet/ min to be at FL so· is required .to .descend at a,mean rate
' ,o.v erhead the VOR Wh i
;f a) not rdy on_reading esp·ecTilll_
ywhen ~hange o( Vjtch alti~deis occurring.
cc;mrucnce descent, if the 1 . at s the latest time to b) oaj.y ~ely when changing toJ1ori.zo11:~l fl~ght
a) 0505 . n~an ground speed in the descent is to be 200 knots?
c) rely on its !eadings in ap altitudes of flighJ,
b, 0459. c) 0449.
Q35. An aero plane is to depart from an airfi Q41. At wbich ,mininium height will the second climb segment end?
tak e-off mass is 89200 kg C tifi d eld ~here the performance limited a) 1500ft above nel4·ebvatio~ .
. . er cate maxunum masses are as follows·
1-< um_p (ta xl) mass 89930 kg, Maximum Take-off mass 89430 kg . b) 35ft above ground
i\'1 nxrmu mLanding mass 11520 kg A t J Ze fi c) 400ft above field elevation
• •c ua ro uel mass 62050 kg
l<uel .on board at ramp:Taxi fuel 600 kg, Trip fuel 17830 kg Q42. The Radio wave, coversli.i 1 microsecond a distance of:
Contmgeucy, final reserve and alternate 9030 kg a) 300M '·b) SOO _ M c) 300 ft
:k~i~';i~~i 1?:perating Mass is 40970 kg the traffic Joad that can be c~rricd on
a) the'time of
, ...... •
take-off . ' . : , '

l . , ,
Q43. For a flight plan filed before tbe'ftight,tthe'indkated time of departure is:
,1) 21080kg b) 21500kg c) 21220kg b) the time at whicMh.e flight plan is filed '
Q3 6. J\ n :.aero J1l unc is perf. 1· • c) the estimated off-block time
. _ ormance 1m1ted to a landing nuss of 54230 kg The D
()p ·r ~t1J,g Mass is 3S000 kg a1Jd the zero fuel mass is 52080 kg. If tb.c take-Jr
m uyi, 1s 64280 kg the useful Joa<.1 is: Q44. An aircraft ftfos a great circle track from 56° N 0708 W to 62° N 110° 'E.
The total distance trav·eiea~is? . ... ~ '.
rt ) 170110kg b) 12200kg. c) 10080kg.
a) 3720nm b) ,·5420nm c) ' 1788nm
Q45. On the 27th of February, at S2°S an~ 040'E, the sunrise, is a~ 0243 UJ'C) On
the same day, at S2°S and 035-W, tKe sunrlse'is at: · ·
a) 0743 UTC b) 0243 UT<; c) 2143 UTC
562
563
Q,16.1\hf. & at a t:Tlle ail speed !
• Drift angle.: 4 right.. Wh2 t ~...3- TH ~-ertic:al speed in rf' a:n aircnft ..
is fae tr1R tra:~ adesunt ·th• · ·
a -300 ft
> -soo e-
(I). lAS UO kt. ~md .q,eed kt. drift a:ngre will b~ Q-54. What i1 demiiy
a. d:irediott, of;
a i 4:51'
co
trttk .~ h e
ti::l
c)
pU':U1lrc pon.s are rip
me2m WT rertl>ring a ·prarlk:ally
Q5'6. Radio
C: ~ a& :-. Th:e

aircr.Jft.
~P'J?!~'c::!!lbatedina
~ ~5i:1. ~:da~ (J) and eu ·ng r- an -~ c:e..
}
Q:58... Ir! tte: ~ nf ~. -sr a ~ micrafi ru~~

----·-
SAMPLE PAPEl'S 3
......a l•t,borlzon Indicate when tuialng-1 m0ugb 90 degrees
W a c1a11lc a.-uuc ·
Q61 . At any given weight or altitude, an aircraft will always lift- ofht the same? Q69. What w ttltude and bank angle?
at const11nt a . •
a) CAS . b) TAS. c) Ground sp-!ed. rrect bank angle and atti~de.
a) Co h up attitude.
Q62. The velocity maximum operating {VMO) is a speed expressed in? b) Too little bank and too muc nose . tude
a) True airspeed (TAS). , ank d too little nose up attl ·
c) Too little b an . turning through 1800 at con1tantAOB?
b Comp uted airspeed (COAS). .
Q70. Classic aruuc
..,a ial horizon indications
c) Calibrated airspeed (CAS) .
a) Nose up and AOB too low.
Q63. The limits of the white scale of an airspeed indicator are? b) Nose up and AOB too high.
a) V3I for the lower limit anG VFE foT the upper limit. c) Nose up and correctAOB) ?
b) VSO for the lower limit and VLE for the upper limit. es of freedom in the •· •••-• axis·
An artificial horizon bas .... Degre
c) VSO for the lower limit and VFE for the upper limit. Q71. vertical
a) Two . tal
Q64. W hat is the LSS at 30000 ft if ambient temperature is -40° C? .bonzon .
b) Two
a) 594 Kts. b) 660 Kts. c) 584 Kts. vertical.
c) One . . _ . di · laced to the
Q65. dow will macb meter respond in a constant macb number climh iftbe static
Q72, When both the nee dl e an d
ball of
a turn and slip mdlcator are sp
-
source becomes blocked?
right the aircraft is? .
a) Increase. b) Decrease c) Remain constant.
a) Turning right with tco mucli TAS.-
Q66. The iudkatioos on a mach meter are independent of! . b) Turning right with insufficient TAS:
a) Dynamic pressure. b) Ambient temperature. c) Static pressure. c) Turning left with too much TAS.
Q67. The indications of the direct:.onal gyro when .used as an on-boanl instrument Q? 3 . When the·needle is' displaced right_and the ball displaced left, in a turn and
are valid only for a sbort"period of time. The causes of this inaccuracy are? slip indicator, the aircraft is?
1. The earth's rotation. a) Turning right with insufficient bank.
2. The longitudinal acceforation. b) Turning left with too much bank.
3. The aircraft's motion over the surface of the earth. c) Tum:ng left with insufficient TAS.
4. The mechanical defec·.s of the gyro.
Q74. Which of the following will give the-most accurate calculation of aircraft
S. The gyro's weight. ground speed?
6. The gimbals mount of the gyro rings. a) DME station sited on the flight route
The combination of correct statements is?
b) An ADF sited on the flight route
a) I, 2, 4. b) 1, 3, 4, 6, c) 2, 5, 6.
c) A VOR station sited on the flight route
Q68. What could be the indication on an attitude indicator in a right turn?
Q75. When Mode C is selected on the aircraft SSR transponder the addition~
aJ Climb due to pendulous van<;S . lnformation transmitted is:
b) No cliwb
a) altitude based on regional QNH
c) Descent due to pendulous vanes.
b) aircraft height based on sub-scale setting
c) flight level based on 1013.25 hPa
566 567
SAMPLE PAPERS 3
PART IV SAMM.E PAPER,S
Q85. Sky wRves at day or night are least likely wi.th?
c) HF.
"Q76. DME channels utllise•fre,q ilencies_of approximately: a) VHF. b) LP.
a) 1000 MHz b) 1000'GHz. . . . c) 1000.KHz
Q86. The optimum HF frequency puts the recelveT?
Q77 · -:; aijrcr:ft D~ receiver ~~ able to ~c~ept replies to its own transmissions a) Just inside the minimum skip distance.
re ec rep es to other atrcraf~ lnterroga~ons because: . . ,
b) Just outside the minimum skip distance.
a) transmission frequencies are ~3 'Mliz'different-for each•aii'craft
c) Just within the surface wave coverage area.
b) pulse pair$ are dis~reet to a,.part~~-qlar aircraft ,
. Q87. Surface wave range?
c) pulse pairs are S.WPli~de ~odµlated ~th th;~ircraft regis.n:tion
a) Decreases with increasing frequency.
Q78. The principle used in VOR bearing measurement is:, i
a) phase _comp~sQn . b) ls independent of frequency.
c) Decreases with decreasing frequency.
b) envelc,pe ~atching '. . ,. .
c) beat frequency discrimination Q88. Atmospheric ducting close to the earth, is most likely?
a) In an inversion with constant humidity at all altitudes.
Q79. An aircraft ls flying on' tlie true.track 090° towards-11 VOR station located near
b) In an inversion with humidity decreasing with increasing altitude.
t~:,::a:;;;heTrhe t~ e ma,gn~tic '\'.&ria,tion is 15°E. The variation at the aircraft
· P • e a 1~ci:a!t is on VOR radial: c) Over land.
a) zgso
1
. ,. ,· b). 2ss0 • '. . , c) 21s 0
Q89. The BFO in an ADF?
~80. VOR sta~on I_>osltion N61° E025°, V!lriatto_nJ3~E; .Estimat~ ~~sition of an a) Produces a signal that differs from the received signal by approximately 2 KHz.
aircraft N59 0 E025°, variation 20°E. What VOR radial is the aircraft on? b) Produces a 2 KHz signal.
a) 160° b) 193° , . c) , 1670. c) Minimise static interference.
Q81. W~c,h oft~~ foilo~n( eq~pm~nts_u~es primacy radar prln~ipl~s? Q90. For a VOR and a DME beacon to be said to be associated the aerial separation
a) Global Positioning System (GPS) must not exceed ... in a terminal area and ... outside a terminal area)
b) Airborne weather radar(AWR) a) 50 feet; 200 feet b) 100 m; 2000 m c) 30m; 600m
.. c) Secondary Su,rveillance Radar (SSR) Q91. DME ls a (i) radar operating in the (ii) band and transmits (iii).
Q82. The wavelength of HF-is? · a) (i) secondary; (ii) UHF; (iii) pulse pairs
a) ~ Centimetric • _ .• · •ti: , b) .:De~~_etric . c). . Metric b) (i) secondary; (ii) SHF; (iii) 2400 pu\se pairs per second
Q83. The least.attenuation of.a skywave is likely to occur at? c) (i) primary; (ii) SHF; (iii) CW pulses
a) . Midnight and high fyeqµency. Q92. What type of pressure sensor is employed in a barometric altimeter?
b) Midday and high frequency. a) Aneroid capsule. b) Differential capsule. c) Bellows .
c) Midnight and low frequency. Q93. If the glass·of a barometric altimeter in a pressurised alrcnft becomes cracke
Q84. Dlff'rictfoo', of.:licilo :wiv~jt,: ;. ·, and the static ports become blocked, the altimeter wi\\'?
a) Increases with increasing' frequency. a) Over read, b) Under read. c) Read cabi..n altitud
b) Decreases with increasing·~uency.
c) Is constant at all frequencies.
569
568
SAMPLE PAPERS 3
PART IV SAMPLE PAPERS . la (EBSI) in the diagram
QlOO.Which mode is selected on the Navigation 0 isp y
. l ch meter indications?
below?
a) Are temperature related.
b J Increase with temperature.
c) Are independent of temperature.
Q9S. Wbat is actually measured by a mach meter?
a) Pilot pressure.
b) The
, ratio
_ of (pitot pressure · s tat·1c pressure): static
. pressure.
c) fhe ratio of static pressure to dynamic.pressure.
Q 96 · The I~ternatio~al Date Line is found on or near the---. When crossing the
date ltoe traveling west, you go into t h e - - - - day:
a) Parallel, next day c) Expanded NAY mode.
a) Full VORmode. o) Expanded VOR mode.
b) Meridian, previous day
c) Meridian next day .
Answe·r s
Q97 · An airborne instrument, equipped with a gyro with 2 degrees of freedom and
a horizontal spin axis is?
. ) ..,,. - \ ·~ • <
·14 15 16 - 17 18 19 2(
Q: l 2 3 4 5 ·6.. T 8,J, .. .9 · _,10 . ) 1 i~ J3
a) A.11 ar'; ficial horizon. b) A turn indicator. c) A directional Gyro .
b b b a C b C b a a
Q98. Wha t error is caused by movement of the gyro relative to the earth in a DGI? A: C a b C C C b b C C
,::""' < •'
a) Transport wander. b) Earth rate. c) Real wander.

Q99 . Gyro scope rigidity is increased by RPM and concentrating the mass at Q: 21 22 2,3 24 25 26. 27 -~8· 2~:f ·so 31 32 l -33 3,i· ''35 '36 - 37 38 39 4C
the . ..... of the rotor? <,... ~y
,
A: a a b a b C a b C b b b a C a b C a b a
a) Increasing hub) b) Increasing rim. c) Decreasing hub) .. '<: a,•*' ,,, ~- ~·
,
,
Q : 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 '4$ 49 5.0 ·5_1 52 53 1154· 55 56 57 58 59 60
A: C a C a a b .. a . ,a ",ta 'b a' 'c :·c ,a C a b a a a .
-
Q: 61 62 63 64 65 68 69 :7'()' ,ifi~''72 1'73 74·' 75· .76 77 78 79 80
66'. 0671 '·
,-' ... ~· .. ~ >) ;. ,,, ;i: ~ ! .
A: a C C a b b b a IJ, , <; . b b a a C a b a b C
' - - . "
. '
Q : 81 82 83 84 , 85 .-.,86;, ,87 '· ~8 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 1100·

' ' . J ~ .... ~
A: b C· C b· a b , a· b.. a ·C~~ a " a_ ; >

C C b ! b C a b , C
570 571 . ·
SAMPLE PAPER 4
Position A45o N, 70 E, Position B 450 N, 500 JS'E Distance A-B =280 NM, n is
QS. to the East of A, What is the longitude of position A?
a) 43• 39'E. b) 45• 57'E. c) 52° 53 'E.
Q9. What Is the longitude of a position 1S NM to the east of 58° 42'N 094° OO'W?
a) 093• 53.3' W. b) 094• 13.0'W. c) 0930 31.1 'W.
Q10. On an instrument check while tax.Ing when carrying out a turn the TSI wi
indicate.
- . . a) Slip in to the him b) skip out of turn. c) no slip or skid.
·. ·. :._-,_-. ·: SAMPLE PAPER 4 ·, :.. {tj Qll. Parallels of latitude, except the equator, are?
a) Rhumb lines.
-' ~ '( :_
b) Great circle.
c) Both Rhumb line and Great circles.
Qt. The duration of civil twilight is the tim ?
Q12. When landing in a southerly direction a direct reading magnetic com pas~ ~ ill
a) Between Sunset and whe th . e. indicate?
b) Between Sunset and h n tl e center of the sun is 60 below the true horizon.
a) Easterly turn. b) Westerly turn. c) No tum.
c) Betw S w en le top of the sun is 60 below the visual horizon
... een unset and_when the center of the sun is 60 below the visual ho~n Q13. The greatest cause of errors in a direct reading magnetic compass is?
Q2. E arth is,a: · a) Turning. b) Latitude changes. c) Parallax.
... a) Planet
b) Sateliite c) Asteroid . Q14. To improve the horizontallty of a compass, the magnet assembly is suspended
Q3. When standing at the South Pole . . • from a point?
... a) North ~ which direction will you be facing?
• · b) South. c) East. a) On the center line of the magnet.
Q4. An aircraft passes-position A (75o OO'N· , o ' b) Below the center of gravity.
00'N 140° 30'W). Wh t . th . l20 OO W) on route to position B (75o c) Above the center of gravity.
, a is e great circle track on departure from A?
a) 280". o •
Qt5. At what DRMC heading is roll out required when conducting a turn fro
.... . b) 285 . c) 267 0_
QS. south-.west to south-east at 45 degrees north?
A day at a place as .meitSured in local mean time starts•
a) when the mean sun trans·ts th .. · a) 115 degrees. b) 135 degrees. c) 14-0 degrees.
b .. :.. . . 1 e mend1an of the place in question.
) when the mean sun transits the anti meridian of the place in question. Q16. On a Mercator chart, at latitude 60° N, the distance measured between ,V002°
c) when the·mean sun transits the' l80E/W:·,. men'd•tan:
; and E 008° is 20 cm. The scale of this chart at latitude 60°N is approximately?
Q6. Deviation.applied-to magnetic-heading ;gives: a) l : 2 780 000, b) 1: 278 000. c) t : 27 800 000.
a) magnetic track . . . b). True heading c) Q17. What type of projection is generally used for charts used for navigatio iT'
compass heading North and South polar areas?
Q7.
A ncgattv_e (:westerly) magn~tic variation.signifies that:
a) Lambert's conformal. b) Polar stereographica\ projection. c) Direct Mercator.
a) compass north is ~t of magnetic' north
b) compass north is west of magn~tic north
c) true north is east of magnetic north
S72
573
I
SAMPLE PAPER 4
· An aero plane is flying t TAS
Ho fa r can th e aero plaane fl 180 kt on a track of 090°. The W /V is 045° / 50kt
f
Y out rom its base and return in one hour?
· Q27. H ambient temperature increases by 10 degrees, fof an aircraft flying at ·
a) 5 run . · constant TAS, the indicated macb number will ..... !and the true mach number
b) 9onm. c) 100 nm.
. T he fo llo~ ,ng infarm ti . d" will ........ ? . .
C ~20 kt a on is lSplayed on an Inertial Navigation System·
:, , t rue HDG 090\ Drift angle 50 right, TAS 480 kt SAT (static ·. a) Increase increase
temper ature) - 5 I oq Tb.e W /V being experienced is? . air b) Decrease Decreas~.
) 3220 I 60 kt. b) 3200 / 60 kt. c) .Notchange ' · Increase.
c) 320° / 45 kt.
20 R ct· · 08 o
· h undw~y arecnon 3 (M), Surface W/V 035135kt. Calculate the effective Q28. Distance 'A' to 'B' 2600 NM, Groundspeed 'out' 395 kt, Groundspeed ~back'
ea wm d component? 480 kl The time from 'A."to the Point of Eq~al Time (PET) between 'A' and
a) 25kt. b) 22 kt. 'B'ls?
c) 26 kt.
a) 267MJN; b) 217'MIN. c) 190 MIN.
Q 2 1. F or take-off an aircraft requires a headwind component of at least 10kt and
has a cross-wind limitation or 35kt. The angle between the wind direction Q29. Distance 'Q' to 'R' 1650 NM, Gr~un~sp~~~ 'out' 465 ~t, Groundspeed 'back'
and the runway is 60°, calculate the minimum and maximum allo,~able wind 38S'kt, Safe en~urance 911:R. The ~stance fr~m 'Q' to the Point of Safe
speed? 'Return (PSR) between ' Q'"and 'R' is? ..
a) 20 kt and 40 kt. b) 20 kt and 45 kt. a) 1867 NM. , b) 1842.NM. . c) 1896 NM.
c) 25 kt and 30 kt. ' . '
Q 22. W hen cli mbing through an isothermal layer at constant CAS? Q30. The empty mass of ao·~ei:o ~~'!~-is:~ven.~ 4,4~~0.kg. Op~rational items
(including crew standard mass of 1060 kg) are 2300 kg. H the maximum zero
a) Mach number increases. b) Mach number decreases. c) TAS decreases.
fuel mas_s~is given as 65S00 kg;tb:e·max1niia°ni'ttaffic load which could be
Q23. When descending through an isothermal layer at constant mach number? carried is:
a) TAS increases. b) TAS decreases. c) TAS remains constant. a) 19460 kg. ,.!>) '18400 kg1 c) 20700 kg
Q24 . When cJimbing at a constabt Mach number below the tropopa use, in ISA Q31. With respect to· aero plane loading'in the planiling'pliase, which of the
co nditions, the Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) will? following statements i~ ~iw,Yf correct'? - · · ;
a) Decrease. a) · LM =TOM -TRIP EUEI>
b) Increase at a linear rnte. b) MTOM = ZFM + MAXIMUM'POSSIBLE FUEL MASS
c) Increase at an exponential rate. c) MZFM = TRAFFICLOAD+DOM
Q25. n a stt:ady climb with the auto-throttle maintains a consta nt calibrated Q32. For the purpose of co~pletbig'tlie l~lass ,and Balance documentation, the
air sp eed. If the to tal temp erature remains constant. the Mach number ? Traffic Load-is ·considered .to b'e1equal to the Take-off Mass ,
a) Increases. a) less the operating·mass. ,,~ ·
b) Remai n constant. b) plus the op~rating•ma.ss. ,/ :~., • ...
c) Decreases if the static temperature is lower than the standard temperature. c) plus the trip fuel mass.
Q26. How wilJ CAS respond if temperature iocreas~s ,by S degrees C when flying at Q33. The center of' gravity-of an aero pla~e :
1
a constant indicated mach uumbcr at FL290? a) may only be moved ifpermitted·by the regulating authority and endorsed in the
a) lncreu.ses. aero plane's certificate-of airworthiness.
b) Decreases. b) is in a fixed position and is unaffected by aero plane loading.
Remains approximately cons'.ant. c) can be allowed to move between defined limits.
574
S7S
SAMPLE PAPER -4
Q34. In a DRC magnetic system Is made aperiodic by Q40. It is possible, ln tllght, to:
a) Pendulous suspension 1. file an IFR flight plan
b) Magnets with large magnetic momen.~ 2. modify an active IFR or VFR flight plan
c) Damping action of compass liquid
3. cancel an active VFR flight plan
Q35. Which of the following statements Is correct?
4. close an active VFR flight plan
a) The Maximum Take-off Mass is equal to the,max.imum mass when leaving the The combination of correct statements Is:
ramp.
a) 2,3,4 b) 1, 2, 3,4 c) 1, 2, 3
b) The Basic Eint>n' Mass'i~ equal to th; mass ofthe,acro plane exclud~g traffic load
and usable fuel but including the crew. Q41. The planned departure time from the parking area ls 1815UTC. The estimate
3
take-off time is 1825UTC. The lFR flight plan must be filed with ATC t the
c) 1:1~ M~um 4'1ding Mass of an aero plane is restricted by structural
lmutattons, performance limitations and the strength of the runway. latest at:
b) 1715UTC c) 1725UIC
Q36. The da~j s a ref~rence fom "!Jl[~h all _~oment (balance) arms are a) 174SUTC
measured. Its precise position ls g1ven.b:~ .the control and loading manual and it Q42. An aircraft at position 60°N 005°W tracks 090°(f) for 315 km.
is located · ' · ' '
,, . ), . -
On completion of the flight the longitude will be:
a) at or near tbe·naturalbalance point ofthd empty aero plane a) 002°10'W b) 000°1S'E c) 000°40'E
b) at or near the forward l~t of tl:ie 'cen~r of ghivity
Q43. Isogonals are lines of equal:
C) 'at a ~~nvenien~ ii~int·whi~~-m,aY·I}~~ physicalJ.y ~Ci on the aero'plane a) compass deviation. b) magnetic variation. c) wind velocity.
Q37. In mass and ba~ance calculations which of.the.following describes the datum? Q44. IAS 120 kt, FL 80, OAT +20°C), What is th.e TAS?
· a) It is the most f1£t position of the center of gravity a) 141 kt b) 102 kt c) 120 kt
b) It is the point ~n the a~rn plane,designated by the manufacturers from which all
Q45. Airport elevation is 1000 ft., QNH is 988 hPa), What is the approximate
center of gravity me~urements and calculations are made
airport pressure altitude? (Assume 1 hPa = 27 FT)
c) It is the distanceJrom the center of gravity to the? point<through which the weight of
a) 320 ft b) 1680 ft c) - 320 ft
the component a~ts
Q46. Half way between two reporting points the navigation log gives the fol\owin~
Q38. Vertical soft iron magnetism
information:
a) Strength increases
r ~·
#"
with
·;
,
in~r~e
,
in magnetic
(
latitude
, TAS 360 kt, WN 330°180kt, Compass heading 237°, Deviation on tbi he.ad.in
b) Strength v~ri~ as cosi!}e of magneti~ latitude , -5°, Variation 19°W.
c) has the same polarity in both the hemispheres What is the average ground speed [or this leg?
Q39. In high speed-aircraft, the TAS is determined by means of an: a) 403 kt b) 354 kt c) 373 kt
a) Air speed indicator Q47. A gyro which does not have a rotor is called
b) An acceleromet_c.r a) Ring laser gyro b) Rotor free gyro c) Free gyro
c) Mach meter
''
576 577
SAMPLE PAPER ◄
Q-i8. Tlie no r th magnetic pole is: Q56. The response rate of a VSI cu be improved by fitting a? . .
oke system- c) B1-~etal1c compensator.
a) A c me northern end of the Earth's axis of rotati a) Accelerometer system. b) Ch
b) ' I OD
is a ways in the same geographic position.
Q57. At MSL in the ISA?
c) Slowly and constantly changing its position. a) CAS = TAS b) IAS = TAS c) IAS = EAS
Q 9. If Q F E is 1022 hPa what is t.he pressure altitude of the field? Q58. In an ASI system, what does the pitot probe measure?
a) 270 ft ams! a) Total pressure. b) Dynamic pressure. c) Static pressure.
b) -270 ft ams!
Q59. CAS is?
c) 30660 fl ams!
a) BAS corrected for position error and compressibility error.
QSO. T
thhe primary
h · factor which ma k es th e servo-assisted
. altimeter more accurate b) IAS corrected for position error and _instrument error.
en t es 1mp 1e pressure altimeter is the use of? c) TAS corrected for instrument error and ram effect.
a) A sub-scale lugarithmic function.
Q60. The limits of the green scale of an airspeed indicator are?
b) An induction pick-off device.
a) VSI for the low~r limit and VNE ~~r-the upper limit.
r ) More effective temperature compensating leaf springs.
b) VSl for the lower limit and VLO for the upper ! imit.
Q51. Why are vibrators sometimes fitted in altimeters?
c) VS I for the lower limit and VNO for the upper limit.
a) Owrcome friction .
Q61. The limits of the yellow.scale-of an alrspee_d indicator are?
b) Overcome inertia
a) VLO for ~e lower limit and,VNB for the.upper limit. .
c) Overcome hysteresis.
b) VNE for-the lower limit and VNB for the upper limit.
Q52. The low-ultHude radio altimeters used in precision approaches:
c) VFE for the lower limit and VNB for the upper limit.
a) Operate in the 1540-1660 MHz range.
Q62. A mach meter comp_rises of?
b) Are of the pulsed type.
a) A combination of ASI and altimeter.
c) Arc of the freq uen<.;y modulation type.
b) A combination ofVSI and altimeter.
QSJ. For th e landing configuration a radio altimeter indicates?
c) AnASI with its scale marked in mach -nwnbers.
a) Al titude of the main wheel ~bove ground?
Q63. What is the TAS at 40000 ft ln the ISA?
b) Height of the flight deck above the ground.
a) 542 Kts. b) 660 Kts. c) 573 Kts.
c) Height of the main wheel above the ground.
Q54. VSJ'! Q64. What happens to mach meter indication in a constant RAS climb?
a) Increases.
a) Produces an output proportional to ambient pressure.
b) Measures the difference between total pressure and static pressure.
b) Decreases.
l-J Me sures the difference between the pressure inside and outside a capsule. c) Increases then remains constant.
Q55. V I inwcates !ncrcasing ROD by?
a) VSI needle moving downwards.
b1 VSI needle moving upwards.
c) VSJ needle stationary.
578
579
PART IV SAMP,LE PAPERS SAMPLE PAPER 4
~ 'the characteristics of the directional gyro (DG)_used in a gyro stabilised Q71. Which or the following properties are possessed by a st,\ndby ,.rtificfal
compass system are? -. ,_ '- ' ' ,~, ·
horizon?
- a) One degree of freedom. whose veiticai axis, aligned Mth the real "vertical to the 1. Independent power supply.
location is maintained i~ tliis directiori by an automatic erecting system., 2. Integral gyro.
b) Two degrees' of freedom, .whose horizontal'axis corresponding to'the reference 3. Remote (external) gyro.
direction is mainfa~ed ~ ~ ~ori&ntal. plan~'by:an a'l;lt9riiatic erec.~ g system.
4. Used orily in emergencies.
c) Two degrees of freedom, ~liose.:00s-ali~<:rl with the vertical to the _location is
5. At least one per pilot in JAR 25 aircraft.
maintained in~this directionby·an erecting system.
a) 1, 2. b) 2, 3. c) 3, 4.
Q66. Radio wave ground attenuation is greatest on : ·
Q72. If an aircraft turns through 270° at a constant rate of turn and AOB, the
a) HF band -
,1· •·. indications on·its classic artificial horizon will be?
b) 'MF band
a) Bank-left nose up.
c) tF band
. • : ... -. . •.;._.~ . . :.- i' ! •. . • -. ~- . f ., -~ b) Bank right nose up.
Q67. When an .aircraft has furneii 3M degrees ~it~ a constant attitude and bank,
c) Wtngs level nose up.
tb·e pflot.ob'serves the following on·a cfassic'artificial horizon?
a) · Too much nose-up··and:baiik'correct ... Q73. The turn needle indicates ..... in a slightly bnr.ked turn?
b) Too much nose-up and bank too high. a) Angular velocity about the vertical axis.
c) Attitude'and liankicorrectr t ~ -·· :;'.•'-'',,, b) i\ngular acceleration about the vertical axis.
c) Angular velocity about the lateral axis.
Q68. When ·a n ai'rcraft has turned'270 degrees with;a constant attitude and bank,
the pilot observes -the follow'ing on·a classic 'artificial horizon? Q74. A rate 1 tum at 120 kts requires?
a) Too much nose-up and bank:too,higb. a) 10° AOB b) 20° AOB c) 30° AOB
b) Too much nose-up and bank too low. Q75. Following a left engine failure the pilot of a multi-engine aircra£t uses rudder
c) Attitude:and bank correct to oppose yaw and keep the aircraft on heading, whilst ,,sing h<\nk to p_rev('nt
side slip. What will the turn and slip indicator show?
Q69. An AI.has?
a) Both needle and ball central
a) one degrees of freedom and a-lateral spin axis.
b) Needle central-and ball right.
b) Two degrees of freedom and a vertic~I spin axis. -
c) Both needle ana ball left.
c) Two degrees o(freedom,~nd a horizontal·spin-axis.
Q76. The data supplied by a radio altimeter?
Q70. How will ~ basic_.AI,respondjf 1,1n aircraft performs a 270 degree turn at '
cons,tant bank angle and ROT? a) Indicates the distance between the ground and the aircraft.
a) Nose up and bank b) Con~·erns only,the decision height -
b) Nose down and bank c) ls used only by the radio altimeter indicator.
c) Nose level and bank Q77. The ATC transponder system,excluding Mode S, contains :
a) two modes, each of 4096 codes
b) four modes, each l 024 codes
c} four modes, each 4096 codes
S80 S81
----- -==~-----~P~'A~R~J_flV~SAM~P~L:§_E~PA~P~E~R~S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
_. . . . ' nae?
• What approximate rate of desc
padt -1 a groundspeed of 120 k:; tI .
s required in order to maintain a 30 glide. Q88. W~ch of.the foll~~a~ ~ause,alr de?slty. ~o .~ .' • .: .. : ·.
· a) ·Increasing humidity, decreasing altitude, mcreas~g-tffllpe~-·
a.) 950 ftimin b). 600 ft/ .
mm c) 550 ft/min b) Increasing humi.dity, increasing'altitude, ~~~_g~~e.
7~. O uter marker transmits on 75 MHz and has an aural frequ~ncy oi: . h ·d·ty increasing-altitude mcreasmg temperature:.
c) Increasmg wm t , • •
a) 400 hz b) 2000 hz ~) 3000 hz
Q89. EAS is
QSO. " ~bat approximate rate of descent is required in order to maintain .a 3° a) IAS ~orr~te.d for adiabatic compression
glidepath at a groundspeed of 90 kt? b) CAS corrected for adiabatic co~pression
a) 450 ft/min b) 400 ft/min c) 600 ft/min c) IAS corrected for instruments error~. _ _ _, ·,, . _ . , , _
Q81 . The BFO selector on an ADF l'eceiver is used to: Q90. When a » ,ME is u~e4histead of mark.er beacons to provlde ,ran,e~to, t¥'·
a) hear the ident and must alway:~ b~-~witched on threshold on ·an ILS approach and where the DME freq~ncy 15 paired with
b) find the loop 'null' position the ILS, th~ )):ME indicatlo~s ~~~-~ td :not be ,o_secJ at.altli:u,des:~ter-_than:·
) hear the ID ENT of some NDB stations radiating a continuous wave signal a)° 25,000 _ft b) . 10,000ft ·c)· 6,000ft.
Q82 . What is the colour sequence when passing over an Outer, Middle and Inner Q91. An aircraft DME receiver does not fock·on to fts own transmissions reflected
Marker beacon? from the ground -b.ecause:
a) blue - amber - white b) amber - white - green c) white - amber - blue a) the pulse recurrence rates· are varied ·
Q83. The OUTER MARKER of an Instrument Landing System (ILS) facility b) they are_npt-on the rec~~vei:-Jrequency •~., .
tra11smits on a frequency of: c) DME uses the· UHF~b,µid ,
a) ioo mhz and is modulated by alternate.dot/dash in inorse Q92. What will be.the•rate of desccn_t;wheo·flytng down a 12% glide slope, at.a
b) 75 m..hz and is modulated by alternate dot/dash in morse ~rou~ds~~~d,of350 kpQ~? _.. . ,, ,.
c) 7 5 mhz and is modulated by rr.orse at two dashes per Second a) 4255ft/min. b) 4283:ft/min. c) 4382ft/min.
Q84. If the rcferettce phase differs 30° with the variable phase the radial from the Q93. If the pressure feed Un~Jo ll:baronietric. altimeter becomes detached from the
VOR station will be : back of the instru~e~fi'~'fllg~{t#~i~str.um:ent'.will?
~2 10° b) 150° c) 030° a) Read zero continuously; ; __ -bf :t ~dcabin altitifde. -c) Over read.
Q85. Instrument Landing Systems (rLS) Glide Paths provide azimuth coverage (i) Q94. If temperature increa; e;_-~y;Si~e~~; es,
descent, what will happ~n:to,,~ AS? ::,
c:~~ri. ~g.~.~~s~nt
.
mach number
......... .
0
each side of the localizer center-line to a distance of (ii) .......... NM from ·'-.!, -,.: . . ,,;;~/;;:~~-/... ,-. ·i '<· •
the threshold. · a) Increase by 5 Kts. ? ; .b,)' Jrlcre~elly 10'.Kts. ~ c)· Remain COM.tal\_t.
4.:___4~,; -::~- -~~' ._ ~· -:·- ,- "';_, ... -
a) (i) 25 (ii) 17 b) (i) 35 (ii) 25 c) (i).8 (ii) 1o Q95. What does mach DUD\tier,r{pre,ent?-'" .,., · .;~ _
·• Q8(i. For a conventional DME facility Beacon Saturation will occur whenever the a) The CAS of~ airci~tt,as a.;fra¢ti61i°oi the.tocal sp~d of~ound.
number of simultaneous interrogations exceeds: b) The local speed of soµnd,~ ,~~~~tion qfihe:~ i _s· ~rim:-~
a) 60 b) 100 c) 200 c) The lAS of an aircraftt!,lS~a fr_action of the local ~peed-of_sound.
Q87. The accuracy of a DME: ¥-
; ~,
a) is approximately +- 2 nm. ~,,
b) is approximately+- 0.5 nm. '.f;,
decreases with increase of range. ~';,
582 583,
"1<
PART IV ~ PAPERS
•Aaalrl,....., axis h? equipped with • gyro with 2 degrees of freedon, and

lnlfnuaen~
borize111a1 •pin
a) A direetionaI gyro.
- Answers
SAMPLE PAPER 4
b) An artificial horizon.
) A tum indicator.
Q: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2
A: a a a a b C C a C b a C a C a a b a b a
Ao alrl,orne
Q97. horizontal lnmumen~
spin axb Js a? equipped With a gyro with I degree of freedom and a
a Fh.Dtgate compass.
b) Directional gyro. Q: 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 -30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 '.19 40
c) Turn indicator.
A: a a C a a C b b C. b a a C C C C b a r h
Q98. In • lfandby co111paH the magnet system

The purpose or this UquJd Js to
ts immen ed in a transparent liquid.
a) increase sensitivity, increase aperiodicity. Q: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 4.9 50 53 54 55 56 57 5tl 59
b) increase sensitivity at high latitudes., lubricate bearings. a
A: b C b a b a a C b b a
c) increase sensitivity, decrease aperiodicity.
q,9. TIie 'departure' between p ositions 60"N 160" E a nd 600 N 'X' is 1800 NM. Eut
What fs th e fongJtnde o( 'X'? Q: 6 1 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 '75 76 7~ 79 RO
a) 120° 8 . b) 1400 E. c) 14-0" W.
A: b a C a b b a a b b a a l> a d
QlOO. Whi h mode is selected in t~e Navigation Display (EHSI) fo diagram below?
Q: 8 l 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 94 95 96 97 98
A: C a C C C b C C b C b a b a
i) PUJJVORm d .
b) &pandtdVORm d
c , Full AV mode,
58◄ 585
Q6. The angle between magn.e t1·c north and compass •
north is called:
.
. • ·
a) magnetic vanatton
b) compass dev iation c) alignment error
Q7. A positive (ea1terly) magnetic ~arlation signifies that'?
a) True North is East of Magnetic Not;h,
b) True North iJI West of Magnetic North.
c) Magnetic North is West of Compass North.
A (10-0 0O'N 030° 00'W) to position B (30° 00'N,
QS. In order to fly f rom pos ltion ' . t fl ?
050 00'W), maintaining a constant true course, it is necessary o y.
0
a) A rhumb Line track.

b) The ccnstant average drift route.
c) The great-circle route.
Q9. At a fixed pressure altitude an increase lo temperature will ?
a) Decrease density but increase density altitude.
l · The ~ain _reason th at day and night, throughout the year, have different
du ration, 1s due to the? b) Decrease density altitude
a) The changing distance betwee·1 the Sun and the Earth. c) Not affect density altitude
0
b) The inclination of the ecliptic to the Equator. QtO. The coordinates of the heliport at Issy les Moulineaux are N48° 50' EOOl
16.5'. the coordinates of the antipodes are?
c) Tlic changing shape of the orbit to the Earth around the Sun.
a) S41° l0' Wl77°43.5' .
Q2. Tue purpose of creating netw<'rk of latitudes and longitudes is
b) S41° l0'El77° 43.5'.
a) for pmpointing positions on the Earth
c) S48° 50' W177° 43.5'.
b) fur siutegic reasons during war
Q11. The position of an aircraft that it would reach if it were flown in co editions of
c) for uavigation by ships .
no wind is known as:
~._3. T e dat1Jm ::sed fo".' measuring directions is a) DR position
a) thi; mcriui au of the place b) Latitude of the place c) none is com.ct. b) Most probable position
4. W hich on e of the following des,:ribes the appearance of rhumb lines, except c) Air position.
meridians, on a polar stereographic chart? Q12. The sensitivity of a magnetic compass can be affected by?
a) Ellipses around the pole. a) The H c9mponent o[ the ~arth's magnetic-field.
b) Curves concave to the pole. . b) The Z component-of the earth's magnetic field .
c) Curves convex to the pole. c) Both of~e above.
Q5. On 4 February the air almana; lists 1941 as the time of sunset at 5000S. Q13. When cruising on a we~tetly, heading a direct reading magnetic compass "Will
A:n observer registers sunset at 2113 UTC this day. What is the observers indicate? ·
position?
a) Northerly tum. b) Southerly tum. c) No tum.
a) 5000S 023 00W. b) 5000S 01035W. c) 5000S 02200E.
586 587
SAMPLE PAPER S
PART. IV SAMPLE PAPERS

mprlses of!
Q25. A mach meter co . eter
Ql4. When tur.nlng,right through 90 degrees to north, In the nortlicrb hemisphere, a) A combination of AS! and a~•: ma.c h numbers.
· roll out should' be conducted on' a heading of? b) An ASI with its scale roarke ked in mach numbers.
a) 010 degrees. · b) O~O.degrees. c) 350 degrees .. c) An altimeter with its scale mar T erature deviation is -ooc
QJ5. When turning from SE to SW at 50,degrees ,north, the roll out-should occur 0 Kts TAB at FL290, emp
QZ 6 . An aircraft is flying at 31 ?
at? · The local speed of sou nd Is· c) 596 Kts .
a) 245 degrees. ·b) 2JO degrees. c) 225 degrees. b) 583 Kts.
a) 570 Kts. . ' ncrease of 93 Kts TAS. H
Q16. On a Lambert Conformal conic cbatt great circle that arP, not meridians are? h number results tn an •
Q27. Increase of 0.15 In mac ISA is_ 9 oc, the FL is?
a) Curves concave to the pole ofp('ojection. temperature d~vlatlon from c) FL90.
b) Straight lines within the'standardparallels. b) FL220. ,
a) FL200. , t' 420 k~ Groundspee d ' h ack
c) ·Curves concave to the parallel of origm.
Q28. Distance' A' to 'B' 2900 NM, Gr~~s;~:dti:~ from ' A' to tbe Point of Safe
Q11. Parallels oflatitude, except the .equator, are? 480 kt. Safe endurance 8 HR 30
a. Rhumb lines. ,-b) Gomplox curves.. • c), Great circle. Return (PSR) ' A' is? c) 249 MIN ,
b) 29 5 MIN .
Ql8. TAS = 270 kt, true HDG = 270°, ·actu'ahvlnd '205°(T)/30ict; Calculate the drift a) 272 MIN. . , , kt, Groundspe.ed ' b a ck '
angle and GS? · · o NM., Groundspeed out 450 , d
Q29, Distance ' Q' to 'R' 176 . f E ual Time (PET) between ' Q an
a) 12R-269kt. b) 6L-259kt. c) 6R- 259kt. 360 kt. The time from 'Q' to the Point o q
Ql9. TAS =1-35 kt, HDG ("T)·= i278°, WN = 140/20ktCalculate the Track ("T) and 'R' is? 104 MTN
109' MIN . b) 116 MIN. c) .
GS? a) . d 'out' 378 kt, Groundspeed 'ha ck '
a) 284-lSOkt. b) '273-lSOkL c) 280-150 kt. Q30. Distance ' A' to 'B' 3600 NM, Gropu~d?:~qual Time (PET) between '~ a nd
400 k t. The time from_' N to the o n o
QZ0. Magne'tfc track= 210°; ':Magnetfc' HDG ='215°, VA1f=1S 0 E, TAS =360 kt
'B' is?
aircraft flies 64 NM in ·il MIN. Calculate the true W N? · .- c) 288 MIN .
a) 283 MIN. b) 323 MIN.
0
: a) 264, /SOJg., . "'· :~ ) 2~5°/4Q _kL c) 260°/50 kt: . l d' tance flights (at the aero
QJl Considering only structural limitations, on ong ts . . ed b .
Q21. Course 09S (T), TAS is 220 kt, wind. speed 70 kt. Maxiinurit drift angle will be
0
. plane's maximum range), the traffic load is normally lirmt y.
obtained for a wind direction of:
a) the maximum zero fuel mass.
a) 165°. b) , 185°. c) 215°.
b) the maximum zero fuel mass plus the take-off mass.
Q22. When climbing through an isothermaUayer at constant mach number? c) the maximutil'take-offinass.
a) CAS increases;• .. , J' b)t CA.Rdecreases.- '·, , c) TAS decreases.
Q32. Traffic load is the:
Q23; When descending through an •isrithermallayer at constant CAS? a) zerofuel mass minus dry operating mass.
a) LSS increases. b) •LSS ~ecreases. c) LSS remains constant. b) dry operating mass minus the disposable load.
Q24. How will mach meter mdicatfcm respond if an aJrcraft is flying at constant c) dry operating mass minus the variable load.
CAS atF,L270;when ~hxperiences a-reduction -in OAT?
a) No change,
b) Decrease:
c) Increase or decrease depending on TAT.
589
588
' , !laxhnwn Structural Landin . . - . . _ fthe.,center~-of,gravity,a _referell'ce
702.00 g g Mass. 68000 kg, Maximum Zero Fuel Mass: . ecftoctJle_position 'o ,
Q37. In calculations w.tth resp - . . · ·
-
·
.
.
.
.
1 ! . 15
.
nuu:n Structural Take-otrMass· 78200 kg is made to a datum. The datum the ilot which can be located anywhere on the
Or-y Op~rating Mass : 48000 kg · ' ) arbitrary reference chosen by p . . . .
a an .. .
aero plane L • plane manufacturer. l ts position 18
~ed~led trip fuel is 7000 kg and the reserve fuel is 2800 kg, hi h is chosen by the aero ·
b) a reference plane w c Ftiglit or Loading Manual ·
.,. .ss ~1ng performance limitations are not restricti.n g, the maximum given in the aero plane .
p ermitted take-off mass and m ·
al 7200 kg an· d 22200 kg axunum traffic load are respective~y: c) calculated c-om the lo~ing manifest clfic point to the body station
re measured from a ape
bi 75(J()Q k<~and 17200 kg Q38. Moment (balance) arms aed That point is known as
at which the mass }8 locat · _ _ .
J 75000 kg and 20000 kg
a) the focal point ..
3--4 . Ury Operating Mass= 29 800 kg, Maxim.um Take-Off Mass== 52 400 kg b) the datum
Muimum Zero-Fuel Mass= 43 100 kg, Maximum Landing Mass= 46 700 kg c) thecenter of gravity of the aero plane •
l'rip fu ·I= 4 000 kg, Fuel quantity at brakes release= 8 000 kg . O f take-off flight path begms
• he ma.x imum traffic load is: Q39. The second segment - th eed for the flap retraction
a) when acceleration starts from V2 to e sp .
a) 13 300kg tJ 9300kg c) 12900kg b) when landing gear is fully retracted
<.. ·:·. A tUg,h1 h a been made from London to Valencia carrying minimum fuel and
c) when flap retraction begins . · . t
maximum traffic load. On the return flight the fuel tanks in the aero plane are · li able to the acceleration beigbt·a
o be filled to capacity with a tota.J fuel load of 20100 litres at a fuel density of Q40. Which of the following statements is !lP?- c . -
0.79 kg/]. the b inning of the 3rd climb segment., . , . .
eg minunum
a) The . , one engine . ~ut accc 1erati'on ,height
' must be mamtamed
, m case of all
Th~ foUowing are the aero plane's structural limits:
Ma I mum Ramp Mass: 69 900 kg, Maximum Take Off Mass: 69 300 kg engines operating · . · tak ff thrust
b) The maximum accelerati~n height depends on the maxtmum tune e-o
Ma imum Landin g M.ass: 58 900 kg, Ma.t imwn Zero F uel Mass: 52 740 kg
may be applied .
The performance limited take off mass at Valencia is 67 330 kg.
c) There is no requirement for minimum climb performance when fiymg at the
'f11 e lnudJng mus at London is not performance limi ted. acceleration height
Dry pcratfog Mas : 34 930 kg, Trip Fuel (Valencia to London) : 5 990 kg
Q41 If 8 pilot lands at an aerodrome other than the destination aerodrome tin ti
Ta ful'I : 250 kg
· specified in the filght plan, he must ensure that the ATS unit at the des • E~
Tht' muimum traffic lo.id that can be carried from Valencia wUI be: aerod rome is informed within a certain number ·or minutes ,of hls,planned.
) 13 240 kg b) 16 170kg c) 14 331 kg at destination. The number of minutes is:
a) 30 b) 15 c) 4S
'-, • ·1 he ma imum certi.ticated ta:ti (or ramp) mass is that mass to wbJch 110 aero
pl.a.oc may be loaded prior to engine start. It is : Q42. You make a diversion from the route given in the fllght.plan ,and, land at·a;.C?
J · " uc which varies with aimeltl temperature and altitude. c-0rrcctions arc listed in uncontrolltd airfield. Within what time after landing sh,ould you lµ.form ~ - ·
fl ight manua l. a) 20 mins b) 45 mins c) 30,mins
bJ uc vl,ich varies only with &irlield altitude. standard corrections are listed in the
H1 •ht manual
C}' h. ed lu.c which is listed in the flight manual
590 591
PART IV SA.M~l.:E·PAPERS
..... SAMPLE PAPER 5
Q43.· 1:bch~e on,a·Lambert collforniaJ conic chart:
a) is constant along a meridian of longitude , th ltimeter reading In a right sldesllp, if an aircnJt h a~ .
b), is constant along a parallel of latitude QSO. What will happen tho Ide aof the fuselage but the left one Is blocked?
I. a static vent at eac s e '
..... c) . varies slightly' as a functio_n of latitude lllld longitude a) Over read b) Under read. c) No change.
►
Q44. On a'Dfrect.Mercator cha~ a rliumb)i~e app~ars a: a~ Q 51. O.S NM for 1 minute of dUTcrence In longitude at:
a) small circle concave to the p~le . . . . . ,, n~r a) 60°N b) . 45 rn..1
T~ .
c) • 20°w •
b) straighttine ·· ·
Q52. What will happen to altimeter indication If an aircraft m level H1ght enters a
C) curve' c~nvex to the n~r PQle' ' ' .' ' ' . I • cold front?
at
Q4S. An aircraft was over '(jt 1320 hours flying ~ect to 'R'. a) Over indication.
Distance 'Q' to ·•R' 3016 NM, True airspeed 480 kt b) Under indication.
c) No change.
Mean wind component 'out' -90 ·k4 Mean wind comP,onent 'back' +75 kt
Sate endurance 10:00~HR" ' ~- 1
QS3 In low altitude radio altimeters, the reading is zero when main landing gear
The distance from 'Q' to the,Poinfof Sare' Return (PSR)' 'Q' is: . wheels are on the ground. For this, it is necessary to?
a) 2370nm · •b) , 2290~~ ··. c) 1510~ a) Change the display scale in short final, in order to bave a precise readout . ..
Q46. An Island ls observed to be 15° to the left. · b) Comp~nsate residual altitude due to antennas height above the ground and coax1al
cables length. _
The •1;rcraft h~adirig is i~0°(M); variation t 7°(W);
~) Account for signal processing time in the unit and apply a correction factor to the
.The bea'ring (T)·i'ron?the.afr~ri1:t'to tbe"lsla'nd •is:
0
readings .
a) 268 · .. · .f 'b) 30i!',
• c) 088
• . • ?
•, ,. •,l I'.• ., \ ,,•:
QS4. The operating frequency range of a altitude radio altimeter lS •
Q47. During a climb after take-ofHorm a contaminated run~ay, if total the a) 2700 MHz to 2900 MHz.·
p~ssure probe of the •~rsP,eedJ9dJc~tor isJ>Jo~ked, the pilot ~hat indicated
airspeed_? : · · · · . b) 5 GHz
a) Decre~es abruptlyJow,_ards ze.ro. . c) 4200 MHz to 4400 MHz.
b)" Increases steadily . . .- . -' .(· QSS. An advantage of VHF as compared to low frequency radio i :
c) Incre~es agruptJy towaz:.ds VNE. a) Speed of reception as wa~es travel faster
/ • '>, ·"" . , .; •
b) Much greater range is possible

Q48. Wfth J,pito,.probeiblocked due to·,Jce build up; tbe•aircraft airspeed indicator
wiU.indfcate_indes¢enta? ·,: ,:; ·; , ,. c) Reduction of static interference
a) Increasing speed. b) Flticfuatihg'speed c) Decreasing speed. Q56. As an aircraft moves close to the groun d d unng
· a l a nding the VSl miobt?
"'
Q49. The density alti!tideJs? a) Become inaccurate due to ground effect
a) 'The iiltitude·ofthe)tandafd atmosphere oii'wnfoh ·the·density is equal'to the actual 0

b) Become inaccurate due to turbulence.
derisi~'of..theatmosphere:- . :, ; ' '·,-:j• ' ii ' . '; ·. 1" c) Stick due to loss of pitot source.
b) The ~mJ>etature aititude-corrected for th~;difference between th~ real 'temperature Q57. What sho~\d the VSI indicate when an aircraft on a 3 degne glide slope i
and standard t~mperature. . · flying at 100 Kts TAS?
c) The pressure altitude co.rrecte9 for the relative density.prevailing-at this point. a) 224 fpm descent.
b) S24 fpm descent.
c) 424-fpm descent.
5.92.
S93
Uthe port Static vent of a lar ,_ .
SI 1 SAMPLEPAPER 5 .
. Du.aCations
", . When ·t · ·d ge lip ,
au-craft 1s blocked, What will happen to the
descerrt:> I is s1 es PlJJg at a constant rate to the left in a -inecJ'by the ·o·umber.of gimltal
a · 0 er indicate.
d I
Q67. The degrees of free om o • ovro are
rings ft comprises. Among the gh
-fl£
d.ete......lnstna01enu, the ..-1U1
t co·otrol
pe with?
-...u:clal horizon
b) Under indicate. c) Be unaffected.
Q59. W hat doe, the blue Uoe oo a twin engine piston ah-craftASI indicate? plays an essential part. It uses a gyr~co. ted and continuously maintained to
a) Two degrees offreed om, whose . axis
tin issonen
tem. .
aJ VXSE. b) vYSE. c) ···VNE.
local v.ertical by an automatic erec g ys ; , ding to a reference
Q60. What •re indicated by the lo1¥er and upper ends of the white arc oo ao AS11
b) Two degrees of.freedom, w os~
.
h horizontal . ,axis correspon
. tain din a honzootal axis.corr-.rn...
uu=
-,fing to a reference ...1=--tt·on IS
•
a I VS l and VFE. bJ VSO and VFB. cJ VFE and VFO. direction IS mam . e . an automatic erecting system.
Q6J. When de,ceodlng from FL4oo and a«.mpting to maiotaio maxi.mom maintained in a honzontal plane by ~ . . maintained in a horizontal plane .
c) One degree of freedom, whose boriZQnta. aXIS i:s
groundspted, airspeed wiU be limited by?
aJ V then VMO. by an automatic erecting system.
bJ VNO then VNE. Q68. A slaved directional gyro deraves
. it ,s directional signal from?
CJ MMO then VMO. a) a direct reading magnetic compass.
b) The flight director.
Q62. itirspccd
Duriog a(CAS)?
s traight and uniform climb, the pilot maltttain, a coustant caUbrated c) · The (lux valve.
a) TI.t Mach number increases and the true airspeed (TAs) increases. Q69. Ai~craft attitude~ indicated_~n?
bj The Mach number increases and the true airspeed (TAS) is constan t. a) ~ICAS/ECAM primary display.
CJ The Mach number is constant and the true airspeed (TAS) is constanL b) EFIS 1'{!).
3. VLE i a,~ maximum? c) EFJS PFD. .
· ) Speed authorized in flight. Q70. when turning through 90° at constant AOB and pitch attitude, what will a
b) Flight speed wi th landing gear. down. classic artificial horizon indicate-?
c) Speed at which the landing gear can be operated with full safety a) Too much nose up-and too little bank angle.
b) Too ·much nose up and too much'bank angle.
Q6 . How ill macb meter iodfoation vary ia a const~nt CAS cUmb?
a; Increase. c) Too little nose up and too little bank angle.
b) Decrease.
Q71. The ball in a s~rviceab,e §,Yp incllca(or is ..... ... by .... , ...... and .. · · · · · · · .. ··
c) Increase then remain couscant. indkate/s the state of slip?
a) Held central Gravity
65. Wha t J the LSS at MSL, ISA? Does not alway~.
b) Positioned Acceleration
a) 600 Kts. b) 661 Kts. Does not always.
c) 750 Kts. c) Held central Gravity
Always.
66. Wb, t would bappeo if tbe •ta Uc pipe became detached Crom the back or a Q72. The turn indicator is affected by?
macb meter io a pressurised aircraft at high altitude? l.~OB) '
a) Under read.
b) Over reac1.
2. Airspeed;
;
1
o effect. 3. Weight.
4. Altitude.
a) l, 2.
b) 2, 3. c) 3, 4.
59i
· 595
PAP.TN SAMl?t.E: PAPERS.
SAMPL~ PAPER 5
Q73. The correct tum and slip lndlcations·wtien turning right on tbe,ground are?
a) Needle and ball tight . . ,. · · ··. , , . . . Q80. An aircraft carrying out an ILS approach Is receiving more 90 Hz than 150 Hz
modulation notes from both the localjser and glide path transmitters. The ILS
b) N,ecdle and ball left. , .
indication will' show:
C) Needle right ai:ul ball left. >
a) fly le.ft and fly up
·Q74. ~QT indicatio~s depend on? b) fly right and-fly down
1-. Ainpeed. · · ~ 2.· Mass. . 3. AOB , c) fly left and fly down
a) 1,2. · ·· b) 2,3. . c) ·t; 3. . Q81. Quadrantal errors associated with aircraft Automatic Direction Finding
Q7S. Course Deviation Indicato'r (CDl)"for a VOR:ts selected to 090°. (ADF) equipment are caused by:
Fromtro•tndJcator•lndJcates ''TO"; a) misalignment of the loop aerial
CDI needle is deflected•half~a"y ti{lbe rigti~ ,. b) ·skywave/ground wave contamination
On what radJans the aircraft? c) signal bending by the aircraft metallic surfaces
a) 095° ·b) 275° c) og'50 ; Q82. A VOR and DME are co♦:located.
You want fo identify the DME by listening to the call sign.
Q76. The VOR system isJiniited to about 1° of accuracy. One degree at.200 NM
represents a width of: Having heard the same call sign 4 times in 30 seconds the:
a) 2.S'nm a) VOR and DME call signs were the same and broadcast with the same pitch
b) 3.0 nm c) 3.5 nm
'. . b) DME call sign is the one with the higher pitch that was broadcast only once
Q77. Whatis ,the approximat~ angular· coverage of reliable navigation information
, I • ·" fr•~ . .,. -.
, ':t I .,
c) DME call sign was not transmitted; the distance infonnation is sui1icient proof of
for a 3° ILS. glide path oµt to a distance of 10 NM? .
correct operation
,a)~3~ ~boverand'};eI,o,w tii.~glide,p~~ ::m~ 10° eJl9h,side p(!}le.l~liser centerline .
Q83. When' 95 nm from a VOR you. commence a descent from FL 330 ~ ith th~ .
b) 1.35° above the-horizontal to 5.25° above,the liorizontal,and 8°. each side of:the intention of arriving atthe·V0R at FL 100. What rate of descent 1s reqmred if
localiser centerliqe ·· . ,. ;,,., ,, , ,. , your mean ground speed is .250 knots?
c) 0.45°-above the.hbrizontal-to .l.75° JlPOVe·the gli_de,paµi and 8° each side of the a) 1059ft/min. b) lOIOft/min. c) llSOft/min.
localiser .cent~rline . · · ··
:.,; ,
Q84. Radio Waves are coming from the land to sea the waves will bend:
a
'Q 78. An aircr_aft:is on radial J20;witb m~gne~c ~~ding,of300°, the ti;a~k ~~lector
a) Towards n,onnal b) Remain same c) Away from nonna\
«:n
(OBS) reads : 330. The inclk'ations the Cou-~s,e Deviation Indicator (CDI)
are 'fly': ' Q85. What will be the rate of descent when flying down a 12% glide slope, at a
a) left'~ th ''TO' sho~g groundspee~ of 375 knots?
" .,-~ . . ;t ··l's a) 45'60ft/m.in. _ b) 42 l 7ft/min. c) 4227ft/rni.n.
b) righ 'with 'TO'showmg·
} ',j ••
Q86 At 80 nm from a VOR an:.aircraff commences a descent from FL330 in order
c) rightmth 'F.l(OM('shoWfog ,, ,t "''! ; . •J -,, "' f., '
• to arrive overhead the VOR at FLlOO. What rate o( descent is required if the
Q79. Magnetic beadi~g 280°,VOR'radfaJ'0.90°.What bearing shoul~ ~e selectc~ on m~aifgr~und_spe~d in the descent is to be.240 knots?
the omni-bearln·g:s.elector tn.otd.e r,to _centr.Use· the~VORdevf~-~on needle with
a) 1300ft/min. . b) 1150ft/min. , c) \ 120ft/min.
a "TO" Indication?
b) 090° c) 270°
597
- 596
SAMPlE PAPER 5 · ·
. An ai"rcraft is on an lLS 3 d ee .
thteshofc! at a beiont of SO ,. ~ glide slope, which passes over the runway o AD'F reads 0008 , Ale maintains beading
Wb . -·
at is the he·i ght above th
,ee •. The DME ran . 15
ge is nm from the threshold Q95. Ale approaching to NDB beading l4 O •
a nd th e approximation 6000e ,runt~aJy threshold elevation? (Use the l In 60 r~le but drifted to the left. ADF reading will be:
a; 3550 feet,
,ee - nautical mile) a) <0ooo ·-· . , - --b) ·-=0000 . . _c) ~00 00 ..
1 1
b) 4450 feet ttitude the resetting principle of.the
,
88. Ln a chart j f meridians and parallels of L
c) 4550 feet
.
l ' , •
Q96. Durlog.amaccelera~on phas~at cons~nt a . di ti
g a? · ·
• a.r:tificial horizon ,results in,the horizon bar an ca ~ . :·
rhe scale in the immediate vicinity f th at._ Cut each other at right angels and •
1
•tud c) Nose-up attitude.
0 a) ·Nose--down attitude. b) Con:,tant attt e.
be : e pomt are correct, the chart is said to
. d tion following a landing in an-
Q97. ,lo ,the.Soµtbern bemispb~re, durmg ece Iera •
3) Equa'.
area :rojecticm b) poly-conic projection c) Orthomorphic projection. , Epst~rly._direction, tlie'. mllgn~tic comp~s wlll lndlcate.
Q89. For .:to atrcratt at a height flS00 ,. .
. at appro~Jmately? o
occur ,eet, mterception of a 30 ILS glide
. .path w ill
> 'i i) an
, :
apparent tum to'ihe "North .
j "\ .. I I i
b) · no apparen't-turn: · _., ·- ·
a) 7. 0 nm from the threshold.
c) a heading fluctuating about 09()0•
b) 5. 0 nm from the threshold.
c) 6.0 urn from the threshold. Q98. Ar~dio:aiti~eter!c!l~1be:• d~fi,ned a~:!l: .,, : .;
··· d'. ··d·--···d
a) groun ra 10 at useu o-m ·'
- 1 t ? eas-ure
· lh
.·e 1true alt.itude of the aucraft
, . . . . .
C,90. C.A. incr eases with: 1
b). self-cohtai~ed on-board aid·used:to-rrieas~e--the'true height of the aircraft
a) lncrt!ascs of Lat and Decreases of d Jong. c) self-contained on-board aid used to measure the true altitude of the aircraft
b) Decrease of Lat and Decreases of d Jong.
Q99. a~ro·pl~n~ loading: · _: -· r-, · ~ · ,. .: ·
c) Increases of Lat and increases of d Jong. . A) m~st be,p~r:fo~ed u~der'\ the!s'up~~sion,of.q~aliJied.rersonnel
Q,J I. ~ hat wil! happen to the altimeter indications in an aircraft in level flight if the B) mustlbe co;nslstent wit:Ri th~ data1 used for c~lc~l~th,1~_th!_mass and balance
n ght s tati c vent becoines blocked and the left r emains clear? C) must c~mply with com-p~~ent·dhn~nsion limitations
J ) Over indicate when side slipping right
D..mµs~ c~~P~Y ID.!li-~~~.e.s!J:l..a~JIJl~m_l.9,@~:P.er r1uming meter
, .1 . ~ '; •
b) Over .iJ1di"-ate when side slipping left. E. must comply with the maximu:0n~1a:(s:per'cargo'"c~mpartm,ent
c) Under indicate in all conditions. a) A, B,C, o and Eon~y b)c:·n an9 Eon1y _ c) i.. and B only
Q92. The vector s of a tria ngle that are resolved by compu ter to determine co urse QlOO.In diagrams, tlie full VOR display" is'shown on diagram?
a nd G/S arc:
iJ) Co & TAS, Tr & GIS, wind direction and speed
b) Course and GIS, Tr & TAS, WN
c) Tr and wind speed. Co & TAS, wind direction and G/S.
Q93. A/C is on 100° (M) Bg from NDB, in order to in tercept 110° Bg line from th e
NDB ale lo to turn
a) Rig/Jt 130° b) Right 130°. c) Right 080°
Q 4. Tbe reHponse ra te --~a VSI can be improved by fitting a ?
a) Accelerometer system.
bJ Cbokc system. a) 1 b) 2 c) 3
c Bi-meta/ic compensato r.
598
599
·. ' :
12 13
.C C
. . . . .
I Q:/;~J:-i¼}}l/~i:,,,;;,,;6\i:;\;;.,;9:·,;~;'31 3;-·:;~ - ;~ 35 3; 37 ~s . ~Q 40
(":t: IKJ~i?r~.: ,/";_~};~}th',;;- 6

.··:.t ._: . :·
a· c b c a b, c c c b b b b
:, ...
59 60
b b
. ·. .. : .. ;~. . -· . - .
'·· ......- .·
... . '. .·. ...
·.• '.
-....·. ·. --·· , ....

., -< ·.· _:~ ~.-.::. < :' ..:-(
.·,:- :·-. ·
-.A:·\ ._., a -a b.
.. .··..

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(CPL/ TPL

More than 1800 Questions and Ans

(' l. 'rht. ·01 r Sycte 1 / 3

10. a e e t Of DR Elements 126

3. Asi -Air Speed Indicator (ASI) · 301

4. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) I

7. Radio/Radar Altimeter (R_a dalt) 370

8. Power Plant And System Monitoring Instruments

9e Basics Of Electronic Displays

PART Ill: RADIO NAVIGATION

1. Basic Radio Th.3ory 415

2. AI>F I NDB 429

5. VOR/RMI/ADF Related Question~

6. Holding, Radial Intercept_, Bearing_To Plot 4 76

7. ILS (Instrument LandJp.g Sy~:t;·e,~ )- .

9. Global Navigation Satellite .Systems (GNSS) 516

10. Summary of Navigation Aids and Instruments 525

Twilight Period is Divided in Three Parts

C - Civil twlllght used In flying sun o0 -&0 below horizon a/

Visible Horizon: Atmospheric refraction cause, an observer to o

e of any hea ml bod ri e above the visible horizon it i ·

D The sun is continuously

//Ill ~iighl (the sun is never

throughout the year, have different

Q 16. Atmosphtric refraction: ,,,

Earth rot.ates from West to East.

Ea th is actt1all .an oblate ph ro1'd , a d1·f:i·i 1· n Lcl fim1·t ion ·

Lo gi ud : T h_e angle ~u~tended at the center of the earth by sh orter arc of

The Jar:tb rotates .~bout ·it' S·;

Qll. A meridian -ts a . ~ ·- · -··

a) meridians ~uator c) both.

£yult1o - LMiluD :· _ 1101

'/]/fl{ /',,11:. ro1 (),-1.' ,.- [_ I'" c7 1' '? c: . 4a'W

If the difference between G/C bearing~ is >.1..~0°.!..!>oth points are in Northern

_(Jiir __:-. - - --•-, _Cfr ~;,,J,e t -/ho,,,v-- If o

090° '-· IT ·IS NECESSARY TO.APPLY .THE CONVERSION ANGLE AT THE

....·~·......................................................................... ~:........... c4-......:.. ···"·.. ·················· .............................................................,

PAM I • G!!NEI\AL NAVIGATION C ON'IEJ\G ENC'T'

Questions Ql0. For northern hemisphere:

59°00'N OWOOW 65'00'N OIO"OO'E 0500 067.6

7S"OO'N IOOOOOW SO'OO'N 025"00W

73°00'S 120"00'E SSoOO'S ISO"OO'c-

50°00'S 170°00W 73°00'5 !JS' OO'W

SS°OO'S I20"00'E 73°00'5 110°oo'E (i) 124° (ii)304° (iii)298°

\;; X R/L Brg of B from A= 060°

Q 29. Grea t circle from P to Q measured at P=095° Southern hemisphere Conversion

~ T he k, ·eat circle track. X - Y measured at X is 319°, and Y 3l5° Consider the

Sunrise (SIR) and sunset (SIS):

althou"gh they are both about to cross the meridian. 96°47'E.

EA.RTD vn:WED '

iv) 42° N 19.36 28' $ 14:32 )/ s2°23•w 79"E

\viJ 45° N 1206 )O"S =02:51 + 05 :10 =08:01 OD 27/02

(4) (a) Di.ff= 6 hr 24 min (ii) At 62° W Diff =4 hr 08 min

(b) . X 0 = western long. ,·

168°W 164° IS' E

. IDL from 150° E to 1oso w at 0000 UTC , at d es ti na ti" on f

Angular d ifferen ce between m agnetic a nd co m pass north is called de viation .

Hdt'(c) Deviation Hdg (M)

en direction the pilot needs a:

h1 1 ,n i direction is more than true direction

Kilometer / th part of distance from p_ole to equator.

)- ~.l O' .., 012° 25'E

1 °21 ' · 52°oo•N 21° 31'W 52°00'N 010°17'E