CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Power semiconductor devices constitute the heart of the modern power

electronics, and are being extensively used in power electronic converters in the
form of a matrix of on or off switches, and help to convert power from one form to
another.

Inverter is one of the converter families which are called DC to AC converter.

It converts DC power to AC power to a symmetric AC output voltage at desired
magnitude and frequency. Inverter is widely used in industrial applications such as
variable speed AC motor drives, induction heating, standby power supplies and
uninterruptible power supplies.

One of the switching mode power conversion is inverter had been discussed
and new techniques of switching strategies was implemented in circuit designed. All
switching strategies mostly concentrate in term of reducing the power losses; reduce
the total harmonic distortion and increasing the efficiencies of the inverter. SPWM or
sinusoidal pulse width modulation is widely used in power electronics to digitize the
power so that a sequence of voltage pulses can be generated by the on and off of
the power switches. The pulse width modulation inverter has been the main choice in
power electronic for decades, because of its circuit simplicity and rugged control
scheme.

SPWM switching technique is commonly used in industrial applications.

SPWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses with different duty
cycle for each period. The width of this pulses are modulated in order to obtain
inverter output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content. Sinusoidal pulse
width modulation or SPWM is the most common method in motor control and
inverter application. Conventionally, to generate the signal, triangle wave as a carrier
signal is compared with the sinusoidal wave, whose frequency is the desired
frequency.

CHAPTER 2

1
 SINGLE PHASE INVERTER

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, types of inverter, inverter topology and its operation will be
reviewed. The concept of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique on single phase
inverter is described and it covered different types of PWM strategies which were
applied in inverter circuit.

2.2 INVERTER

Inverters can be found in a variety of forms, including half bridge or full bridge,
single Phase, current source (CSI) or voltage source (VSI). The single phase
voltage-source inverters can be further divided into three general categories, pulse
width modulation type, square wave type and single phase inverters with voltage
cancellation. In pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters, the input DC voltage is
essentially constant in magnitude and the AC output voltage has controlled
magnitude and frequency. Therefore the inverter must control the magnitude and the
frequency of the output voltage. This is achieved by PWM of the inverter switches
and hence such inverters are called PWM inverters. For square-wave inverters, the
input DC voltage is controlled in order to adjust the magnitude of the output AC
voltage. Therefore the inverter has to control only the frequency of the output
voltage. The output AC voltage has a waveform similar to a square-wave.

In single phase inverter with voltage cancellation, it is possible to control the

magnitude and the frequency of the inverter output voltage with a constant DC input
voltage for a different switch mode that is not pulse width modulated. The inverter
output voltage waveform is similar to square wave. This technique works only with
single-phase inverters. As mentioned earlier, all inverters can be operated by
controlled turn-on and turn-off semiconductor devices such as BJT, MOSFET, IGBT
and others. Modern inverters used IGBT as the main power control devices but
MOSFET is also used especially for lower voltage, power ratings and application that
required high efficiency and high switching frequency.

The output voltage waveform of ideal inverters should be sinusoidal but in

reality, the waveforms of inverters are non sinusoidal and contain certain harmonics.
The typical definition for a harmonic is a sinusoidal voltage and currents at

2
frequencies that are integer multiples of the main generated (or fundamental)
frequency. Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete
harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic
component. It is also common to use a single quantity that is known as Total
Harmonic Distortion. It is measure of the magnitude of harmonic distortion. For
current, the distortion values must be referred to a constant base ( e.g the rated load
current or demand current ) rather than the fundamental component. This provides a
constant reference while the fundamental can vary over a wide range. The problem
of the harmonics in low voltage distribution systems is considered important.
Harmonics now represent a major design consideration in power electronic
applications.

Harmonics contents in output voltage of inverter can be minimized

significantly by switching techniques. Nowadays the best switching technique is still
under investigation but pulse-width modulated (PWM) is chosen as a switching
technique purposely to reduce the harmonics in inverter output.

2.3 SINGLE PHASE INVERTER TOPOLOGY

There are two circuit topologies commonly used in single phase inverter
circuit. Half bridge and full bridge configuration are the main topologies used in low
and high power applications. For certain low power application, the half bridge may
suffice but the full bridge is more convenient for adjustment of the output voltage by
pulse width modulation techniques.

2.4 FULL BRIDGE INVERTER

A single phase full bridge inverter circuit and its output. It consists of four
switching elements and it is used in higher power ratings application. The four
switches are labeled as S1, S2, S3 and S4. The operations of single phase full
bridge inverter can be divided into two conditions.

• Normally the switches S1 and S4 are turned on and kept on for one half
period and S2 and S3 are turned off. At this condition, the output voltage
across the load is equal to Vdc.
• When S2 and S3 are turned on, the switches S1 and switches S4 are turned
off, then at this time the output voltage is equal to −Vdc.

3
 FIGURE NO 2.1.FULLBRIDGE INVERTER

The output voltage will change alternately from positive half period and negative half
period. Same like in half bridge inverter, to prevent short circuit across DC supply
occurred, the switches S1 and S4 must be in ‘on’ state while S2 and S3 must be in
‘off’ state. In order to prevent short circuit occurred, dead time mechanism has been
used in gate driver circuit.

2.5 PWM SWITCHING TECHNIQUE

There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information.

When a high frequency signal has an amplitude varied in response to a lower
frequency signal we have AM (amplitude modulation). When the signal frequency is
varied in response to the modulating signal we have FM (frequency modulation.
These signals are used for radio modulation because the high frequency carrier
signal is needs for efficient radiation of the signal. When communication by pulses
was introduced, the amplitude, frequency and pulse width become possible
modulation options. In many power electronic converters where the output voltage
can be one of two values the only option is modulation of average conduction time.

The PWM switching can be divided into two switching scheme which are PWM with

1. Bipolar voltage switching.

2. PWM with Unipolar voltage.

2.5.1 PWM WITH UNIPOLAR VOLTAGE SWITCHING

4
 In this scheme, the triangular carrier waveform is compared with two
reference signals which are positive and negative signal. The different between the
Bipolar SPWM generators is that the generator uses another comparator to compare
between the inverse reference waveform−Vr. In Unipolar voltage switching the
output voltage switches between 0 and dc V, or between 0 and dc −V. This is in
contrast to the Bipolar switching strategy in which the output swings between dc V
and dc −V. As a result, the change in output voltage at each switching event is
halved in the unipolar case from 2Vdc to Vdc. The effective switching frequency is
seen by the load is doubled and the voltage pulse amplitude is halved. Due to this,
the harmonic content of the output voltage waveform is reduced compared to Bipolar
switching. In Unipolar voltage switching scheme also, the amplitude of the significant
harmonics and its sidebands is much lower for all modulation indexes thus making
filtering easier, and with its size being significantly smaller.

2.6. SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information.

When a high frequency signal has amplitude varied in response to a lower frequency
signal we have AM (amplitude modulation). When the signal frequency is varied in
response to the modulating signal we have FM (frequency modulation. These signals
are used for radio modulation because the high frequency carrier signal is needs for
efficient radiation of the signal. When communication by pulses was introduced, the
amplitude, frequency and pulse width become possible modulation options. In many
power electronic converters where the output voltage can be one of two values the
only option is modulation of average conduction time.

5
 FIGURE NO 2.2.SINE MODULATED PULSES

2.7. REGULAR SAMPLED PWM

The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant of

crossing of the sine wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to implement
using analog electronics but suffers the imprecision and drifts of all analog
computation as well as having difficulties of generating multiple edges when the
signal has even a small added noise. Many modulators are now implemented
digitally but there is difficulty is computing the precise intercept of the modulating
wave and the carrier. Regular sampled PWM makes the width of the pulse
proportional to the value of the modulating signal at the beginning of the carrier
period.

There are many ways to generate a Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulated signal
other than fixed frequency sine saw tooth. For three phase systems the modulation
of a Voltage Source Inverter can generate a PWM signal for each phase leg by
comparison of the desired output voltage waveform for each phase with the same
saw tooth.

6
 FIGURE NO 2.3.REGULAR SAMPLED SPWM

2.8. MODULATION DEPTH

For a single phase inverter modulated by a sine-saw tooth comparison, if we

compare a sine wave of magnitude from -2 to +2 with a triangle from -1 to +1 the
linear relation between the input signal and the average output signal will be lost.
Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the triangle the pulses will be of maximum
width and the modulation will then saturate. The Modulation depth is the ratio of the
current signal to the case when saturation is just starting. Thus sine wave of peak
1.2 compared with a triangle with peak 2.0 will have a modulation depth of m=0.6.

FIGURE NO 2.4.SATURATED SINUSOIDAL PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by

comparison with a linear slope waveform such as a saw tooth. The output signal
goes high when the sine wave is higher than the saw tooth.

CHAPTER 3

7
 SINGLE PHASE AC MACHINES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

An induction motor or a synchronous motor is a type of alternating current

motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of induction. An electric motor
turns because of magnetic force exerted between a stationary electromagnet called
the stator and a rotating electromagnet called the rotor. Different types of electric
motors are distinguished by how electric current is supplied to the moving rotor.

In an induction motor, by contrast, the current is induced in the rotor without

contacts by the magnetic field of the stator, through electromagnetic induction. An
induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator
(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor
(rotating part) is the secondary side. Unlike the normal transformer which changes
the current by using time varying flux, induction motors use rotating magnetic fields
to transform the voltage. The current in the primary side creates an electromagnetic
field which interacts with the electromagnetic field of the secondary side to produce a
resultant torque, thereby transforming the electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Induction motors are widely used, especially poly phase induction motors, which are
frequently used in industrial drives.

Induction motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to
their rugged construction, absence of brushes (which are required in most DC
motors) and—thanks to modern power electronics—the ability to control the speed of
the motor.

3.2 HISTORY

The induction motor was first realized by Galileo Ferraris in 1885 in Italy. In
1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences
in Turin (later, in the same year, Nikola Tesla gained U.S. Patent 381,968) where he
exposed the theoretical foundations for understanding the way the motor operates.

8
3.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION AND COMPARISON TO SYNCHRONOUS
MOTORS

The basic difference between an induction motor and a synchronous AC

motor is that in the latter a current is supplied into the rotor (usually DC) which in turn
creates a (circular uniform) magnetic field around the rotor. The rotating magnetic
field of the stator will impose an electromagnetic torque on the still magnetic field of
the rotor causing it to move (about a shaft) and rotation of the rotor is produced. It is
called synchronous because at steady state the speed of the rotor is the same as the
speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator.

By way of contrast, the induction motor does not have any direct supply onto
the rotor; instead, a secondary current is induced in the rotor. To achieve this, stator
windings are arranged around the rotor so that when energized with a polyphase
supply they create a rotating magnetic field pattern which sweeps past the rotor. This
changing magnetic field pattern induces current in the rotor conductors. These
currents interact with the rotating magnetic field created by the stator and in effect
cause a rotational motion on the rotor.

However, for these currents to be induced the speed of the physical rotor
must be less than the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator or else the
magnetic field will not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents will
be induced. If by some chance this happens, the rotor typically slows slightly until a
current is re-induced and then the rotor continues as before. This difference between
the speed of the rotor and speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called
slip. It is unit less and is the ratio between the relative speeds of the magnetic field
as seen by the rotor (the slip speed) to the speed of the rotating stator field. Due to
this, an induction motor is sometimes referred to as an asynchronous machine.

3.4 CONSTRUCTION

The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a
magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a
single projecting piece of the stator (a salient pole) for each pole, with windings
around it; in fact, to optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are
distributed in many slots located around the stator, but the magnetic field still has the

9
same number of north-south alternations. The number of 'poles' can vary between
motor types but the poles are always in pairs.

Induction motors are most commonly built to run on single-phase or three-

phase power, but two-phase motors also exist. In theory, two-phase and more than
three phase induction motors are possible; many single-phase motors having two
windings and requiring a capacitor can actually be viewed as two-phase motors,
since the capacitor generates a second power phase 90 degrees from the single-
phase supply and feeds it to a separate motor winding.

FIGURE NO 3.1.STRUCTURE OF INDUCTION MOTOR

Single-phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but

cannot produce a rotating field in the motor (the field merely oscillates back and
forth), so single-phase induction motors must incorporate some kind of starting
mechanism to produce a rotating field. They would, using the simplified analogy of
salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a four-pole motor would have
four salient poles. Three-phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so
a four-pole motor would have twelve salient poles. This allows the motor to produce

10
a rotating field, allowing the motor to start with no extra equipment and run more
efficiently than a similar single-phase motor.

There are three types of rotor:

• Squirrel-cage rotor

The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either

solid copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and those
solid copper or aluminum strips can be shorted or connected by a ring or some times
not, i.e. the rotor can be closed or semi closed type. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage
induction motors are not straight, but have some skew to reduce noise and
harmonics.

• Slip ring rotor

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that
are connected to slip rings. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves
similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can also be connected to resistors to produce
a high-resistance rotor circuit, which can be beneficial in starting.

AC INDUCTION MOTOR

Hence,

n = Revolutions per minute (rpm)

f = AC power frequency (hertz)

p = Number of poles per phase (an even number)

Slip is calculated using:

(3.1)

Where, s is the slip.

The rotor speed is:

11
 (3.2)

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed with 0% slip. The speed of
a synchronous motor is determined by the following formula:

(3.3)

Where, v is the speed of the rotor (in rpm), f is the frequency (in Hz) and p is the
number of magnetic poles.

For example, a 6 pole motor operating on 60 Hz power would have a speed of:

Note on the use of p - some texts refer to number of pole pairs per phase instead of
number of poles per phase. For example a 6 pole motor, operating on 60Hz power,
would have 3 pole pairs. The equation of synchronous speed then becomes:

(3.4)

CHAPTER 4

POWER SUPPLY

12
 A power supply is a device that supplies electrical energy to one or more
electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form
of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert
another form of energy (e.g., mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A
regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific
value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load
current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as
any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source.
Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:

• Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include

power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.

• Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.

• Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.

• Solar power.

A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as

an integral device that is hardwired to its load. In the latter case, for example, low
voltage DC power supplies are commonly integrated with their loads in devices such
as computers and household electronics.

Constraints that commonly affect power supplies include:

• The amount of voltage and current they can supply.

• How long they can supply energy without needing some kind of refueling or
recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources).

• How stable their output voltage or current is under varying load conditions.

• Whether they provide continuous or pulsed energy.

4.1. POWER SUPPLIES TYPES

13
 Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into linear and
switching power supplies. The linear supply is usually a relatively simple design, but
it becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high-current equipment due to the need
for large mains-frequency transformers and heat-sinked electronic regulation
circuitry. Linear voltage regulators produce regulated output voltage by means of an
active voltage divider that consumes energy, thus making efficiency low. A switched-
mode supply of the same rating as a linear supply will be smaller, is usually more
efficient, but will be more complex.

4.1.1. DC POWER SUPPLY

An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to

convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually
lower, voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating
voltage to a pulsating direct voltage, followed by a filter, comprising one or more
capacitors, resistors, and sometimes inductors, to filter out (smooth) most of the
pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage component at mains or
twice mains power frequency (depending upon whether half- or full-wave rectification
is used)—ripple—is unavoidably superimposed on the direct output voltage.

For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the
simplest unregulated mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a
transformer driving a single diode in series with a resistor.

4.1.2. LINEAR REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on

the load and on variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics
applications a linear regulator may be used to set the voltage to a precise value,
stabilized against fluctuations in input voltage and load. The regulator also greatly
reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct current. Linear regulators often
provide current limiting, protecting the power supply and attached circuit from over
current.

Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop
test equipment, allowing the output voltage to be adjusted over a range. For
example, a bench power supply used by circuit designers may be adjustable up to

14
30 volts and up to 5 amperes output. Some can be driven by an external signal, for
example, for applications requiring a pulsed output.

4.2. LINEAR REGULATOR

In electronics, a linear regulator is a voltage regulator based on an active

device (such as a bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor or vacuum tube)
operating in its "linear region" (in contrast, a switching regulator is based on a
transistor forced to act as an on/off switch) or passive devices like zener diodes
operated in their breakdown region. The regulating device is made to act like a
variable resistor, continuously adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a
constant output voltage. It is very inefficient compared to a switched-mode power
supply, since it sheds the difference voltage by dissipating heat.

4.3. USING A LINEAR REGULATOR

Linear regulators can be constructed using discrete components but are

usually encountered in integrated circuit forms. Common solid-state series voltage
regulators are the LM78xx (for positive voltages) and LM79xx (for negative voltages),
and common fixed voltages are 5 V (for transistor-transistor logic circuits) and 12 V
(for communications circuits and peripheral devices such as disk drives). In fixed
voltage regulators the reference pin is tied to ground, whereas in variable regulators
the reference pin is connected to the centre point of a fixed or variable voltage
divider fed by the regulator's output. A variable voltage divider (such as a
potentiometer) allows the user to adjust the regulated voltage.

4.4. FIXED REGULATORS

"Fixed" three-terminal linear regulators are commonly available to generate fixed

voltages of plus 3 V, and plus or minus 5 V, 6V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V when the load is

less than 1.5 amperes.

The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the
"79xx" series (7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits
of the device number are the output voltage; eg, a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a
7915 is a -15 V regulator. There are variants on the 78xx series ICs, such as 78L
and 78S, some of which can supply up to 1.5 Amps.

15
4.5. ADJUSTING FIXED REGULATORS

A zener diode or resistor is added between the IC's ground terminal and
ground. Resistors are acceptable where ground current is constant, but are ill-suited
to regulators with varying ground current. Switching in different zeners, diodes or
resistors can be used to obtain stepwise adjustment.

4.6. IC LM7812 AND LM7912

The 7805, 7812, and other variants in the 78** series of regulator ICs have
remained very popular for many years. These regulator ICs offer very acceptable
levels of performance for most applications and in addition to this they are very
cheap and easy to use. Having only three terminals, i.e. input, output and ground,
they require no external components for their basic operation.

The 7805 and 7812 are positive voltage regulators supplying a positive
voltage. However there is an equivalent series of negative voltage regulators - the
79** series including the 7905 and 7912. These are virtually the same as the 7805,
7812 and the remaining variants in the 78** series, but they provide a negative
instead of a positive output.

4.7. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The circuit given here is of a regulated dual power supply that provides +12V
and -12V from the AC mains. A power supply like this is a very essential tool on the
work bench of an electronic hobbyist. The transformer T1 steps down the AC mains
voltage and diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 does the job of rectification. Capacitors C1
and C2 does the job of filtering.C3, C4, C7and C8 are decoupling capacitors. IC
7812 and 7912 are used for the purpose of voltage regulation in which the former is
a positive 12V regulator and later is a negative 12V regulator. The output of 7812 will
be +12V and that of 7912 will be -12V.

16
 FIGURE NO 4.1.DUAL REGULATOR POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

Voltage Regulators low power consumption IC 78W series used in our

instrumentation is now so cheap they are an economical alternative to simple
regulators NPN-stabilizers. Regulators Series 78W to kind of stay 8V input voltage of
about 35V, while the type 24v withstands 40V. Of course, of course, those regulators
will not work with such an important input differential output as it would lead to
excessive power is dispersed. All controllers will deliver the 78W series 1000mA
current maximum expected input differential voltage output of less than 7V.

Transformers with a capacity of 12-0-12V at its secondary terminals. The

center was established as a fountain in the previous case. The other two secondary
terminals are fed bridge rectifier constructed using diodes. Output recovered is
filtered using a capacitor C5 and C6 for food and IC7 IC. In-8 IC7, which are 3-pin
regulators provide output voltage of ± 8V. These two voltages are signal generator.
TO-8V power source is applied to the temperature of the network, and the reference
voltage. It is also necessary to +12 V and-12V supplies for the implementation of
operational amplifiers. This can be easily done using a 12V zener diodes. The output
of bridge rectifier is attached to the +12V and-12V, respectively, using two zener
diodes. In the zener output is fed to the terminals of the operational amplifier supply.

CHAPTER-5

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND WAVE FORMS

5.1 COMMON BLOCK DIAGRAM

17
 FIGURE NO 5.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SPWM TECHNIQUE

Parts of SPWM are;

1. Sine wave generator.

2. Triangular wave generator.

3. Comparator

4. Optocoupler.

5. MOSFET inverter.

5.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (IC741)

5.2.1 INTRODUCTION

Operational amplifiers ("op-amps") are important building blocks for a wide

range of electronic circuits. They had their origins in analog computers where they
were used in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Their
popularity in circuit design largely stems from the fact the characteristics of the final
elements (such as their gain) are set by external components with little dependence
on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself.

An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier

with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an
output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage
difference between its input terminals.

18
 FIGURE NO 5.2.IC 741

Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being
used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC
op-amps cost only a few cents in moderate production volume; however some
integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with special performance specifications
may cost over $100 US in small quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as
components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.

The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential

amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two
outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the
isolation amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to
common-mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative
feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and a resistive feedback
network).

5.2.2 CIRCUIT NOTATION

The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:

LM741C - µA741C

FIGURE NO 5.3.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM SYMBOL FOR AN OP-AMP

19
 • : non-inverting input

• : inverting input

• : output

• : positive power supply

• : negative power supply

The power supply pins ( and ) can be labeled in different ways.

Despite different labeling, the function remains the same — to provide additional
power for amplification of the signal. Often these pins are left out of the diagram for
clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the circuit.

5.2.3 INTERNAL CIRCUITRY OF 741 TYPE OP-AMP

Though designs vary between products and manufacturers, all op-amps have
basically the same internal structure, which consists of three stages:

A component level diagram of the common 741 op-amp. Dotted lines outline:
current mirrors (red); differential amplifier (blue); class A gain stage (magenta);
voltage level shifter (green); output stage (cyan).

1. Differential amplifier – provides low noise amplification, high input impedance,

usually a differential output.

20
 FIGURE NO 5.4. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF 741

2. Voltage amplifier – provides high voltage gain, a single-pole frequency roll-off,

usually single-ended output.

3. Output amplifier – provides high current driving capability, low output

impedance, current limiting and short circuit protection circuitry.

The "741" has come to often mean a generic op-amp IC (such as uA741, LM301,
558, LM324, TBA221 - or a more modern replacement such as the TL071). The
description of the 741 output stage is qualitatively similar for many other designs
(that may have quite different input stages), except:

• Some devices (uA748, LM301, LM308) are not internally compensated

(require an external capacitor from output to some point within the operational
amplifier, if used in low closed-loop gain applications).

• Some modern devices have rail-to-rail output capability (output can be taken
to positive or negative power supply rail within a few milli volts).

5.3. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

An oscillator is a circuit, which generates ac output signal without giving any

input ac signal. This circuit is usually applied for audio frequencies only. The basic
requirement for an oscillator is positive feedback. The operation of the RC Phase

21
Shift Oscillator can be explained as follows. The starting voltage is provided by
noise, which is produced due to random motion of electrons in resistors used in the
circuit. The noise voltage contains almost all the sinusoidal frequencies. This low
amplitude noise voltage gets amplified and appears at the output terminals. The
amplified noise drives the feedback network which is the phase shift network.
Because of this the feedback voltage is maximum at a particular frequency, which in
turn represents the frequency of oscillation. Furthermore, the phase shift required for
positive feedback is correct at this frequency only. The voltage gain of the amplifier
with positive feedback is given by

FIGURE NO 5.5. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

From the above equation we can see that if . The gain

becomes infinity means that there is output without any input. i.e. the amplifier

becomes an oscillator. This condition is known as the Barkhausen criterion of

22
 oscillation. Thus the output contains only a single sinusoidal frequency. In the
beginning, as the oscillator is switched on, the loop gain Ab is greater than unity.

FIGURE NO 5.6.SINE WAVE

The oscillations build up. Once a suitable level is reached the gain of the
amplifier decreases, and the value of the loop gain decreases to unity. So the
constant level oscillations are maintained. Thus the total phase shift produced by the
three RC networks is 180°. Therefore at the specific frequency fo the total phase shift
from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the base is 360°
thereby satisfying Barkhausen criterion. We select R1=R2=R3* =R and C1=C2=C3=C.

The frequency of oscillation of RC Phase Shift Oscillator is given by

(5.1)

At this frequency, the feedback factor of the network is . In order that

it is required that the amplifier gain for oscillator operation.

5.4. TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR

The two op-amps currently used are the known 741 chips. Different OP-
Amps can be used as well, and also dual chips for simplicity. The right OP-Amp will
operate as an integrator and the left as a comparator. When power is given to the
circuit, the comparator drives it's output HIGH. This signal is driven to the integrator
through the resistor R. The capacitor C then starts to charge gradually with RC time
constant. While the capacitor is charging, the output of the integrator is also taken to

23
it's low state with the same rate. When the positive input of the comparator, through
the voltage divider that the 47K and 100K resistors perform, is driven low enough,
then it changes state, and the integrator starts operating vice-versa.

FIGURE NO 5.7. TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR

The square wave amplitude is still the limit of voltage transition, which we
are assuming here to be ±10 volts. The triangle wave's amplitude is set by the
ratio of R1/R2. Note that for this circuit to function, it is necessary that R1 be less
than R2. This keeps the triangle amplitude less than the square wave amplitude.
It is also necessary for the resistor values to be within a reasonable range for
correct operation of the op amps. There is no restriction on the value of C.
Another feature that this circuit can provide is that it generates square pulses as
well. Although this is not the reason that this circuit is designed and there are
much better ways to generate rectangular pulses, you can use them from this
circuit as they are in phase with the triangle wave.

It is easily understood that the frequency of oscillation will only have to do with
the RC standard. That is true. A half cycle period is exactly the result of the R x C. A
full cycle is twice this amount. . The right OP-Amp will operate as an integrator and
the left as a comparator. When power is given to the circuit, the comparator drives
it's output HIGH. This signal is driven to the integrator through the resistor R.

CHAPTER-6

OPTOCOUPLER

24
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO OPTOCOUPLER

An Optocoupler, also called opto-isolator, is an electronic component that

transfers an electrical signal or voltage from one part of a circuit to another or from
one circuit to another, while electrically isolating the two circuits from each other. It
consists of an infrared emitting LED chip that is optically in-line with a light-sensitive
silicon semiconductor chip, all enclosed in the same package. The silicon chip could
be in the form of a photo diode, photo transistor, photo Darlington, or photo SCR.

6.2. OPTOCOUPLER FUNCTIONS

• To isolate one section of a circuit from another, each section having

different signal voltage levels to ensure compatibility between them.
• To prevent electrical noise or other voltage transients that may exist in
a section of a circuit from interfering with another section when both
sections have a common circuit reference. Noise or voltage transients
can be caused by a poor printed circuit board layout.

6.3 PHOTOTRANSISTOR

A transistor that uses light rather than electricity to cause an electrical current
to flow from one side to the other. It is used in a variety of sensors that detect the
presence of light. Phototransistors combine a photodiode and transistor together to
generate more output current than a photodiode by itself.

A junction transistor that may have only collector and emitter leads or also a
base lead, with the base exposed to light through a tiny lens in the housing; collector
current increases with light intensity, as a result of amplification of base current by
the transistor structure.

Phototransistors are used to convert light signals into amplified electric

signals. A phototransistor consists of a single-crystal Ge or Si semiconductor wafer
in which three regions are produced by means of special technological processes.
As in a conventional transistor, the regions are called the emitter, collector, and
base; as a rule, the base has no lead. The crystal is placed in a housing with a
transparent window. A phototransistor is connected to an external circuit in the same
way as a bipolar transistor with a common-emitter connection and a zero base

25
current. When light is incident on the base or collector, charge-carrier pairs
(electrons and holes) are generated in that region; the carrier pairs are separated by
the electric field in the collector junction. As a result, the carriers accumulate in the
base region, causing a reduction of the potential barrier in the emitter junction and an
increase, or amplification, of the current across the phototransistor in comparison
with the current that is due only to the migration of carriers generated directly by the
action of the light.

As with other photoelectric devices, such as photocells and photodiodes, the

main parameters and characteristics of photo-transistors are the luminous sensitivity,
spectral response, and time constant. The luminous sensitivity is the ratio of the
photoelectric current to the incident luminous flux. For the best specimens of
phototransistors—for example, diffused planar devices—the luminous sensitivity may
be as high as 10 amperes per lumen. The spectral response, which is the sensitivity
to monochromatic radiation as a function of wavelength, defines the long-wavelength
limit for the use of a particular phototransistor; this limit, which depends primarily on
the width of the forbidden band of the semiconductor material, is 1.7 micrometers for
germanium and 1.1 micrometers for silicon. The time constant characterizes the
inertia of a phototransistor and does not exceed several hundred microseconds. In
addition, a phototransistor is characterized by the photoelectric gain, which may be
as high as 102–103.

6.4 MCT2E

6.4.1 FEATURES

2500 or 1500 V Isolation.

High DC Current Transfer Ratio.
Low Cost Dual-In-Line Package.

6.4.2 DESCRIPTION

The MCT2E, MCT2 are optically coupled isolators consisting of a Gallium Arsenide
infrared emitting diode and an NPN silicon phototransistor mounted in a standard 6-
pin dual-in-line package.

26
 Figure 6.1 FUNCTION BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OPTOCOUPLER

INPUT DIODE
Forward DC Current : 60mA
Reverse DC Voltage : 3V
Peak Forward Current : 3A
Power Dissipation : 100mW
Derate Linearly : 1.33Mw/C

OUTPUT TRANSISTOR

Collector-Emitter Voltage : 30V

Emitter-Collector Voltage : 7V
Collector-Base Voltage : 70V
Power Dissipation : 150mW

6.4.3. ELECTRO-OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (TA=25°C)

INPUT PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNIT

VF Forward Current IF=20mA 1.2 1.5 V

IR Reverse Current VR=3V 10 µA

27
VR Reverse Breakdown Voltage IR=10µA 3 V

OUTPUT

BVCEO Collector-Emitter Voltage IC=1Ma 30 V

BVECO Emitter-Collector Voltage IE=100µA 7 V

BVCBO Collector-Base Voltage IC=100µA 70 V

Collector-Emitter Dark
ICEO VCE=10V, IB=0 50 nA
Current

ICBO Collector-Base Dark Current VCB=10V, IE=0 20 nA

Collector-Emitter
CCE VCE=0 10 pF
Capacitance

HFE VCE=5.0V, IC=100µA 100 150

COUPLED PARAMETER CONDITIONS MIN TYP MAX UNIT

IF=10mA, VCE=10V,
IC/IF DC Current Transfer Ratio 20 %
IB=0

Input-to-Output Isolation
RIO VIO=500V, (note 1) 1E11 Ohm
Resistance

Collector-Emitter Saturation
VCE(SAT) IF=10mA, IC=2.5mA 0.4 V
Voltage

CIO Capacitance Input to Output f=1MHz, (note 1) 0.6 pF

TR Output Rise Time VCC=10V, IC=2mA 2 µs

TF Output Fall Time RL=100ohm 2 µs

Input-Output Isolation
Voltage
(Note 1)
MCT2E 2500 V

MCT2 1500 V

28
 TABLE 6.1.MCT2E CHARACTERISTICS

6.4.4. APPLICATIONS

Among other applications, opto-isolators can help cut down on ground loops,
block voltage spikes, and provide electrical isolation.

• Switched-mode power supplies use Optocoupler for mains isolation. As they

work in an environment with much electrical noise and with signals which are
not small, Optocoupler with low transmission ratio are preferred.

• Where electrical safety is paramount, Optocoupler can totally isolate circuitry

(which may be touched by humans) from mains electricity.

○ Medical equipment often uses Optocoupler.

○ One of the requirements of the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital

Interface) standard is that input connections be opto-isolated.

CHAPTER-7

COMPARATOR

7.1. INTRODUCTION

An operational amplifier (op-amp) has a well balanced difference input and a

very high gain. This parallels the characteristics of comparators and can be
substituted in applications with low-performance requirements.

A ‘comparator’ is an circuit that compares two input voltages. One voltage is

called the reference voltage (Vref) and the other is called the input voltage (Vin).

FIGURE NO 7.1. COMPARISON OF CARRIER AND REFERENCE WAVES

29
 In theory, a standard op-amp operating in open-loop configuration (without
negative feedback) may be used as a low-performance comparator. When the non-
inverting input (V+) is at a higher voltage than the inverting input (V-), the high gain
of the op-amp causes the output to saturate at the highest positive voltage it can
output. When the non-inverting input (V+) drops below the inverting input (V-), the
output saturates at the most negative voltage it can output. The op-amp's output
voltage is limited by the supply voltage. An op-amp operating in a linear mode with
negative feedback, using a balanced, split-voltage power supply, (powered by ± V S)
its transfer function is typically written as: Vout = Ao(V1 − V2).

7.2. WAVE FORM COMPARISON

7.2.1 Comparing the Reference and Carrier Wave Forms

• Reference wave is sine wave having the amplitude of Ar.

• Carrier wave is triangular wave having the amplitude of Ac.

FIGURE NO 7.2 GENERATION OF SPWM

7.2.2. Asymmetrical Sampling PWM
The asymmetrical modulation is produced when the triangular carrier waveform is
compared with a stepped sine wave produced by sampling and holding at twice the

30
carrier frequency. Each side of the triangular carrier waveform about a sampling
point, intersect the stepped waveform at different step .By using this technique the
dynamic response can be improve and produces less harmonic distortion of the load
current.

FIGURE NO 7.3. SAMPLING SPWM

CHAPTER 8

MOSFET BRIDGE INVERTER

8.1. INTRODUCTION

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor is a transistor used for

amplifying or switching electronic signals. In MOSFETs, a voltage on the oxide-
insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting channel between the two other
contacts called source and drain.

FIGURE NO 8.1. MOSFET

The channel can be of n-type or p-type (see article on semiconductor

devices), and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a pMOSFET. It is by far the most

31
common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction
transistor was at one time much more common.

8.2. MOSFET ANALOG SWITCH

MOSFET analog switches use the MOSFET channel as a low–on-resistance

switch to pass analog signals when on, and as a high impedance when off. Signals
flow in both directions across a MOSFET switch. In this application the drain and
source of a MOSFET exchange places depending on the voltages of each electrode
compared to that of the gate. For a simple MOSFET without an integrated diode, the
source is the more negative side for an N-MOS or the more positive side for a P-
MOS. All of these switches are limited on what signals they can pass or stop by their
gate-source, gate-drain and source-drain voltages, and source-to-drain currents;
exceeding the voltage limits will potentially damage the switch.

8.3. SINGLE-TYPE MOSFET SWITCH

This analog switch uses a four-terminal simple MOSFET of either P or N type.

In the case of an N-type switch, the body is connected to the most negative supply
(usually GND) and the gate is used as the switch control. Whenever the gate voltage
exceeds the source voltage by at least a threshold voltage, the MOSFET conducts.
The higher the voltage, the more the MOSFET can conduct.

8.4. DUAL-TYPE MOSFET SWITCH

The FETs have their drains and sources connected in parallel, the body of the
P-MOS is connected to the high potential (VDD) and the body of the N-MOS is
connected to the low potential (Gnd). To turn the switch on the gate of the P-MOS is
driven to the low potential and the gate of the N-MOS is driven to the high potential.
For voltages between (VDD–Vtn) and (Gnd+Vtp) both FETs conduct the signal, for
voltages less than (Gnd+Vtp) the N-MOS conducts alone and for voltages greater
than (VDD–Vtn) the P-MOS conducts alone.

8.5. THE ADVANTAGES OF THE MOSFET

32
 1. Low gate signal power requirement. No gate current can flow into the gate
after the small gate oxide capacitance has been charged.

2. Fast switching speeds because electrons can start to flow from drain to
source as soon as the channel opens. The channel depth is proportional to the
gate volage and pinches closed as soon as the gate voltage is removed, so
there is no storage time effect as occurs in bipolar transistors.

8.6. GENERAL WORKING

The term H Bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such
a circuit. An H bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the
switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are
open) a positive voltage will be applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4
switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse
operation of the motor.

FIGURE NO 8.2 SWITCHING

Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be

closed at the same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage
source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as
shoot-through.

8.7. Operation

The H-bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the

motor, but can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a
sudden stop, as the motor's terminals are shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a
stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table
summarizes operation, with S1-S4 corresponding to the diagram above.

33
 S1 S2 S3 S4 Result

1 0 0 1 Motor moves right

0 1 1 0 Motor moves left

0 0 0 0 Motor free runs

0 1 0 1 Motor brakes

1 0 1 0 Motor brakes

TABLE NO 8.1 WORKING OF MOTOR

CHAPETR 9

OPERATION AND SWITCHING OF MOSFET

9.1 INTRODUCTION

A Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) control is constructed using a

comparator and a triangular wave form. We will create a model where the mosfet is
controlled from the block diagram where the PWM is modeled.

We will control the gate of the upper-left and lower-right Mosfet directly from
the comparator output. For the other two complementary gates the inverted output of
the comparator is used. The block SIGNAL is used to create wave forms like square
waves, sinusoidal and triangular waveforms. Select the block TIME and SIGNAL
from Components/Blocks/Source. The SPWM regulator is build from a comparator, a
triangular and a reference sinusoidal wave form.

9.2 TRIANGULAR WAVE FORM

The block SIGNAL is used for creating the triangular wave form for controlling
the gate. Open the block SIGNAL by clicking it with the right mouse button. The third
parameter indicates the type of the signal. There are various wave forms possible
such as sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, etc. The third parameter is set to 2 to
select a triangular wave form. The duty cycle for the triangular wave form, being the
last input of the block SIGNAL is set to 0.5. The frequency of the triangular wave
form is set to <500 kHz with a phase-shift of 0 rad.

34
9.3 SINUSOIDAL WAVE FORM

The block SIGNAL is used for creating the sinusoidal wave form being the
reference wave form. Open the block SIGNAL by clicking it with the right mouse
button. The third parameter indicates the type of the signal. There are various wave
forms possible such as sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, etc. The third parameter
is set to 3 to select a sinusoidal wave form. The duty cycle for the sinusoidal wave
form, being the last input of the block SIGNAL is set to 0.

FIGURE NO 9.1 OPERATION OF H BRIDGE WITH GATE PULSE

35
 CHAPTER 10
SOFTWARE TOOLS

10.1. MP Lab

MPLAB IDE is an integrated development environment that provides

development engineers with the flexibility to develop and debug firmware for
the various Microchip devices

MPLAB IDE is a Windows-based Integrated Development Environment for the

Microchip Technology Incorporated PIC microcontroller (MCU) and PIC digital signal
controller (DSC) families. In the MPLAB IDE, you can:

• Create source code using the built-in editor..

• Make timing measurements.
• View variables in Watch windows.
• Program firmware into devices with programmers such as
PICSTART Plus or PRO MATE II
• Find quick answers to questions from the MPLAB IDE on-line Help.

10.2. MP Lab Simulator

36
 FIGURE NO 10.1 SIMULATION BLOCK

FIGURE NO 10.2 PULSE GENERATING BLOCK

37
 FIGURE NO 10.3 SIMULATION OUTPUT OF SINE

FIGURE NO 10.4 SIMULATION OUTPUT OF TRIANGULAR

FIGURE NO 10.5 OUTPUT OF COMPARATOR

38
 FIGURE NO 10.6 OUTPUT OF MOSFET BRIDGE
CHAPTER 11
EXPERMENTAL ANALYISES

FIGURE NO 11.1 RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

FIGURE NO 11.2 OUTPUT OF SINE WAVE FORM

39
 FIGURE NO 11.3 TRIANGULAR CIRCUIT

FIGURE NO 11.4 OUTPUT OF TRIANGULAR WAVE

40
 FIGURE NO 11.5 COMPARATOR

FIGURE NO 11.6 OUTPUT OF COMPARATOR

41
 FIGURE NO 11.7 OPTO COUPLER

FIGURE NO 11.8 GATE PULSES FROM OPTOCOUPLER

42
FIGURE NO 11.9.SPWM BASED MOSFET INVERTER
CONCLUSION

43
 This project has proposed an ac motor speed control using spwm. The spwm
inverter operates effectively combined with pwm inverter. This allows significant
harmonic reduction and lower cost.
Simulation and experimental results are provided to verify the implemented
spwm control circuit .the constructed spwm circuit can generate a wide range of pwm
output voltage and frequencies.
Given that an economic manufacturing cost can be achieved, it is believes
that such pwm control circuit will become key components in power converters and
motor drives of the future.
The new modulation approach shows superior performance for the harmonic
voltage and the control of harmonic distortion .The experimental result validate the
proposed spwm technique. This technique has good harmonic and voltage limiting
characteristics for all kinds of drive loads .the adoption of this technique will greatly
enhance the reliability and performance of the mosfet inverter by adding only a few
components. This technique can completely solve the practical problem of harmonic
of the motor drive.
Simulations with the MATLAB-Simulink platform were performed with resistive
loads and with variation in the source impedance. This fact allowed an experimental
prototype to be developed. Experimental and simulation results are presented. They
allow the verification of the developed theoretical analysis.

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44
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