Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536 – 561

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Pleistocene paleoenvironmental evolution at continental middle

latitude inferred from carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis of
ostracodes from the Guadix-Baza Basin (Granada, SE Spain)
José E. Ortiz a,⁎, Trinidad Torres a , Antonio Delgado b , Emilio Reyes b , Juan F. Llamas a ,
Vicente Soler c , Jorge Raya b
a
Laboratory of Biomolecular Stratigraphy, Madrid School of Mines, C/Ríos Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
b
Estación Experimental del Zaidín″ (CSIC), C/Profesor Albareda 1, 18008, Granada, Spain
c
Instituto de Agrobiología y Productos Naturales (CSIC), Avda Astrofísico Fco, Sánchez 3, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
Received 1 January 2005; received in revised form 31 January 2005; accepted 10 March 2006

Abstract

A representative paleoenvironmental reconstruction of continental middle latitude from ca. 2 my to the upper part of Middle
Pleistocene (279 ± 77 ky) was obtained from the carbon and oxygen stable isotopes analyzed in ostracode shells (Cyprideis torosa)
recovered in the Guadix-Baza Basin (SE Spain), an intramontaneous closed depression filled by alluvial and lacustrine sediments.
This study was performed along a 356-m-thick composite section, dated previously by paleomagnetism and the amino acid
racemization method. δ13C and δ18O profiles reflected changes in temperature, the evaporation/infill ratio in the water bodies and
the amount of rain. δ13C is also affected by changes in plant biomass: periods with high δ13C and δ18O values are associated with
warm and dry regimes, and with less vegetation, which, in some cases, coincide with the development of displacive gypsum
crystals, whereas low δ13C and δ18O values correlate with cold and humid episodes, which cause more vegetation biomass and,
therefore, increasing the input of isotopically light carbon. Intermediate δ18O values are linked to temperate dry or humid episodes
when they coincide with high or low δ13C values, respectively. 86 paleoclimatic events were distinguished in the Pleistocene record
from the δ13C and δ18O profiles. From both the statistical analysis of the geochemical data and the geological observations, four
Cold and Humid Long Periods (low δ18O) and four Warm and Dry Long Periods (high δ18O) were defined. This differs with
respect to the paleoclimatological behavior established for the Northern Hemisphere where during cold periods (glacial), no water
was available while permafrost conditions persisted, whereas in warm episodes (interglacial), higher precipitation rates occurred.
Good correspondences between the Guadix-Baza Basin paleoclimatic record and a marine oxygen-isotope sequence, two
continental cores and other long Mediterranean paleoenvironmental records (pollen sequences from Israel) were found, which
suggested that climate changes in the Guadix-Baza Basin were in tune with global climatic changes.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: δ18O; δ13C; Pleistocene; Iberian Peninsula; Guadix-Baza Basin

⁎ Corresponding author. Laboratory of Biomolecular Stratigraphy, E.T.S.I. Minas de Madrid, C/Ríos Rosas 21, Madrid 28003, Spain. Tel.: +34 91
336 69 70; fax: +34 91 336 68 70.
E-mail address: jeortiz@dinge.upm.es (J.E. Ortiz).

0031-0182/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.008
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 537

1. Introduction Africa, makes it particularly interesting for the study of

Long paleoenvironmental continental series ranging
some hundreds of thousand years are rare for the
Pleistocene (Table 1): those covering less than 100 ky
B.P. are more common. Most of them rely on pollen data
and only a few show stable isotope data. Likewise, three
of these latter ones are located in high-latitude areas with
temperatures lower than − 20 °C even in summer (GRIP,
Vostok and EPICA; Dansgaard et al., 1993; Petit et al.,
1999; EPICA group, 2004). The Devil's hole core, with
δ18O and δ13C profiles, ranges up to 570 ky (Winograd et
al., 1992; Coplen et al., 1994). The Guadix-Baza Basin
(Granada, Spain), located in middle latitude (37°N),
appears to be a unique area, i.e., almost “continuous”
continental sedimentation took place from the Pliocene
until ca. 280 ky BP (cf. Torres et al., 2003a,b). The
geographical position of the Iberian Peninsula, in the
Mediterranean realm and between Northern Europe and
the paleoclimatic evolution of continental middle
latitude during the Pleistocene. The influence of both
Mediterranean and North Atlantic dynamics on its
temperature and precipitation caused singular climatic
effects in Mediterranean Iberia (Millán et al., 2005), after
the Last Glacial Maximum at least (cf. Pons and Reille,
1988; Valero-Garcés et al., 1998, 2000).
Paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatological recon-
structions can be achieved by the aid of a number of
analytical techniques. Of these, carbon and oxygen
stable isotope analysis of biogenic carbonates has been
satisfactorily used in ostracode valves (Durazzi, 1977;
Lister, 1988; Niessen and Kelts, 1989; Lister et al.,
1991; Eyles and Schwarcz, 1991; Schwarcz and Eyles,
1991; Rogers et al., 1992; Dean and Stuiver, 1993;
Boomer, 1993; Anadón et al., 1994; Dettman et al.,
1995; Holmes et al., 1997; Schwalb et al., 1999;
Ricketts et al., 2001; Schwalb and Dean, 2002).

Table 1
Compilation of the largest known paleoenvironmental continental series
Name Age (ky B.P.) Environment Main paleoenvironmental References
proxies
Lake Baikal, Siberia (Russia) 0–12,000 Tectonic lake Pollen, inorganic and organic Kashiwaya et al. (2003)
geochemistry, paleobiology
Hula Basin, Israel 0–3500 Tectonic lake Pollen Horowitz (1987, 1989, 2001)
Jordan Rift Valley, Israel 0–3500 Tectonic lake Pollen Horowitz (1987, 2001)
Funza I, Colombia 30–1450 Tectonic lake Pollen Hooghiemstra et al. (1993)
Padul Basin, Spain 4.5–1000 Peat bog-lake Pollen, organic geochemistry Menéndez Amor and Florschütz
(1964), Florschütz et al. (1971),
Ortiz et al. (2004b)
Dome C, Antarctica 0–900 Ice δD, CO2, CH4, dust, dielectric EPICA group (2004)
profile, conductivity
Owens Lake, USA 0–800 Tectonic lake Mineralogy, inorganic Smith and Bischoff (1997)
geochemistry, pollen,
paleobiology
Tenaghi Philippon, Greece 0–700 Tectonic lake Pollen Wijmstra (1969), Wijmstra and Smit
(1976),
Tzedakis et al. (2003)
Devil's Hole, Nevada, USA 0–570 Karstic (speleothem) δ18O, δ13C calcite Coplen et al. (1994), Winograd et al.
(1992, 1997)
Kopais Basin, Greece 0–500 Lake Pollen Okuda et al. (2001)
Ioannina Basin, Greece 0–430 Tectonic lake Pollen Tzedakis (1993, 1994)
Velay (Bouchet + Praclaux), 0–430 Maar lakes Pollen Reille and de Beaulieu (1990),
France de Beaulieu and Reille (1992b)
Vostok, East Antarctica 0–420 Ice δD, δ18O ice Jouzel et al. (1993), Petit et al. (1999)
Valle de Castiglione, Italy 0–250 Maar lake Pollen, δ18O and δ13C Follieri et al. (1988), Zanchetta et al.
molluscs (1999)
GRIP Summit, Greenland 0–250 Ice δ18O ice Dansgaard et al. (1993)
Taylor Dome, Antarctica 0–230 Ice δD, δ18O ice Steig et al. (2000), Grootes et al. (2001)
Lynch's crater, Australia 0–190 Volcanic lake Pollen Kershaw (1986)
Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia 0–170 Salt flat Diatoms; δ18O Fritz et al. (2003)
Les Echets, France 0–140 Peat bog Pollen de Beaulieu and Reille (1984)
La Grande Pile, France 0–140 Peat bog Pollen Woillard (1978), de Beaulieu and
Reille (1992a)
538 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561
Ostracodes are micro-crustaceans with laterally
compressed body and enclosed in a carapace consisting
of two dorsally articulated valves. The carapace consists
of low-magnesium calcite (which makes it resistant to
diagenetic processes to some extent), though some other
ions are present as trace elements (Sohn, 1958; Cadot
and Kaesler, 1977; Bordegat, 1979, 1985). Calcification
takes place very quickly, from a few hours (Turpen and
Angell, 1971) to some days (Chivas et al., 1983; Roca
and Wansard, 1997), in geochemical equilibrium with
the water in which it is formed. In addition, the
composition of the valves does not change once they
are constructed.
In the Guadix-Baza Basin, a previous study reflected
the abundance of ostracodes in several stratigraphic
sections (Anadón et al., 1986). Afterwards, a 356-m-
long composite section (cf. Ortiz, 2000; Torres et al.,
2003a; Ortiz et al., 2004a) was obtained, containing a
very rich record of ostracodes, and therefore, the
isotopic study of their valves will provide climatic
information for that region from ca. 2 my to 300 ky,
expanding the knowledge obtained from ice cores,
speleothems, tufa deposits and lacustrine sediments.
Oxygen and carbon stable isotope analyses were
performed on the valves of the ostracode Cyprideis
torosa (Jones).
The aim of this paper is to establish a paleoclimatic
series in a continental record of continental middle
latitude, covering most of the Quaternary. The study of
isotope ratios (18O/16O and 13C/12C) provided infor-
mation about the paleohydrological evolution and
development of the vegetation cover from ca. 2 my to
280 ky.
Fig. 1. Geographical location of the Guadix-Baza Basin. The position of the Zóñar lake is also shown.
2. Geographical and geological setting
The Guadix-Baza Basin is a “basin and range”-like
endorrheic depression covering ca. 4500 km2 in the
central part of the Betic Range (Fig. 1) and on the
Northeast edge of Granada Province (Andalusia,
Southeast Spain). It has an irregular shape, with its
maximum length oriented SW–NE and is 900–1000m
a.s.l. The climate today is typically Mediterranean with
a strong continental influence: winters are cold and dry
whereas summers are extremely hot, with daily
maximum temperatures reaching over 40°C. Average
annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 350mm year− 1,
evapotranspiration is 700–900mm year− 1, and mean
annual temperature is 12–15°C (Worldwide Bioclimatic
Classification System Index). This semi-arid climate
favors the development of a badland landscape, mainly
covered by steppe plants. Large trees are only found
along the scarce rivers that run through the basin. Along
the basin, there are also springs with outflows
characterized by their brackish, either carbonated or
sulfated, waters.
The origin of the Guadix-Baza Basin is related to the
Alpine Orogeny (Soria, 1993), which affected Mesozoic
and Cenozoic rocks within the region. The bedrock is
composed mainly of Mesozoic limestones, dolostones,
marls and gypsum, and Neogene sediments of marine
origin. Later, during the Upper Tortonian, the sedimen-
tary conditions changed to a continental regime (Vera,
1970; Guerra Merchán, 1990; Soria, 1996).
A detailed description of the stratigraphy of the
Guadix-Baza Basin can be found in Torres et al.
(2003a). In brief, the basin can be understood as a
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561
centripetal depositional model (Fig. 2), i.e., coarse-
grained alluvial fans at the foot of mountain ranges,
which gradually pass into a system of channels flowing
out to a central system of relatively shallow saline lakes,
distributed in a mosaic pattern and with sedimentation of
gypsiferous lutites, gypsiferous sands, gypsum and,
sometimes, thin lutite beds with displacive gypsum
crystals (Torres et al., 2003a).
At the end of Middle Pleistocene, erosive processes
began, and the current fluvial system was established
(Vera, 1970; Peña, 1985; Ortiz et al., 2000), producing
the typical badlands landscape that can be seen today.
Likewise, the basin drainage changed completely, from
endorheic to exorheic towards the Atlantic Ocean via the
River Guadalquivir (Viseras and Fernández, 1992;
Calvache and Viseras, 1997).
Three main depositional settings (facies) are distin-
guished: (1) upper alluvial fan massive gravels and lens-
shaped channeled sands and gravels; (2) sand playa
deposits and mud flat playa (red lutites); and (3)
lacustrine sands and grey lacustrine gypsiferous lutites
and sands, carbonate and gypsum beds (Torres et al.,
2003a).
Lacustrine events did not usually fill up the whole
basin, which highlights the existence of a “microenvir-
onmental mosaic” with independent and shallow-water
bodies that were then connected during pluvial stages.
Some of them would have been fed directly by alluvial
fans' distribution channels and others could be linked to
saline or brackish springs. This sedimentation pattern
with a distinctive lacustrine expansion event (Orce
Limestone Horizon) continued until the upper part of
Middle Pleistocene (Ortiz et al., 2000; Torres et al.,
2003a).
The composite section established for the Pleistocene
paleoenvironmental study in the East domain of the
Guadix-Baza Basin is 356 m thick. It is composed of two
sub-sections: Cortes de Baza (UTMbottom: 201679;
UTMtop: 223670) and Norte de Orce (UTMbottom:
423770; UTMtop: 337807) sections. Its chronostratigra-
phy, reported in Ortiz (2000) and Ortiz et al. (2004a),
was obtained by paleomagnetism and the amino acid
racemization dating method (Fig. 3). According to
magnetostratigraphic studies of the Basin (Oms et al.,
1994; Ortiz, 2000), supported by paleontological data
(Agustí, 1986), three important paleomagnetic events
took place: the end of the Olduvai chron (ca. 1.77My),
the Matuyama/Brunhes boundary (ca. 780 ky) and a
short reverse polarity event corresponding to either
Emperor or Lake Biwa III excursions, dated at ca.
419 ky or ca. 412 ky (Cande and Kent, 1995), respec-
tively. The top of the section was dated by amino acid
539
racemization at 279 ± 77 ky (Ortiz et al., 2004a).
Detailed lithological and stratigraphical descriptions of
the section can be found elsewhere (Ortiz, 2000; Torres
et al., 2003a).
3. Materials and methods
A total of 726 samples were taken approximately at
40–50-cm intervals along the composite section.
Samples were sieved (at 2.5 cm and 250 μm) and studied
under a binocular microscope to select the ostracodes.
We chose the C. torosa species because its valves are
abundant and continuously distributed along the section.
Another reason for selecting it was that it can live in
waters with a wide range of salinity, varying from 0.5‰
to 60‰ (De Deckker, 1981), although according to
Carbonnel (1983), it can reaches up to 140‰. This
means that the valves reflect very different hydrogeo-
chemical conditions, and so paleoenvironmental evolu-
tion throughout the section time span can be obtained
from them.
For stable isotope analyses, 30–50 C. torosa valves
were selected, although there were some samples with
fewer, in some cases 4, ostracodes. 424 samples
contained a sufficient number of C. torosa valves to
be analysed. We avoided the use of juveniles, as
suggested by Heaton et al. (1995), and selected either
left or right valves of males and females because there
were no significant differences between the valves or
between sexes of the same species (Heaton et al., 1995).
The selected valves of C. torosa were sonicated and
cleaned under running milli-Q water and dried at room
temperature. Before the isotopic analysis, the samples
were heated at 400 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere for
1 h to remove the remaining organic matter. Carbon
dioxide was evolved from the calcite using 100%
phosphoric acid for 30min in a thermostatic bath at
80 °C (McCrea, 1950; Swart et al., 1991). A Pyrex
microline was used for gas purification. The carbon and
oxygen stable isotope analyses were conducted in a
Finnigan MAT 251 mass spectrometer at the Estación
Experimental del Zaidín (CSIC, Granada). The isotope
results are reported in the standard delta (δ) notation in
parts per thousand (‰) relative to the international V-
PDB standard (Gonfiantini, 1981). All the samples were
compared to a reference carbon dioxide obtained from a
calcite standard (internal and international standard)
prepared at the same time. The experimental error for
calcite (δ13C and δ18O) was less than ± 0.1%. Carrara
and EEZ-1 were used as internal standards that had been
previously compared with the international standards
NBS-18 and NBS-19.
540 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the east domain of the Guadix-Baza Basin. LAF = Laneros Alluvial Fan, OAF = Orce Alluvial Fan,
HAF = Huéscar Alluvial Fan, CAF = Cúllar Alluvial Fan. CTB: Cortes de Baza stratigraphic section; CNOR: Norte de Orce stratigraphic section.
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 541

Fig. 3. Chronostratigraphy of the Guadix-Baza Basin composite stratigraphic section, using the amino acid racemization method and
paleomagnetism. Paleomagnetism results are based on Ortiz (2000) and Oms et al. (1994), modified from Ortiz et al. (2004a).
542 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

4. Results calcitic composition of the ostracode valves, its aridity

The δ13C values in C. torosa valves run between
− 9.68‰ and − 2.0‰ (V-PDB) and the δ18O values
range from − 11.08‰ to +4.9‰ (V-PDB). However, the
most frequent values range between − 2.5‰ and − 6‰
for δ13C and between − 0.5‰ and − 3.5‰ for δ18O (Fig.
4a and b). Former isotope studies of the basin, which
were markedly local in character, appear in Bonadonna
and Leone (1989) and Anadón et al. (1994).
The well-defined continuous trends indicate the
absence of diagenetic processes, which should be
reflected in homogenization of the isotope signal. The
and the absence of cementation were important factors
in the preservation of the isotope signal.
5. Discussion
The 18O/16O ratio in authigenic carbonates and,
therefore, in ostracode valves, depends on both the 18O/
16
O ratio of the host water in which they were formed
and temperature. However, as temperature falls, the 18O
content of rainwater decreases (Dansgaard, 1964;
Rozanski et al., 1993; Longinelli and Selmo, 2003),
while in the calcite that forms in equilibrium with

Fig. 4. Histogram of δ18O‰ (V-PDB) (A) and δ13C‰ (V-PDB) (B) values obtained in ostracode shells (Cyprideis torosa) from the Guadix-Baza
Basin composite section.
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561
rainwater, the opposite occurs. These two phenomena
overlap, thereby complicating the task of a simple
relationship between temperature and the isotope
composition of the calcite (Delgado, 1994; Delgado
and Reyes, 2001). The thermo-dependence fractionation
factor (α) for oxygen during calcite precipitation is
0.24‰ per degree centigrade (Craig, 1965; O'Neil et al.,
1969; Kim and O'Neil, 1987). However, a 1 °C
temperature decrease lowers rainwater δ18O values by
0.69‰ (Dansgaard, 1964). As a net result, the effect of
rainwater is more important than temperature. However,
the value provided by Dansgaard (1964) depends on
latitude, “averaging perhaps 0.4–0.5‰ in temperate
regions” according to Broecker (1992), and averaging
0.35–0.40‰ for the Mediterranean area (Hauser et al.,
1980; Delgado et al., 1991). In the case of organisms
with carbonate valves, vital effects (fractionation
produced by the calcification) should be taken also
into account.
Despite the relatively wide range of variation in δ18O
values, the histogram of Fig. 4 reveals that most of them
are grouped between + 0.5‰ and − 3.5‰ (V-PDB).
Based on this distribution range and on the estimated
vital temperature range (8–30 °C) of C. torosa ostra-
codes (Carbonnel, 1983; Wansard et al., 1998; Mezquita
et al., 2000), the theoretical δ18Owater values (V-SMOW)
expected should range between + 3.5‰ and − 4.9‰
(Fig. 5). However, given the most common temperature
range (15–25 °C) at which C. torosa flourishes (Planas,
1973; Heip, 1976), the expected range of δ18Owater
values (V-SMOW) should be from + 2.50‰ to − 3.50‰.
We will now take into account the δ18O-enrichment
in ostracode valves as a result of vital effects for the
calculation of the expected δ18Owater values (V-SMOW)
between 15 and 25 °C. According to von Grafenstein et
al. (1992, 1999) and Keatings et al. (2002), the
maximum offset is around +2.5‰, although some
authors found that ostracode valves were enriched by as
little as 0.73, while most of them, depending on the
species, are by ca. + 1‰ (Xia et al., 1997; von
Grafenstein et al., 1999). However, recently, Chivas et
al. (2002) showed that the δ18O vital offset of ostracode
valves is reduced at low temperatures, being only
+ 0.3‰ for Australocypris robusta at 12 °C, while at
higher temperatures, it is + 0.7‰, although the influence
of pH cannot be totally discarded. Similarly, von
Grafenstein et al. (1999) found no significant δ18O
vital offsets for different ostracode species from lakes
with temperatures as low as 3.5°C. In any case, although
it seems that there are different vital offsets depending
on temperature, we will use the maximum value
(+ 2.5‰) for the temperature range (15–25 °C) consid-
543
ered, being the expected δ18Owater values (V-SMOW)
between + 0.2‰ and − 5.8‰ (V-SMOW).
In all cases, these ranges of δ18O values are a bit
higher than those at present in waters from reservoirs
located close to the study area and the average δ18O
values of present rainwater in Granada (Fig. 5),
indicating that other factors related to climate evolution
affected the δ18O signal measured in the ostracode
valves of the Guadix-Baza Basin.
The δ13C signal from ostracodes is mainly influenced
by the δ13C of the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC),
which, in turn, is mainly controlled by vegetation
(inputs of DIC from terrestrial respiration), lake area,
pH, alkalinity, residence time or productivity (cf.
Boomer, 1993; Palacios-Fest et al., 1993; Anadón et
al., 1994; Holmes et al., 1997; Schwalb et al., 1999; von
Grafenstein et al., 1999; Bade et al., 2004). These
factors can be linked to climatic conditions, i.e.,
evaporative processes together with arid conditions
should produce an increase in δ 13 Cwater due to
degasification processes and isotopic exchange between
atmospheric CO2 and CO2(aq). On the contrary, in
semiarid areas, humid periods are characterized by an
increasing in the vegetal biomass and respiration.
Consequently, input of DIC would give more negative
in δ13C. Moreover, changes in climate may modify the
vegetation cover (amount and proportion of C3 to C4
plants in the catchment) and, ultimately, the δ13C
derived from the terrestrial respiration that reaches a
lake.
The range of δ13C values in ostracode valves from
the Guadix-Baza Basin coincides with the highest δ13C
values of present river DIC and ancient and present-day
tufas from nearby areas (Fig. 6). These values are
between the theoretical δ13 C expected for calcite
precipitated under humid and arid conditions.
The oxygen and carbon isotope ratios of continental
carbonates reflect paleohydrological conditions rather
than temperature (Gasse et al., 1987; Lister, 1988; Lister
et al., 1991; Anadón et al., 1994; Heaton et al., 1995;
Holmes et al., 1997, among others). In middle latitudes
and, especially, in regimes with a semi-arid climate,
there is a clearly marked seasonal effect in the isotopic
composition of rainwater, together with the “amount of
rain effect”, i.e., during cold episodes and when
precipitation is high, the isotope composition of
rainwater is more negative (Riesenfeld and Chang,
1936; Belatini de, 1959; Fontes et al., 1985; Rozanski et
al., 1993; Longinelli and Selmo, 2003). However,
during warm periods, which, in the Mediterranean
realm, are usually linked to low precipitation rates,
surface waters are 18 O-enriched due to rainwater
544 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

Fig. 5. Diagram showing temperature and δ18O‰ (V-SMOW) values of waters. The curves represent the theoretical temperature of formation of
calcite–ostracodes in equilibrium with lake waters. The Kim and O'Neil (1987) calcite–water equation was used for calculation. The vital
temperature range (8–30 °C) for Cyprideis torosa (Carbonnel, 1983; Wansard et al., 1998; Mezquita et al., 2000) and the most frequent range of
isotopic values measured in ostracodes from the Guadix-Baza Basin composite section (− 3.5‰ < δ18O < +0.5‰ vs. V-PDB) were used to calculate
the isotopic composition of the meteoric waters (line A). To calculate lines B and C, the most common interval of the temperature at which C. torosa
flourishes (15–25 °C; Planas, 1973; Heip, 1976) was used; and both the absence and presence of vital effects [although it seems that the δ18O-
enrichment in ostracode valves as a result of vital effects varies with temperature (Chivas et al., 2002), we used the maximum offset as +2.5‰ (cf. von
Grafenstein et al. (1992, 1999) and Keatings et al. (2002)) for the whole temperature range] were considered to calculate the corresponding δ18O‰
(V-SMOW) range. For comparison, present values of rainwater (pondered average) and the range of surface waters from reservoirs located in nearby
areas (Cubillas, Canales, Bermejales and Quentar) are plotted.

becoming steadily heavier, and because of the evapo-
ration effect (Gasse et al., 1987; Fontes and Edmunds,
1989). Therefore, high values of δ18O indicate low (less
than 1) precipitation/evaporation (P/E) ratios (Lister,
1988; Lister et al., 1991; Holmes et al., 1997).
Ostracode shells with more positive δ18O values
(+ 0.5 to +4.9‰) indicate, even at a wide range of
temperatures (8–30°C), that their calcification took
place in equilibrium with waters with δ18O values
between − 1.0‰ and + 7.5‰ (V-SMOW) (see Fig. 5 for
reference). These values are much higher than the
characteristic values of open-system waters from actual
reservoirs in this area (− 5‰ to − 9‰ vs. V-SMOW, Fig.
5), the average δ18O value of rainwater in Granada
(− 7.5‰ vs. V-SMOW, Delgado et al., 1991) or
characteristic values for middle latitudes (Rozanski et
al., 1993). Therefore, these δ18O values reflect phases
with important evaporation. In fact, some endorrheic
Iberian Peninsula lakes located in arid or semi-arid areas
show positive δ18O values (higher than +5‰) at the end
of the dry seasons (Valero-Garcés et al., 2000).
Similarly, in Lake Zóñar (Córdoba, Andalusia), an
endorrheic relatively shallow (17 m deep) lake about
140km northwest of the Guadix-Baza Basin, δ18O
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 545

Fig. 6. Graph of the different sources of carbon. Only C3–C4 plants and atmosphere CO2 are included, since CAMP plants are insignificant in most
ecosystems (Deines, 1980; Cerling, 1991). The pre-industrial atmosphere CO2 with a δ13C value of − 6.5‰ (Friedli et al., 1986) is also shown. The
rectangles show the most frequent range of δ13C values for C3 and C4 plants (Deines, 1980), as well as soil CO2 for areas dominated by either C3 or
C4 plants, and the corresponding δ13C values of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) produced in water bodies. Soil CO2 is about 4.5‰ heavier than its
corresponding plant biomass (C3–C4) (Cerling, 1984, 1991). The isotopic difference between CO2 and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) depends on
pH and temperature. This difference is near 0‰ at pH values close to 5, but for pH values between 7.5 and 8, it is relatively independent (Romanek et
al., 1992), becoming enriched at 10‰. Consequently, surface water input from light basic areas is enriched in about 14.5‰, while light acid is less
enriched. For the theoretical isotopic calculation (DIC and ostracode valve calcites), we took a calcite–bicarbonate enrichment of 1‰ (independent of
the temperature) and the calcite–CO2 equation described by Romanek et al. (1992) for temperatures of 0 °C, 15 °C and 30 °C. Ostracode valve calcite
values are represented for humid and arid episodes. For comparison, we added the δ13C range of present DIC values measured in rivers from this basin
and nearby areas and δ13C values of old and present tufas from the study area.

values are high (+ 1.5‰ V-SMOW in humid seasons;
+ 4.4‰ V-SMOW in dry seasons; Valero-Garcés et al.,
2006). For comparison, the calculated range for
δ18Owater in the lacustrine system of the Guadix-
Baza Basin in about 1.6 my was relatively narrow,
indicating that the δ18O profile obtained was a
reflection of major paleoclimatic changes, but not of
seasonal variations.
These samples with positive δ 18 O values are
characterized by relatively high δ13C values (greater
than − 4‰), indicating that the calcification of the
valves took place in waters with 13C-enriched DIC
(Dissolved Inorganic Carbon). Nowadays, the various
rivers that feed the Guadix-Baza Basin have δ13CDIC
values ranging between − 13‰ and − 6‰ (monthly
analysis of water samples from 30 rivers and brooks
with their catchment areas in the Sierra Nevada;
unpublished data) (Fig. 6). This enrichment 13C could
be explained by a decrease in the terrestrial biomass and/
or evaporation–degasification processes causing in-
creased δ13C (Talbot, 1990; Mees et al., 1998; Stiller
et al., 1985; Schwalb et al., 1999; Valero-Garcés et al.,
2000). Likewise, C4 plants, which are characterized by
their δ13C values being about 15‰ higher than C3
plants, are especially adapted to warm areas, where
night temperatures do not drop below 8 °C (Teeri and
Stowe, 1976), and to semi-arid regions, as their WUE
(water-use efficiency) is high (Pate, 2001; Sage, 2004).
Thus, when dry periods coincide with temperature
increases, which are favorable conditions for the
development of C4 land-plants (Cerling, 1984; Sage,
2004), vegetable cover contributes with less negative
values to the DIC δ13C signal (Fig. 6).
In addition, the contribution of atmospheric CO2
(less negative source) to surface waters is a bit higher
during dry episodes, due to the scarce plant cover (less
river DIC and DOC inflow). An alternative explanation
has to do with the phytoplankton blooms that produce a
preferentially active uptake of 12C by lake waters (Spiro
et al., 1993). However, these changes linked to
productivity occur in a short time (days or weeks) and
do not explain general shifts.
Thus, during episodes of higher aridity and temper-
ature, which are associated with (a) higher evaporation
rates, (b) a less water input (DIC and DOC), and (c) a
less ratio respiration/photosynthesis ratio, an increase in
both δ18O and δ13C values is linked to evaporation and
the increase of the atmospheric CO2 contribution
546 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561
(Talbot, 1990; Mees et al., 1998; Stiller et al., 1985;
Schwalb et al., 1999). These processes change the water
chemistry, by increasing pH and alkalinity, producing a
major isotopic exchange and capture of atmospheric
CO2. Increased δ13C values are also linked to increased
plant C4 and/or decreased plant biomass (causing a
relative increase in atmospheric CO2 contribution),
typical of semi-arid areas.
The ostracode shells with the most negative δ18O
values (− 11.1‰ vs. V-PDB) would have been built in
equilibrium with waters with δ18O values ranging from
− 13‰ to − 8‰ (V-SMOW). However, extremely
negative values are relatively scarce (Fig. 4a); the
commonest values run from − 4 to − 9‰ (V-PDB),
which are given by waters with δ18O values between
− 11‰ and −1‰ (V-SMOW) (see Fig. 5 for reference).
These are, in part, lower than the rainwater δ18O values
(− 7.5‰ V-SMOW) obtained in Granada and the δ18O
range from the reservoirs in neighboring areas. This may
be interpreted as a result of periods of falling
temperature (more negative isotopic composition of
Fig. 7. δ13C and δ18O profiles obtained in Cyprideis torosa (Jones) ostracodes from Guadix-Baza Basin with the paleoclimatic events identified. The
position of displacive gypsum crystals is also shown.
rainwater), which, in middle latitudes, is normally
linked to more precipitation and less evaporation
(Fontes and Edmunds, 1989; Rozanski et al., 1993).
These samples (with the lowest δ18O values: less
than − 4‰ V-PDB) have marked negative δ13C values,
which are usually associated with more plant cover
(humid conditions) and associated more soil respiration,
which should be a source of carbon characterized by
lower δ13C values (Cerling, 1984; Sage, 2004), masking
the contribution from atmospheric CO2 (− 6.5‰; Friedli
et al., 1986). Consequently, samples with more negative
δ18O and δ13C values should be related to cold and
humid episodes (increasing DIC and DOC inputs to the
lake: sources of minor 13C), to which C3 plants are
better adapted. On the other hand, humid conditions are
related with minor pH and alkalinity causing lower δ13C
values in DIC (Romanek et al., 1992; Bade et al., 2004).
Intermediate δ18O values (− 4‰ V-PDB to +0.5‰ V
−PDB) should reflect temperate periods: temperate–dry,
when they coexist with higher δ13C values, and temperate–
humid, when they occur with lower δ13C values.
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 547

Fig. 8. Regression analysis between the δ13C and δ18O values obtained in Cyprideis torosa ostracodes from the Guadix-Baza Basin. Four clusters
representing paleoenvironmental scenarios are distinguished based on the results of Fig. 9.

We use here the terms cold–humid, warm–dry and
temperate as proposed by Horowitz (1989, 2001) for
Israel: Pluvial (Wet Mediterranean), with lower tem-
peratures, higher rainfall (moderate rains in winter and
summer), and the development of deciduous oak forest;
Interpluvial (Dry Mediterranean), with rare precipita-
tion, higher temperatures and steppe vegetation; and
Interstadial, like present-day conditions, with a short
rainy winter and a dry, hot summer, with evergreen oaks
and Mediterranean maquis.
Good covariation between our δ18 O and δ13 C
profiles (Fig. 7) is seen. In fact, the correlation
coefficient between δ18O and δ13C values is significant
(r = 0.50; p = 0.000; Fig. 8), being higher (r = 0.70,

Fig. 9. Dendrogram of the δ13C and δ18O values obtained in Cyprideis torosa ostracodes from the Guadix-Baza Basin composite section.
548 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

Fig. 10. Smoothed curve of the δ18O values obtained in Cyprideis torosa ostracodes from the Guadix-Baza Basin composite section with the
paleoenvironmental periods identified.

p = 0.000) in the lower 255 m of the section (that and carbon isotopic logs and interpreted as paleocli-
corresponds to the Cortes de Baza sub-section-CTB), matic events (Fig. 7). According to Whittaker et al.
which confirms the expected covariation of these (1991), “events” are short-lived occurrences, including
paleoclimatological proxies in arid or semiarid regions. climatic ones, that leave some trace in the geological
Likewise, the ostracodes of Guadix-Baza lived in an record, and which can therefore be used as a basis for
endorheic basin producing a δ18O–δ13C correlation correlation. We interpret an isotopic paleoclimatic event
coefficient characteristic of carbonates normally precip- when not only a single one, but several, isotopic values
itated from a closed basin (Talbot, 1990; Li and Ku, show a marked shift in the gradients of both δ18O and
1997). δ13C values.
A cluster analysis (complete linkage and Euclidean Minima in δ18O and δ13C values are interpreted as
distance) was performed on δ18O and δ13C values (Fig. cold and humid episodes, whereas maxima in δ18O and
9), in which four groups can be differentiated. Based on δ13C values are linked to warm and dry phases.
these results, these groups can also be distinguished in Intermediate values reflect either temperate–dry or
the linear regression plot between δ18O and δ13C and
can be matched with different climate scenarios Table 2
according to the above discussion (see Fig. 8): Group Time range and thickness range of the Guadix-Baza Basin Long
Periods defined in the smoothed δ18O profile (Fig. 10)
1, high δ18O and δ13C values (warm–dry scenario);
Group 2, intermediate δ18O and high δ13C values Guadix-Baza Basin Time range Thickness
Long Period (ky B.P.) range (m)
(temperate–dry scenario); Group 3, intermediate δ18O
and low δ13 C values (temperate–humid scenario); 1st Cold and Humid <1770 <18
1st Warm and Dry 1770–1385 18–120
Group 4, low δ18O and δ13C (cold–humid scenario).
2nd Cold and Humid 1385–1130 120–175
2nd Warm and Dry 1130–890 175–225
5.1. The Guadix-Baza paleoclimatic events 3rd Cold and Humid 890–700 225–270
3rd Warm and Dry 700–575 270–292
In the Guadix-Baza Basin composite section, a large 4th Cold and Humid 575–410 292–323
4th Warm and Dry >410 >323
number of oscillations were distinguished in the oxygen
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 549

temperate–humid conditions. It should be emphasized de Baza sub-section—CTB; Figs. 2 and 6) can be

that the presence of displacive gypsum crystals, which
are formed through evaporative processes (E ≫ P) in a
saline brine, coinciding with some maxima of the δ18O
and δ13C values, reinforces this explanation (Fig. 7). In
fact, according to Rosen (1994), the presence of
displacive crystals of evaporites in a sedimentary
horizon can be interpreted as a result of high aridity
with a markedly negative water balance in the lacustrine
system. The presence of displacive gypsum crystals
only in the lower part of the composite section (Cortes
regarded as a reflection of the paleogeographical
situation of both sub-sections (CTB and Norte de Orce
sub-section—CNOR). The CTB profile is situated near
the centre of the Guadix-Baza Basin, whereas CNOR
corresponds to a lacustrine margin with visible influence
of an alluvial fan, which allowed a more continuous
water inflow (Torres et al., 2003a).
Apart from gypsum, no other relation has been found
between sediment types and carbon and oxygen
composition. There are sand playa and mud flat playa

Fig. 11. Correlation between the δ18O profile of the Guadix-Baza Basin and the marine oxygen isotopic record (Shackleton, 1995). The data of the
marine oxygen isotope record derive from the SPECMAP stack for the 0–0.62-my interval and from OPD site 677 for the 0.62–2.0-my interval.
550 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

(red lutites) deposits and lacustrine sands and lacustrine
gypsiferous lutites, with or without ostracode valves and
with different δ18O and δ13C values. Furthermore,
similar δ18O and δ13C values are found in sand and
lutite beds.
Owing to the short Pliocene record included in the
composite section of the Guadix-Baza Basin, we
decided to define only paleoclimatic events from the
Quaternary record of the section. Nevertheless, the
minima of δ18O and δ13C values observed at the top of
the Pliocene record were named GB-0 for correlation
purposes. Paleoclimatic events (minimum and maxi-
mum δ18O and δ13C values) were numbered from the
Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary to the top of the
Guadix-Baza Basin section, from GB-1 to GB-86 (Fig.
7). According to the criteria followed in other paleocli-
matic series (e.g., Oxygen Isotope Stages), even
numbers correspond to cold events (minimum δ18O
and δ13C values). The events GB-0, 34, 36, 48, 50, 64,
66, 68 and 86 (lowest δ18O values) reflect the coldest
and most humid conditions, while the warmest and
driest events are less clearly defined because of the
abundance and homogeneity of samples with high δ18O
values, especially at 20 and 100m where only slight
variations are observed, whereas more pronounced ones
are detected in the rest of the sequence. In fact, the
cluster analysis (Fig. 9) and the δ18O vs. δ13C plot (Fig.
8) show the predominance of samples thought to reflect
warm and dry conditions. Nevertheless, the δ18 O
maxima correspond to events 5, 7, 9, 23, 39, 45, 57,
61, 69 and 83.
We also performed a smoothing analysis of the δ18O
values with the linear trend method, calculating each
smoothed new value from the 5 ones closest to it. Four
Cold and Humid Long Periods alternating with four
Warm and Dry Long Periods were defined in the
smoothed δ18O profile (Fig. 10), representing long-term
episodes of relative climatic stability. The time scales of
these periods, based on the available datings and the
mean sedimentation rate (4.464 ky/m) of the basin (cf.
Ortiz et al., 2004a), are shown in Table 2.
It can be seen in Fig. 10 that climate deterioration (in
the Mediterranean realm, warm and dry conditions) is
sharp, while transitions to climate improvement (cold
and humid conditions) are more gradual.
5.2. Comparison of Guadix-Baza Basin profile with
other long paleoenvironmental series
We attempted to ascertain the correspondence
between oxygen isotope stages obtained in marine
records and the peaks observed in our δ18O curve. We

Fig. 12. Correlation between the δ18O profile of the Guadix-Baza Basin composite section and the paleoenvironmental interpretation of the Padul
Basin in terms of water level episodes (cf. Ortiz et al., 2004a,b) from metre 50 (ca. 300ky B.P.) to metre 98 (ca. 780ky B.P., Matuyama–Bruhnes
boundary). In the Padul Basin profile, estimated ages based on the age–depth relationship established by Ortiz et al. (2004b) has been included.
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 551

studied the SPECMAP stack for the interval 0–0.62my
and the OPD site 677 for the interval 0.62–2.0my
(Shackleton, 1995). The magnetic reversal of the base of
the Guadix-Baza section (meter 18), which corresponds
to the end of the Olduvai Chron (Pliocene–Pleistocene
boundary), leads to the correlation of the GB-0
paleoclimatic event defined in the Guadix-Baza se-
quence with the 64th marine OIS (Fig. 11), which marks
the coolest period in the marine record. Some other
magnetic reversions along the section, such as the
Bruhnes/Matuyama (780 ky) and the Emperor or Lake
Biwa III Chrons (ca. 410ky), lead to correlation of GB-
50 and GB-86 paleoclimatic events with the 20th and
8th marine OIS, respectively. The close correspondence
between the GB-66 and GB-68 paleoclimatic events and
the two maxima that define the 14th marine OIS should
also be mentioned.
Near the Guadix-Baza Basin (ca. 60 km eastwards)
occurs the Padul Basin that is a subsident fault-bound
tectonic endorheic depression of 4km2, placed at 720m
and located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (3000 m). It
has one of the best available long records of Pleistocene
sediments, with more than 100 m thick, ranging from
1 my to 4.5ky B.P. Two markedly different hydrogeo-
logical scenarios were observed in this basin (Ortiz et
al., 2004b) from the concentration of the organic carbon,

Fig. 13. Correlation between the paleoenvironmental sequence (smoothed δ18O from Cyprideis torosa ostracodes) from the Guadix-Baza Basin
composite section and the pollen sequences (percentage of arboreal pollen) obtained in the Southern Dead Sea region and the Hula Basin (Horowitz,
1987, 1989, 2001), both in Israel. The curve for the Hula Basin is mainly based on a pollen diagram from the Notera 3 borehole. The curve for the
southern Dead Sea is mainly based on the pollen diagram for the Amazyahu 1 borehole, with additions from Melekh Sdom 1, Ami'az 1, Sdom 2 and
Har Sedom 1. The arboreal pollen figure is interpreted as due to increased humidity.
552 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561
the atomic H/C and C/N ratios, the δ13Corg and CPI
values obtained in the sediments: (1) from ca. 1my B.P.
(metre 107) to ca. 400 ka B.P. (metre 60), lacustrine
conditions prevailed; and (2) from ca. 400 to 4.5ky B.P.,
the Padul Basin became a peat bog. Here, we present
(Fig. 12) a correlation between the Guadix-Baza Basin
δ18O record and the corresponding paleoenvironmental
interpretation of the Padul Basin in terms of water level
episodes (cf. Ortiz et al., 2004b) from metre 50 (ca.
300 ky B.P.) to metre 98 (ca. 780ky B.P., Matuyama/
Bruhnes boundary). As can be observed, there is a
general good correspondence between the even paleo-
climatic events (cold/humid events) defined in the
Guadix-Baza Basin and the high water level episodes
distinguished in the Padul Basin. However, there are
some spans with a lack of correlation, which will require
further study. In fact, it has to be considered the
paleohydrogeological behaviour of the Padul Basin as
well as its subsidence rate, which should produce high
or low water level episodes not exclusively linked to
climatic variations.
In the Mediterranean Area, a similar paleoenviron-
mental evolution is found in the Hula Basin (northern
Israel), where Horowitz (1989, 2001) studied a long
pollen sequence covering the Pleistocene and most of
the Upper Pliocene. He correlated the Pleistocene
glaciations with pluvial periods of increased rainfall,
while during interglacial episodes, paleoclimatic condi-
tions were more arid. The same good correspondence
was also found with a pollen sequence obtained in
southern Israel (Southern Dead Sea region) (cf.
Horowitz, 1987, 1989, 2001).
The cold–wet and warm–dry episodes defined in
Israel can be compared to those in the Guadix-Baza
Basin (Fig. 13). The 1st Cold and Humid Period of the
Guadix-Baza Basin corresponds to an increase in the
percentage of arboreal pollen (higher humidity) in the
Hula Basin, whereas the 1st Warm and Dry Period of the
Guadix-Baza Basin coincides with low percentages of
arboreal pollen in the Hula Basin. In the Southern Dead
Sea (Israel), the increase in arboreal pollen occurs
between 1.65 and 1.5 my later than in the Hula Basin
and the Guadix-Baza Basin. Unfortunately, the pollen
record of the Guadix-Baza Basin is extremely poor
(Torres et al., 2003b), although silicified Cupressaceae
logs have been dated at ca. 600ky B.P.
Similarly, there is good correspondence between the
2nd, 3rd and 4th Cold and Humid Periods of Guadix-
Baza Basin and high percentages of arboreal pollen in
both the Southern Dead Sea region and the Hula Basin.
Likewise, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Warm and Dry Periods of
the Guadix-Baza Basin correlate closely with low
percentages of arboreal pollen in the two sequences
from Israel.
Similar paleoenvironmental models have been found
in the pluvial lakes developed in the “Basin and Range”
area of the United States, such as Owens lake, SE
California (Smith and Bischoff, 1997), San Luis Valley,
central Colorado (Rogers et al., 1992) and San Felipe
Basin, Baja California (Lozano-García et al., 2002),
among others. In this area, conditions of less evapora-
tion and higher water availability occurred during cold
periods (glacial), while dryness coexisted with warm
episodes, causing the development of playa lakes.
6. Conclusions
Long δ18O and δ13C profiles obtained in ostracode
C. torosa valves from the Guadix-Baza Basin (Spain,
Mediterranean realm) provide information about global
climatic variations at continental middle latitude from
ca. 2my to the upper part of Middle Pleistocene (279
± 77 ky). They result from changes of temperature,
evaporation/infill ratios in water bodies and rain
amount, producing higher δ18O and δ13C values in
warm and dry episodes, whereas lower δ18O and δ13C
values are linked to cold and humid phases. In fact, δ18O
values in the samples accounting for warm–dry phases
are higher than those found in present rainwater and in
nearby water reservoirs, indicating important evapora-
tion. Similarly, the δ18O analyzed in waters of shallow
lakes developed under semi-arid regimes (Zóñar,
Mediana Salada) have positive values, in the range of
the highest δ18O values from the Guadix-Baza Basin.
This interpretation was reinforced by the presence of
displacive gypsum crystals, which are developed under
high salinity and arid stages (evaporative pumping
conditions with a saline brine under the lake). In a
similar way, the δ18O and δ13C oscillations observed in
the Ioannina Basin (Greece) and Valle di Castiglione
(Italy) records are interpreted in terms of arid/humid
climatic phases (Zanchetta et al., 1999; Frogley et al.,
1999, 2001). However, the most common isotopic
(δ18O) range for the lake is relatively narrow consider-
ing the longer period studied (1.6 my). The δ13C is also
affected by plant biomass contribution (amount and type
of vegetation—C3 vs. C4 plants), with less biomass and
higher percentages of C4 plants during warm and arid
episodes. Unfortunately, there is only one study about
the palaeodiet of the fauna of the Guadix-Baza Basin,
from Venta Micena site (dated at ca. 1 my B.P., cf. Torres
et al., 1997; Ortiz et al., 2000), showing that the
herbivores (60 samples analysed) fed mainly of C3
plants, based on δ13Ccollagen values (Palmqvist et al.,
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 553

2003). Nevertheless, the presence of C4 plants during found in North America pluvial lakes. This indicates
Pleistocene in this area is documented by the palyno- that climate at the Guadix-Baza Basin responded to
logical studies of Menéndez Amor and Florschütz global climate changes.
(1964), Florschütz et al. (1971) and Pons and Reille
(1988) carried out in the Padul Basin, which is very Acknowledgements
close to the Guadix-Baza Basin (ca. 60 km). In any case,
the shallow-water bodies installed in the Guadix-Baza Funding was obtained from the projects “Evolución
Basin, characterized by their extended surface, are Paleoclimática de la Mitad Sur de la Península Ibérica”
sufficient evidences to explain the high δ13C values due of ENRESA (National Company for Radioactive Waste
to isotopic exchange and capture of atmospheric CO2. Management), “Evidence from Quaternary Infills
Four paleoclimatological scenarios were distin- Paleohydrology” (EQUIP) of the European Union
guished: warm and dry (high δ13C and δ18O values), (F14W/CT96/0031), and REN2001-1874 and
cold and humid (low δ13C and δ18O values), temperate– REN2003-05199 grants from the Spanish Ministry of
dry (intermediate δ18O and high δ13C values) and Science and Technology. We thank Profs. Aharon
temperate–humid (intermediate δ18O and low δ13C Horowitz, Baruch Spiro and Paul De Deckker for their
values). helpful comments on the manuscript.
In general, there is covariation between δ18O and
δ C signals, which is typical of arid and semi-arid areas
13
Appendix A
and closed basins. However, δ13C signals show good
correlation with other paleoclimatological series located δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky)
in different areas of middles latitudes, indicating an
− 6.41 −6.16 2.50 1941
important global component, such as atmospheric CO2 − 9.05 −8.33 4.00 1934
concentration (different greenhouse scenarios). Intergla- − 9.68 −7.98 6.00 1925
cial Quaternary warm climates are related with increas- − 9.57 −6.05 6.50 1922
ing atmospheric CO2 concentration (Petit et al., 1999) − 5.17 −0.95 13.20 1891
− 4.94 0.11 13.50 1889
and global wetter conditions. However, in middle
− 4.57 −1.17 15.10 1882
latitudes from Mediterranean areas and North America, − 3.25 0.94 16.50 1875
the increasing of temperature is associated with drier − 3.53 0.19 17.30 1871
conditions (Horowitz, 1989, 2001; Menking et al., − 3.96 −0.93 25.20 1834
2004). − 4.10 −1.30 25.50 1833
− 3.98 −1.20 25.90 1831
Likewise, four Cold and Humid Long Periods
− 2.71 −0.18 31.30 1805
alternating with four Warm and Dry Long Periods were − 2.48 0.00 35.00 1788
established from the smoothed δ18O ostracode curve. − 3.13 −0.06 35.50 1785
Climate worsening (warm–dry conditions) seems to be a − 4.42 −0.18 38.70 1770
faster process than the following climate improvements − 4.31 −0.49 40.10 1764
− 4.04 0.97 40.30 1763
(cold–humid episodes). These alternating “warm and
− 4.50 −0.60 40.90 1760
dry” and “cold and humid” episodes diverge from the − 3.67 −0.06 41.30 1758
paleoclimatological record of the Northern Hemisphere. − 3.48 0.20 42.20 1754
In fact, the Guadix-Baza Basin is located in the − 2.97 −0.29 42.60 1752
Mediterranean area where glacial periods did not cause − 3.42 1.54 42.90 1751
− 2.72 0.27 43.20 1749
permafrost conditions and scarce water, such as occurred
− 4.67 −0.71 43.50 1748
in northern Europe. In the Mediterranean region during − 2.38 −0.87 43.80 1746
glacial episodes, higher precipitation would occur. − 4.11 −0.77 44.00 1745
A total of 88 climatic events, representing either − 3.19 −2.01 44.15 1745
warm–dry conditions (odd events) or cold–humid − 3.14 −0.88 44.30 1744
− 2.87 0.31 44.50 1743
episodes (even events) were distinguished for the δ18O
− 2.75 −0.98 44.60 1743
and δ13C profiles in the Guadix-Baza section. Close − 2.65 −0.37 44.80 1742
correlation between the Guadix-Baza Basin and both the − 3.04 −0.09 45.20 1740
deep-sea oxygen-isotope record (SPECMAC-OPD677) − 2.70 −0.24 45.40 1739
was obtained. There is also good correspondence with − 3.31 −0.69 45.60 1738
− 3.29 −0.32 45.90 1736
basins in the Mediterranean area (Horowitz, 1987, 1989,
2001). Similar paleoenvironmental models have been (continued on next page)
554 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

Appendix A (continued) Appendix A (continued)

δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky) δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky)
− 3.54 0.98 46.30 1734 − 5.18 − 0.41 96.10 1500
− 3.30 0.19 46.60 1733 − 3.76 − 0.69 96.60 1497
− 3.58 0.10 46.90 1732 − 2.98 0.37 97.00 1495
− 3.53 1.51 47.20 1730 − 4.44 1.10 97.70 1492
− 3.08 1.59 47.50 1729 − 3.43 0.19 98.10 1490
− 3.59 − 0.50 48.30 1725 − 4.18 − 0.35 98.20 1490
− 3.69 0.18 49.30 1720 − 4.33 − 0.44 98.70 1487
− 3.73 1.37 49.60 1719 − 3.69 − 0.77 99.00 1486
− 2.50 − 0.68 50.80 1713 − 4.07 0.87 99.40 1484
− 2.29 0.74 51.10 1712 − 5.54 0.38 101.10 1476
− 2.66 1.31 51.40 1710 − 6.34 − 3.12 101.70 1473
− 3.09 0.70 51.60 1709 − 4.13 − 1.16 102.60 1469
− 2.81 − 0.22 51.80 1709 − 3.73 − 1.03 104.50 1460
− 2.50 1.55 52.10 1707 − 5.57 0.36 105.30 1456
− 2.22 − 0.69 52.90 1703 − 4.77 − 1.34 106.20 1452
− 4.30 − 0.65 54.60 1695 − 4.62 − 1.11 107.20 1447
− 2.75 − 1.30 55.50 1691 − 4.74 − 0.28 107.60 1445
− 3.21 − 1.28 55.80 1690 − 3.81 1.56 108.40 1442
− 2.89 − 2.86 56.30 1687 − 6.17 − 2.12 108.70 1440
− 3.54 − 1.15 56.80 1685 − 4.90 − 0.40 109.20 1438
− 3.30 0.13 57.30 1683 − 7.89 − 2.41 109.80 1435
− 4.58 0.97 57.80 1680 − 5.60 − 1.30 110.30 1433
− 3.78 − 1.58 58.20 1678 − 5.29 − 1.03 110.80 1430
− 3.57 0.58 58.50 1677 − 5.41 − 0.69 111.40 1427
− 2.98 − 0.48 58.90 1675 − 5.08 − 0.45 111.80 1426
− 3.73 − 0.03 59.30 1673 − 4.39 − 0.19 112.10 1424
− 3.33 − 0.37 59.70 1671 − 4.63 0.94 112.30 1423
− 2.86 − 0.76 63.00 1656 − 2.92 − 0.65 113.10 1419
− 2.88 − 0.91 63.50 1653 − 5.67 − 1.22 113.50 1418
− 2.70 0.33 64.00 1651 − 4.00 − 0.05 114.00 1415
− 4.10 − 1.50 64.50 1649 − 5.35 − 0.27 114.50 1413
− 3.10 − 0.10 65.10 1646 − 8.19 − 1.08 115.40 1409
− 2.70 − 0.30 65.20 1645 − 3.75 − 1.45 116.30 1404
− 2.71 0.08 66.30 1640 − 6.99 − 2.83 116.50 1403
− 3.41 − 0.13 67.00 1637 − 7.13 − 1.57 116.90 1401
− 5.76 0.41 67.50 1634 − 5.21 − 0.52 117.00 1401
− 5.25 − 0.70 69.60 1625 − 5.04 − 1.20 120.50 1384
− 4.71 − 0.30 71.90 1614 − 3.74 − 1.65 121.40 1380
− 4.53 − 0.17 74.80 1600 − 4.95 − 2.24 121.80 1378
− 3.91 0.30 77.60 1587 − 4.88 − 1.07 122.50 1375
− 3.96 1.19 77.90 1585 − 4.10 − 0.83 123.20 1372
− 4.02 − 1.09 78.10 1584 − 3.30 0.32 123.80 1369
− 3.48 0.47 78.40 1583 − 6.08 − 0.11 124.30 1367
− 3.99 − 0.48 78.70 1582 − 7.19 − 3.14 125.90 1359
− 2.00 − 0.31 79.40 1578 − 7.76 − 1.72 126.80 1355
− 3.26 − 0.70 79.80 1576 − 9.10 − 4.82 127.30 1352
− 2.63 − 0.12 80.30 1574 − 5.73 − 2.36 128.00 1349
− 4.20 0.13 80.80 1572 − 4.50 − 0.55 129.00 1344
− 4.27 − 2.22 81.20 1570 − 4.74 − 0.39 130.00 1340
− 4.78 − 1.35 81.60 1568 − 7.69 − 5.28 131.10 1334
− 4.84 − 1.32 81.80 1567 − 7.47 − 4.73 131.20 1334
− 4.43 − 2.66 84.60 1554 − 6.59 − 2.53 133.90 1321
− 3.98 0.55 84.50 1554 − 7.96 − 2.51 136.40 1309
− 4.33 0.08 89.10 1533 − 5.27 − 1.20 136.70 1308
− 4.74 − 0.48 94.10 1509 − 5.10 − 0.80 137.50 1304
− 5.24 − 0.27 94.50 1507 − 5.06 − 0.08 138.50 1300
− 3.78 − 1.21 95.80 1501 − 5.55 0.04 139.20 1296
 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561 555

Appendix A (continued) Appendix A (continued)

δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky) δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky)
− 6.04 0.16 140.00 1293 − 4.33 −1.03 213.50 946
− 4.30 −0.14 141.00 1288 − 4.04 −0.50 213.90 944
− 5.23 −0.19 141.60 1285 − 4.24 0.87 214.40 942
− 5.84 −0.72 141.90 1284 − 2.92 0.52 214.60 941
− 5.54 −0.98 142.20 1282 − 4.73 −2.49 215.60 936
− 3.86 −0.05 142.60 1280 − 4.98 −1.43 217.00 929
− 6.06 −2.84 142.80 1279 − 5.55 −1.70 217.50 927
− 5.50 −0.80 143.10 1278 − 4.84 −0.30 217.90 925
− 8.13 −2.36 143.50 1276 − 4.93 −1.15 218.30 923
− 8.42 −1.84 143.80 1275 − 5.04 −1.32 218.80 921
− 5.91 −1.95 144.40 1272 − 3.30 −0.59 219.60 917
− 8.18 −5.53 144.90 1269 − 4.20 −0.59 220.10 915
− 7.27 −4.23 147.00 1259 − 3.84 −0.57 220.40 913
− 6.36 −2.92 148.40 1253 − 4.37 −1.47 220.80 911
− 5.14 −1.19 150.20 1244 − 5.87 −2.60 221.40 909
− 5.96 −3.10 151.20 1240 − 5.41 −1.61 221.50 908
− 7.20 −5.97 152.00 1236 − 9.58 − 11.08 223.80 897
− 6.62 −3.67 153.90 1227 − 8.00 −2.03 224.70 893
− 6.71 −2.18 154.30 1225 − 8.53 −6.00 225.70 888
− 7.27 −4.87 155.10 1221 − 4.17 −0.25 226.70 884
− 7.55 −6.22 155.50 1219 − 4.26 0.08 229.40 871
− 5.15 −1.21 156.00 1217 − 6.74 −3.33 230.00 868
− 6.31 −1.19 157.10 1212 − 5.18 −1.02 230.50 866
− 8.63 −1.14 161.70 1190 − 4.63 −1.08 231.00 863
− 6.37 −1.67 162.70 1185 − 4.43 −0.92 231.50 861
− 4.21 −1.84 164.20 1178 − 7.54 −5.21 236.30 838
− 5.83 −2.63 164.90 1175 − 9.40 −7.78 238.50 828
− 3.32 1.08 168.50 1158 − 9.00 −8.16 239.30 824
− 6.50 −1.16 171.00 1146 − 9.14 −8.28 239.70 822
− 4.39 −0.37 173.00 1137 − 3.80 −1.80 240.60 818
− 5.94 −2.73 174.20 1131 − 3.10 −4.50 242.30 810
− 5.03 −0.18 174.90 1128 − 2.90 −2.20 242.40 809
− 5.52 −1.58 175.60 1125 − 3.70 −3.90 244.00 802
− 5.51 −0.48 176.10 1122 − 4.00 −4.80 244.70 799
− 4.25 −1.24 178.00 1113 − 4.11 −3.79 257.10 740
− 5.53 −0.39 179.00 1109 − 4.17 −3.28 259.20 730
− 4.21 −1.56 179.50 1106 − 4.30 −2.10 267.00 693
− 4.27 −1.19 182.00 1094 − 3.10 −2.60 267.30 692
− 4.36 −0.65 185.50 1078 − 4.50 −3.00 268.60 686
− 4.68 −2.18 186.10 1075 − 4.40 −2.60 269.30 683
− 5.73 −2.91 187.50 1068 − 4.12 −4.47 269.70 681
− 5.98 −1.17 188.00 1066 − 3.50 −3.10 270.00 679
− 4.34 −1.72 188.30 1065 − 4.10 −3.10 270.30 678
− 6.35 −1.95 188.60 1063 − 4.80 −3.70 270.70 676
− 4.99 −2.05 189.20 1060 − 4.30 −2.10 270.90 675
− 5.06 −1.18 192.00 1047 − 3.60 −2.50 271.40 673
− 5.16 0.13 193.70 1039 − 3.00 −1.90 271.60 672
− 4.41 0.38 197.90 1019 − 2.80 −2.60 271.70 671
− 4.00 0.52 200.60 1007 − 3.80 −3.70 272.40 668
− 4.68 −0.31 202.20 999 − 4.40 −2.10 273.70 662
− 5.54 −1.36 205.30 984 − 2.80 0.20 274.70 657
− 6.81 −1.38 206.60 978 − 4.30 −1.70 275.10 655
− 7.71 −5.49 212.00 953 − 3.90 −1.60 278.00 642
− 4.49 −0.34 212.40 951 − 3.00 −2.50 278.90 637
− 4.07 −1.66 212.70 950 − 6.60 0.40 279.10 636
− 4.11 −0.42 213.10 948 − 3.50 −1.40 279.50 634
(continued on next page) (continued on next page)
556 J.E. Ortiz et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240 (2006) 536–561

Appendix A (continued) Appendix A (continued)

δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky) δ13C (‰ V-PDB) δ18O (‰ V-PDB) Depth (m) Estimated age (ky)
− 5.30 − 2.50 279.90 633 − 3.85 − 3.87 321.30 437
− 2.70 0.00 280.40 630 − 5.10 − 7.50 321.70 435
− 4.30 − 2.10 280.70 629 − 3.50 − 1.40 321.80 435
− 3.60 − 1.90 280.90 628 − 2.50 − 0.80 321.90 434
− 4.80 − 2.40 281.00 627 − 3.70 − 2.00 322.00 434
− 4.10 2.50 281.20 626 − 3.60 1.10 322.10 434
− 3.60 − 1.40 281.40 626 − 2.40 − 0.60 322.20 433
− 7.40 − 2.10 281.60 625 − 2.40 − 0.60 322.30 433
− 2.80 1.00 281.70 624 − 2.00 − 1.90 322.40 432
− 2.80 − 0.80 281.80 624 − 2.40 0.10 322.50 432
− 4.40 − 1.30 281.90 623 − 3.80 0.40 322.60 431
− 5.00 − 2.80 282.00 623 − 2.60 − 2.10 322.70 431
− 3.40 − 1.80 282.10 622 − 2.50 − 1.40 322.80 430
− 3.40 0.70 282.30 621 − 4.00 − 4.60 322.90 430
− 4.70 − 1.40 282.50 620 − 2.80 0.80 323.00 429
− 3.50 − 2.50 282.80 619 − 1.50 1.10 323.10 429
− 4.70 − 2.30 282.90 618 − 2.60 − 1.40 323.20 428
− 3.40 − 1.90 283.40 616 − 3.60 − 1.10 323.30 428
− 3.10 − 2.10 283.90 614 − 4.30 − 1.20 323.40 427
− 3.70 − 2.90 284.30 612 − 2.40 − 1.50 323.50 427
− 6.60 − 1.90 285.90 604 − 5.60 − 0.90 323.60 426
− 6.40 − 2.10 286.30 602 − 4.78 − 0.93 323.90 425
− 5.40 − 1.70 286.70 601 − 5.26 − 1.11 324.30 423
− 3.70 − 2.90 287.10 599 − 4.78 − 0.99 325.40 418
− 4.70 − 3.17 287.90 595 − 4.46 − 1.56 325.70 417
− 5.20 − 3.30 289.90 585 − 4.14 − 0.58 325.90 416
− 4.50 − 0.90 290.00 585 − 7.19 − 0.90 326.00 415
− 5.60 − 1.70 290.20 584 − 5.49 − 0.65 326.20 414
− 5.50 − 2.70 290.40 583 − 5.10 − 1.21 326.40 413
− 3.70 − 2.80 290.60 582 − 4.55 − 0.23 326.60 412
− 3.90 4.90 290.80 581 − 4.55 − 0.97 327.00 410
− 3.40 − 1.80 291.10 580 − 4.67 − 1.02 327.40 409
− 4.60 − 1.50 291.30 579 − 6.26 − 1.36 327.90 406
− 4.70 − 2.40 291.70 577 − 6.23 − 1.60 328.00 406
− 3.80 − 2.90 291.80 576 − 4.20 − 0.52 328.20 405
− 4.33 − 3.83 292.60 573 − 6.21 − 2.76 328.50 403
− 4.60 − 4.30 293.10 570 − 6.73 − 3.70 328.80 402
− 4.20 − 3.37 296.40 555 − 4.57 − 0.73 329.10 401
− 3.40 − 1.50 301.50 531 − 3.74 − 0.59 329.40 399
− 4.90 − 2.50 302.10 528 − 4.34 − 0.58 329.70 398
− 7.70 − 6.40 303.30 522 − 4.07 − 0.07 329.90 397
− 5.85 − 4.05 304.10 518 − 3.74 − 2.09 330.30 395
4.92 − 2.87 304.40 517 − 4.41 0.01 330.60 393
− 4.00 − 1.70 304.80 515 − 4.84 − 1.26 330.90 392
− 4.20 − 4.10 305.00 514 − 7.07 − 3.99 335.80 369
− 3.60 − 3.10 305.50 512 − 7.70 − 4.78 336.80 364
− 3.66 − 3.13 308.50 498 − 8.02 − 5.17 337.60 360
− 3.71 − 31.50 310.60 488 − 4.46 − 1.75 338.70 355
− 3.80 − 3.20 314.70 468 − 3.11 − 0.53 338.90 354
− 4.85 − 4.76 316.70 459 − 4.04 − 1.97 339.10 353
− 6.30 − 6.90 319.20 447 − 5.08 − 1.06 339.30 352
− 4.30 − 0.50 319.30 447 − 5.84 − 2.17 339.50 351
− 4.55 − 3.50 320.30 442 − 5.70 − 1.81 339.70 351
− 4.60 − 4.10 320.50 441 − 6.45 − 0.79 340.00 349
− 3.70 − 2.66 320.80 440 − 6.42 − 2.37 340.20 348
− 3.10 − 1.70 320.90 439 − 5.99 − 0.73 340.60 346
− 3.85 − 3.87 321.20 438 − 6.66 − 1.65 340.80 345
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